3.

Load and Stress Analysis

3.1 Equilibrium and Free-Body Diagrams
Equilibrium
-

A mechanical system is a body or group of bodies which can be conceptually

isolated from all other bodies. The bodies may be rigid or elastic, solid or fluid.
Static Equilibrium Conditions:
  0

  0

Note:
For complete equilibrium, these two equations must hold at the same time. If
one of them holds and the other does not, then the system is not in
equilibrium.
-

If a whole system in equilibrium, then each subsystem of it is in equilibrium too.

Free-Body-Diagram (FBD)
The FBD is a sketch of a system (body) isolated from all surrounding system, which
shows all forces exerted on the system by the surrounding systems.
Example:

Modeling of reaction forces:

Example:

3.2 Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

Sign conventions

The positive directions require the distributed load to act upward on the beam; the
internal shear force to cause a clockwise rotation of the beam segment on which it
acts; and the internal moment to cause compression in the top fibers of the
segment.
Normally the applied distributed load is directed downward and labeled w. In this
case, w = q.

Relations between q, V, and M:



Or if we integrate between xA and xB,




  


 


   



The change in shear force from A to B is equal to the area of the distributed loading
between xA and xB.


    


The change in moment from A to B is equal to the area of the shear force between xA and
xB.

3.3 Singularity Functions

-

In the Table, singularity functions for different kinds of distributed load q(x) are
given.
V(x) and M(x) may be obtained from q(x) by integration.
The first two integrations of q(x) for V(x) and M(x) do not require constants of
integration provided all loads on the beam are accounted for in q(x).
Note that the distributed loadings must extend all the way to the beams right end.
(Otherwise, superposition with opposite loading).

3.4 Stress
In general, the stress distribution will not
be uniform across the surface, and will
be neither normal nor tangential to the
surface at a given point.
Resultants components:
Normal stress : normal to the plane
Shear stress : in the plane

3.5 Cartesian Stress Components

The complete state of stress on any element in equilibrium is defined by six

components.
Normal stresses: x, y, z
Shear stresses: xy = yx, xz = zx, yz = zy.
Shear stress ij : the first subscript indicates the direction of the surface normal
whereas the second subscript is the direction of the stress.

Plane Stress state (for example: x-y Plane):

The stresses on the z-surface are zero:
z = xz = zx = yz = zy = 0
9

3.6 Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress

Plane-Stress transformations:
- To find and in the directions shown
- is an arbitrary angle, counterclockwise from the x-axis.
- Equilibrium equations in the direction of and and simplifying yields:
   

2   2
2
2
 

2   2
2



2

Differentiating Eq.(1) with respect to and setting the result equal to zero yields:
2
3
!"2# 
 

Equation (3) gives the angles p1 and p2 of the two planes of principal normal
stresses.
p1 inserted into Eq. (1) gives the maximum normal stress 1 and p2 gives the
minimum normal stress 2.
The angle between principal directions is 90o:
&
#%   #
4
2

10

1

1 and 2 are called principal normal stresses and given as:

 
  

*
% ,  
) +
,  
2
2

The surfaces containing 1 and 2 have zero shear stress ( = 0).

Which pi corresponds to 1 or 2? The answer is obtained after substituting
pi into Eq.(1)
Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to and setting the result equal to zero yields:
!"2. 

11

 
2

6

This equation gives the angles s1 and s2 of the two planes of extreme shear
normal stresses.
s1 and s2 are 90o apart
si define the directions of the planes at which reaches an extreme value. Eq. (6)
into (2) gives:
% ,   )*+

5

  

,  
2

7

At these planes occurs normal stress which is obtained by inserting (6) into (1):


 
2

8

Note : 1,2 in Eq.(7) are extreme values of the shear stress but may not be the same
as the maximum shear stress
The planes containing the maximum shear stresses and the planes containing the
principal normal stress are 45 apart.

Mohrs Circle:

12

Sign Convention:
A normal or shear stress component is positive provided it acts in the positive coordinate
direction on the positive face element, or it acts in the negative coordinate direction on
the negative face of the element.
Or simpler: The positive normal stress acts outward and positive shear stress acts upward
on the right-hand face of the element.

13

Center of Circle located at

Radius of Circle:

2 ,   3

 
, 04
2

  

5  *+
,  
2

9

In the graph is positive downwards

Right- side: tensile stress; left-side: compression
is positive counterclockwise from the x-axis
Note that the extended ends of line AB are labeled x and y as references to the
normals to the surfaces for which points A and B represent stresses.
Each pair of points on the circle 180 apart represent the state of stress on an
element whose surfaces are 90 apart.

3.7 General Three-Dimