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Islamic perspectives on training

and professional development

Islamic
perspectives
on training

Abderrahman Hassi
School of Business Administration,
Al Akhawayn University, Ifrane, Morocco

1035

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to draw a portrait of training and development ideals and
practices from the Islamic point of view.
Design/methodology/approach This is a conceptual paper. The paper reviews the relevant
literature on training and development from an Islamic perspective portraying the interface between
ideals and practices of training and development in Islam in order to bridge a gap in the extant
literature.
Findings The literature that deals with training and development in Islam seems to belong to two
major categories: essays espousing a broad perspective and including catch-all concepts or other
generic Islamic principles; and studies addressing human resource management in Islam that mainly
examine training and development from a narrow perspective. The findings of this limited body of
literature are far from being consistent as they seem contradictory in nature. Simultaneously, in the
area of training and professional development, Islam emphasizes practical wisdom and translating
theoretical insights into behaviors and practices rather than solely relying on theoretical principles.
Research limitations/implications The literature review is not detailed due to the dearth of
information on training and development from an Islamic perspective.
Practical implications Training and learning methods from the Islamic tradition can provide
constructive contribution to workplace practices as well as benefit organizations that anticipate
offering efficient and effective custom-designed training methods to best meet the training needs of
their Muslim employees.
Originality/value The present contribution is a unique synthesis of the literature related to the
application of Islamic principles in training and professional development.
Keywords Islam, Professional education, Training, Training and development, Training principles,
Training practices
Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction
Islam is not only a religion prescribing to prayer, worship and rituals, but is also a way
of life concerning every facet of individuals, groups and societies existence. As part of
the goals of its message, Islam regards developing human beings as one of its supreme
moral values. To accomplish this goal and enact the concept of tazkiyah (growth and
purification), individuals need to both participate in the material world and practice
their religious rituals. Earning a living by engaging in work that is halal (lawful and
permissible) is therefore an important part of ones role as a Muslim.
To perform well at work, knowledge (ilm) is an essential requirement. In this
regard, Islam places value on the pursuit of knowledge as stated by Prophet
Muhammad (p)[1] in Sunan Ibn Maja (Fatoohi, 2009): The search for knowledge is an
obligation laid on every Muslim. Additionally, individuals are expected to seek
learning from the cradle to the grave, as suggested by the Prophet (Fatoohi, 2009).
Learning is a never ending process that also includes various training activities based
on Islamic guidelines as occurred at Dar Al Arqam during the Prophets lifetime. Not
only does training and development from the Islamic tradition provide managers and

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Vol. 31 No. 10, 2012
pp. 1035-1045
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DOI 10.1108/02621711211281816

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instructors with theoretical knowledge but it also reinforces the importance of basing
training activities on practical wisdom which, among other things, advocates
translating theoretical insights into concrete behaviors and practices. Accordingly,
what are the main principles and forms of training and development in the Islamic
tradition and to what extent are they practiced in professional real-life situations?
Nowadays, the pervasiveness of Islam globally makes it imperative that both
Muslims and non-Muslims understand training and development based on Islamic
principles. Islam constitutes the religious faith of over 1.5 billion people and is the
fastest growing religion in the world. Muslim minorities with their increasing numbers
across the globe represent one-fifth of the entire Muslim community, equating to
300 million individuals (The Pew Forum, 2009). Other communities have more and
more contact with Muslims, particularly in learning institutions primarily due to
students mobility in academic contexts and specifically at the workplace as a result of
the international mobility of employees. For these reasons, discussing training and
development perspectives from the Islamic point of view is useful and relevant not
only for researchers but also for practitioners in Muslim majority countries and in
regions where Muslims are a minority.
Therefore, our paper aims to describe the interplay between the ideals and practices
of training and development in Islam in order to bridge a gap in the extant literature.
To pursue this objective, we adopt a qualitative approach based on a review of the
relevant literature. Training and development perspectives will be described mainly
from a normative point of view, and reference will be made to training practices
discussed in the existing literature. It is important to highlight that the major
sources of prescription in Islam are the Quran which is regarded as the revealed word
of God by Muslims and the Hadiths which contain the sayings of Muhammad (p)
(Hashim, 2010).
Education, knowledge and learning in Islam
There is little doubt if any that education constitutes the lifeline of any society.
It transmits values and the legacy of a given society from one generation to another
(Hashim, 2010). Islam values education highly since Allah says in the Holy Quran:
O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge (20:144). Similarly, Muhammad (p) said:
He whom death overtakes while he is engaged in acquiring knowledge with a view to
reviving Islam with the help of it, there will be only one degree between him and the
Prophets in Paradise[2].
Within the Islamic perspective of education, there are three basic dimensions:
tarbiyah which means to spur growth; tadib which signifies to discipline and refine;
and talim which means to instruct (Halstead, 2004). In its essence, education in Islam,
which aims at nurturing human beings, deals with individual development, moral
training and the acquisition and pursuit of knowledge.
The educational system in Islam aims to teach learners both worldly and heavenly
knowledge and to assist them in the process of becoming good members of their family,
society and humanity as a whole (Akdere et al., 2006); more specifically, it focusses on
advancing individual development, improving understanding of society and its rules
and transmitting knowledge (Halstead, 2004).
The pursuit of knowledge is privileged in Islam. It constitutes a moral obligation as
it was borne out by the first revelation Iqra (read) to the Prophet (p.b.u.h.) and as it is
stated in the following Hadith: Learned people, knowledge, and work are blessed.
It provides the basis for truth, ethics and wisdom (Hilgendorf, 2003) and is an

important component of belief in God: God will raise up to ranks those of you who
believe and who have been granted knowledge (the Quran, 58:11). God also said in the
Quran (39:9): Are those who know equal to those who know not? But only they who
are endowed with understanding keep this in mind. Similarly, Muhammad (p) stated:
A learned believer is seventy times better than a worshipping believer. He added:
Valueless is the Muslim who is not a student or a teacher and he cautions against not
sharing knowledge with others: He who knows and conceals knowledge when asked
will be muzzled by a curb of fire on doomsday. Islam makes seeking knowledge
an honorable obligation for every Muslim and considers it a form of worship in
its aspirations for betterment in worldly life and the hereafter (Zafar, 1996). Even
more importantly, possessing knowledge constitutes the basic qualification for being
a representative of God on earth (Hashim, 2010).
Islam puts a premium on the acquisition and use of knowledge. Indeed, it has to
be translated into practices that allow individuals to develop new competencies
and improve their work; otherwise knowledge acquisition would be considered
meaningless. In this regard, Abu Darda, one of the companions of the Prophet
emphasized: None of you can be pious unless he is knowledgeable, and he cannot
enjoy knowledge unless he applies it practically (quoted in Jeffery, 1986).
Therefore, it is clearly evident that Islam ultimately places the emphasis on
practical wisdom, the subject matter of the present special issue. In fact, education,
training, learning and knowledge in Islam are unreservedly futile and senseless if they
are not exploited in useful and practical ways. It is important to mention that
education, from an Islamic perspective, involves action and is not merely a cognitive
or emotive matter, but also a practical one as learners ought to perform some deeds
in order to develop their capabilities (Bagheri and Khosravi, 2006). In this respect, not
only does training and development from the Islamic tradition provide managers
and instructors with theoretical principles but it also draws their attention to the
importance of basing training activities on practical wisdom. It should be noted that
wisdom in Islam refers to the ability to make correct judgments and appropriate
decisions; that is acting to maximize beneficial results through doing what is best in
any given situation (Khan, 2007).
Basing ourselves on the above concepts of education, knowledge and practical
wisdom in Islam, we will now describe the Islamic perspectives of training and
professional development.
Islamic views of training and development
The human resource development process aims at assisting individuals in acquiring
skills and developing abilities needed to perform various tasks at the workplace.
In Islam, human development refers to the development of both spiritual and human
virtues (Alam and Muzahid, 2006). Indeed, Islam positions the human condition
between two extremes, perfection which strives toward getting closer to God and
lowliness which is reflected by clay, the origin of mankind. As such, human beings are
in a constant state of flux either toward the spirit of God which is marked by perfection
and infinite exaltation or are dragged down to the abode of stagnation, immobility
and lowliness (Shariati, 1979). Subsequently, aiming at perfection in Islam is a virtue
as individuals have diverse desires and possess different means to attain their goals
(Ali, 2010).
Given the inner tension between perfection and decrepitude, training and
development in Islam is all encompassing and includes the intellectual, moral,

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spiritual, physical (Hashim, 2010) and emotional (Husain and Ashraf, 1979)
development and growth of the human being. It aims at improving employees
knowledge and skills holistically regardless of their rank or level within their
organizations.
Islam acknowledges that individuals are different in terms of their capacities,
abilities and capabilities as the Quran states (2:233): No soul shall have a burden laid
on it greater than it can bear and Muhammad (p) adds: They shall be burdened only
with what they can bear (Ali, 2010). In regards to training and development, the only
limitation to seek learning is the ability of the individual (Al-Rawi, 1993). However,
training and development, which is compatible with the notion of human existence, is
based on the assumption implying that individuals are able to make a difference, take
responsibility and contribute to society (Ali, 2005). Hence, despite the difference in
terms of individual capacities, Islamic human development is comprehensive,
including the professional or work level.
Several Islamic concepts can be directly related to training and professional
development. The concept of Etqan, consciousness of self-improvement, refers to the
ongoing struggle within oneself for self-betterment in efforts to accomplish better work
according to Branine and Pollard (2006). The latter contend that this virtue linked to a
state of passion for excellence and perfection, namely, Al Falah. Because of these
values, the desire to excel in personal and professional matters constitutes an ideal for
Muslims. This implies that workers are required to always do better and improve the
quality of their contribution and work outcomes by means of learning new skills and
acquiring new knowledge. On the other hand, the concept of Ihsan in the Islamic
tradition suggests that business and spiritual obligations are congruent with each
other. Hence, as the well-being of employees is inextricably linked to the well-being
of employers, human resource policies and practices have to be based on the principles
of transparency, accountability, sincerity and justice (Ali, 2005).
Finally, it is important to pinpoint that training and development in Islam with their
inherent practical wisdom unequivocally appeals to both faith and reason, hence
contributing to making training systems within business organizations in Islamic
societies more relevant and meaningful. Training and development in Islam takes
place everywhere, deals with every activity and espouses various approaches such
as discussion forums and other specific methods which will be discussed in the
next section.
Forms of training and development
Over 14 centuries ago, Islam emerged as a spiritual and social transformation
movement suggesting important changes in the everyday life of individuals. Adults
were invited to a new path and were accorded new training and development
priorities. Educational activities in the early years of Islam mostly revolved around
adult learning with studies at higher levels not considered as a continuation of the
educational process of the youth. Universities were mainly set up as learning
institutions for adult learners (Al-Rawi, 1993). These activities, based on both
theoretical principles and practical wisdom, provided adults with the opportunity to
learn about religious and worldly obligations.
At the onset, masajid (mosques) served as educational institutions where learners
acquired basic reading and writing skills and then gradually shifted to madrasas,
forms of learning centers (Akdere et al., 2006). Later, mosques were devoted to religious
thought whereas teaching institutions emphasized other topics and areas of study

(Al-Rawi, 1993). These institutions became universities in major Islamic urban centers
such as Fez, Cordoba, Tunis, Cairo, Baghdad, Damascus and Jerusalem to name a few.
Training and development was offered on a voluntary basis without governmental
intervention or public funding (Al-Rawi, 1993). In fact, several learning circles
were held by local wealthy individuals who generously provided learning spaces
and facilities, food and even shelter to mature learners who were in the pursuit of
knowledge and wisdom.
Concurrently, informal education has constituted an integral part of Islamic
training as religious principles, values and teachings have been transmitted to
Muslims in traditional ways from generation to generation since the beginning of Islam
(Alam and Muzahid, 2006). In this respect, Muhammad (p) relied on informal coaching
and mentoring to preach and instruct followers of Islam in various settings such as in
Dar Al Arkam in Makkah, in the Masjid Nabawi in Madina and even in his last speech
at Arafat Mount.
As for the forms of training and development, in the early stages of Islam, three
distinctive methods were commonly used with adult learners. These methods have left
their imprint on current teaching and learning practices within business organizations
and teaching institutions.
The first form, the communication and discursive approach, is interactive in nature.
Its guidelines can be found in the following verse from the Quran: Call to the way of
your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching and argue with them with that which
is best (16:125). As for the components of this form, Alam and Muzahid (2006) state
that the following were included: first, the application of wisdom which refers to the
use of instruction materials that are suitable to learners age, qualifications and
experience; second, the application of beautiful preaching which refers to the use of
logic while instructing and appropriate language; and finally, the application of the
best possible way of arguing in interacting with learners through being patient and
caring. In this regard, Muhammad (p) adopted various techniques such as story telling
that revolved around sharing lessons from meaningful stories from the past and
indirect instruction which allowed the entire audience to benefit from a given topic
without embarrassing any particular individual.
The second form, Halaqa or the circle, which began initially as a group of students
in a mosque, was adopted over centuries and has since taken different forms in dealing
with diverse content (Din Ahmed, 1968). It has contributed to the emergence of
structured institutions of higher learning (Stanton, 1990). The Halaqa, which is an
informal teaching and learning approach, is a study group where adult learners come
together in semi-circles in front of an instructor. This educational method facilitates
collaborative discussions and interaction between learners.
The third form known as the probationary appointment consists of appointing
individuals with high potential to certain positions to test their ability to assume
various responsibilities and tasks; it also implies that their behavior will be closely
observed. When they do well at the job, they are promoted; however, should they fail,
they will be dismissed as the second Caliph Omar did with respect to one of his
subordinates (Ali, 2005). This form seems similar to the on-the-job training, probation
and temporary assignment strategies and techniques common to the modern day
workplace context.
Finally, apprenticeship emerged after the state bureaucracy was established
(Ali, 2010). It relied essentially on well-trained professionals who provided training to
employees in various trades and industries. This practice allowed for the emergence of

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a professional class of individuals within certain families who ultimately adopted legal
surnames that classified them in accordance with their affiliated trades as opposed to
their family origins, such as the Al Kateb (writer) and Al Khazin (warehouse manager)
families. This practice was also observed within some specific industries.
In light of the above methods of learning, to what extent are the above-mentioned
Islamic principles and forms of training and professional development practiced in
Islamic countries?.
Training and development gap between Islamic ideals and realities
Before describing Islamic training and development at the workplace, we need to first
elaborate on the link between Islam and management as well as the link between Islam
and human resource management (HRM).
Although over 80 percent of people worldwide admit that religion is a key
component of their every day life and activities (Sedikides, 2010), the nexus
between religion and management has been largely overlooked by mainstream
management research (Mellahi and Budhwar, 2006). However, a religious
(re)awakening phenomenon has been reported with respect to research in
management (Mellahi and Budhwar, 2006) dealing with the influence of religion on
various organizational issues such as HRM (Ali, 2005), ethics at work (Weaver and
Agle, 2002), job satisfaction (King and Williamson, 2005), organizational commitment
(Hashim, 2010) and total quality management (DIribarne, 2007).
In the case of Islam, several authors have concluded that religious beliefs exert
a significant effect on management practices (Abuznaid, 2006; Ali, 2005; DIribarne,
2007). Nonetheless, research has mainly focussed on Islamic economics (Pras, 2007),
Islamic finance (Napier, 2009), Islamic leadership (Weir, 2008) and Islamic work ethics
(Ali, 2005). Research in HRM, including training and development, is still wanting
(Tayeb, 1997).
The extant literature that has looked into the influence of Islam on management can
be divided in two major categories (Mellahi and Budhwar, 2006): first, descriptive
studies which discuss management practices from the Islamic point of view; and
second, analytical studies which examine the disparity between Islamic prescriptions
and management practices in the workplace in Muslim majority countries.
In the area of HRM, Branine and Pollard (2006) have examined the implications of
Islamic management practices on HRM. They concluded that there is a gap between
the theory of Islamic management and practice in Arab countries. This is because
management in these countries is substantially influenced by a blending of non-Islamic
traditional and national cultural values as well as by western management
perspectives rather than by Islamic injunctions.
As a result, the development and nurture of practical wisdom from an Islamic
perspective is facing major challenges. Islamic ideals tend to not always become reality
due to the mismatch between global integration and local responsiveness in terms of
training practices in Islamic countries (Branine and Pollard, 2006). These authors
argue that local and international organizations in Islamic countries are marked by an
excessive diffusion of western business practices along with a limited understanding
and implementation of Islamic management principles.
Along the same line, Ali (2010) argues that treating employee interests as
complementary to employers, as suggested by Islamic prescriptions, is far reaching in
contexts marked by economic pressure and where western-based human resource
orientations seek accumulation of wealth and maximization of profits. Challenging the

capitalistic orientations of businesses in Muslim majority countries, he claims that the

Islamic principle of Sedakah, which recommends that Islamically faithful employers go
beyond contract provisions and clauses in helping their employees.
In spite of the bad rap that Islamic HRM is receiving in Muslim countries, some
preliminary empirical research attests to their effectiveness. For example, Hashim
(2010) looked into the influence of HRM from an Islamic view on organizational
commitment in Islamic organizations evolving in Malaysia. The findings highlight a
positive effect of an Islamic approach to HRM on organizational commitment. Training
and development has been found among the HRM functions which are most commonly
practiced in Malaysian organizations based on an Islamic approach.
Discussion
An important observation is that the literature that deals with training in Islam seems
to belong to two major categories. On the one hand, some essays (see Al-Rawi, 1993;
Akdere et al., 2006) present a broad perspective and include catch-all concepts such as
education or other generic Islamic principles such as justice. On the other hand, in the
second category which addresses HRM issues in Islam, Branine and Pollard (2006)
examine training and development from a narrow perspective[3] along with other
HRM components such as recruiting, selection, training, compensation, career
development and performance appraisal. By contrast, Ali (2005) and Hashim (2010)
provide a fairly balanced treatment of the training and development component.
Training and development in Islam are congruent with several contemporary
theories and western-based principles. In fact, the well-being of employees, in Islam,
which is inextricably linked to the prosperity of employers at improving employee
knowledge and skills regardless of their rank or level within their organizations, is in
line with the contemporary principles of organizational justice and equity (see Adams,
1965). Further, Islams abolishment of the limitations of time and space in regards to
learning, which is never supposed to cease (Al-Rawi, 1993), and its encouragement of
continuous strive toward betterment and perfection (Shariati, 1979) seem compatible
with the contemporary lifelong learning perspective. The latter revolves around three
goals, namely, economic development, personal development and social inclusiveness
in order to produce education in hopes for more highly qualified workers, better
democracy and a more rewarding life for individuals (Aspin and Chapman, 2001).
Further, the fact that the only limitation to seek learning, from an Islamic perspective
depends upon the ability of the individual is congruent with the humanistic movement
which places the emphasis on the role of individuals and their potential in regards to
their growth and self-actualization (see Rogers, 1980). Lastly, the Halaqa approach,
which promotes the acquisition of collaboration and teamwork skills, connects
learning at the individual level with learning at the organizational level as advocated
by Watkins and Marsicks framework (1993; cited in Akdere et al., 2006).
Based on what we have argued above, the assertion by Ali (2010) that Islamic
human resource normative guidelines may not fit with secular western human
resource policies and practices is not tenable, at least with respect to training and
development. Alis (2010) rationale may resonate true in certain areas of HRM such as
remuneration and labor relations but not in every component of the above-mentioned
discipline, particularly training and development where employers interests are
usually aligned with the interests of their employees. In fact, employee-employer
collaboration is necessary for organizations to develop a competitive advantage and for
workers to adequately advance their career (Holbeche, 2005).

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With reference to Alis (2010) critique of capitalistic Muslim businesses in Muslim

majority countries, it appears from Branine and Pollards (2006) study that there is
a clear difference between what is expected according to the Islamic principles
explained above, and what is actually practiced by organizations in Islamic countries.
Their conclusion is in line with other studies such as that carried out by Leat and
El-Kot (2007). The latter contend that human resource policies in the Middle East are
substantially influenced by western management views.
At the methodological level, only Hashims (2010) study has empirically examined
the influence of Islamic principles on training and development practices at the
workplace. Her study constitutes a valuable contribution to the existing literature,
particularly because there is comparatively more research on HRM in Islamic countries
than HRM from an Islamic point of view (Mellahi and Budhwar, 2006). Despite the
contribution of both studies by Ali (2010) and Branine and Pollard (2006), they are
not based on empirical research designed to test the dynamics between Islamic
prescriptions and western policies. Additionally, the extant literature has yet to
specifically address the roles of Islamic teaching in influencing training and
development practices. Therefore, new research is much needed to examine these
specific issues to provide a thorough understanding of the way Islamic teachings,
ideals and values interact with daily practices and to shed light on their implications
for employee development, organizational performance and, ultimately, societys
well-being.
Conclusion
The present paper has drawn a general portrait of training and development in Islam.
The latter consists of presenting three key concepts, namely, education, knowledge and
learning along with Islamic principles and forms of training and development, and the
interface between ideals and practices in this respect.
From the onset, it is crucial to note that in the area of training and professional
development, Islam places the emphasis on using practical wisdom and translating
theoretical insights into behaviors rather than solely relying on theory. This conclusion
seems congruent with what has been documented in other areas of study as discussed
in various papers of this special issue on practical wisdom for management from the
Islamic tradition.
It is worthwhile to stress that the literature dealing with training and development
in Islam seems to belong to two major categories: first, essays espousing a broad
perspective which includes catch-all concepts or other generic Islamic principles; and
second, studies addressing HRM in Islam mainly examining training and development
from a narrow perspective.
The extant literature presents some insightful, yet contradictory conclusions in
regards to the influence of Islamic principles on training and development. According
to Branine and Pollard (2006), there is a gap between the theory of Islamic management
and practice in Arab countries. Along the same line, Ali (2010) argues that treating
employee interests as complementary to employers interests, as suggested by Islamic
prescriptions, is far reaching in contexts marked by economic pressure and where
western-based human resource orientations seek primarily the accumulation of wealth
and maximization of profits. By contrast, Hashim (2010) concludes that an Islamic
approach to HRM positively impacts organizational commitment.
Training and learning methods from the Islamic tradition can provide valuable
insights to workplace practices while benefiting organizations that intend to offer

efficient and apt training methods to their employees. The present paper looks into the
way HRM and in particular training practices could be informed by the Islamic
training tradition. In this respect, some contemporary workplace issues, such as
preserving organizational memory and training young recruits, may be dealt with
through Islamic forms of training and development such as communication and the
discursive method, Halaqa, apprenticeship and probationary appointment which may
be applied at workplace settings. These forms should be taken into account while
designing employee training activities as they yield considerable interaction among
members of organizations. These features are basic requisites needed when training
new staff and to enhance employee involvement in all aspects of organizational life.
Examining relations between Islamic beliefs and HRM, including training and
development is relevant for both organizations evolving in Muslim majority countries
and countries where Muslims are a minority (Mellahi and Budhwar, 2006). Hence,
it is suggested that these organizations can benefit from the discussed perspectives in
order to provide adequate training activities for their Muslim employees. In addition,
organizations where Muslims are a minority require insights about the way to
accommodate Muslim employees in regards to training and development practices.
At the theoretical level, the insights discussed throughout the present paper are
intended to contribute to the enrichment of theoretical frameworks pertaining to the
application of Islamic principles in training and professional development, especially
given that this subject still remains under-researched. Similarly, certain Islamic notions
that seem to be directly related to training and professional development such as
Al Etqan, Al Falah and Al Ehsan need to be examined, particularly their implications
for training and development as workers are required to always improve the quality of
their contribution and work outcomes by means of learning new skills and acquiring
new knowledge.
The forms of training discussed in the paper may also contribute to extending
theoretical insights concerned with the application of religious principles in training
and development practices. These forms of training may also propose new venues for
training management research in order to investigate the way they can support
knowledge sharing and learning within organizations. Further research is needed to
investigate the extent to which these forms are manifested in workplace-related
training and lifelong learning initiatives.
As a final thought, we contend that the revival of basic principles of Islamic training
and development with their appeal to both faith and reason along with their practical
wisdom which highlights, among others, taking into account curricular needs of the
learners, will make training systems of business organizations in Islamic societies
more relevant and meaningful.
Notes
1. Muslims praise the name of all prophets. To show their devotion to Prophet Muhammad,
Muslims put the acronym pbuh after his name, which means peace be upon him.
2. Al-Hasan Al-Basri in Al-Tirmidhi Hadith (Shah, 2002).
3. The narrow perspective describes the fact that training and development in Branine and
Pollards (2006) study is dealt with as one aspect of HRM in addition to other aspects of the
latter such as recruiting, selection, training, compensation, career development and
performance appraisal. Conversely, the broad perspective refers to qualifying training
activities offered to employees that go beyond the requirements of their position and are
transferable in ways which would be recognized by any employer on the job market and

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useful for any organization (Hassi, 2012). As such, training and development from this
perspective is concerned with employee qualifications and lifelong learning in hopes of
developing a highly qualified and skilled workforce, to contribute in building competitive
organizations, and ultimately, to advance toward a training-oriented society (Hassi, 2012).
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About the author
Abderrahman Hassi is a Lecturer of Management at Al Akhawayn University, Morocco where he
teaches various management courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. He previously
was a Professor at Algonquin College in Ottawa, Canada and taught numerous corporate
training courses, particularly programs for employees of the federal public service of Canada. His
primary research interests include diverse issues related to cross-cultural management,
employee training management, training and development across cultures and case study
method. Abderrahman Hassi can be contacted at: ahassi@uqac.ca

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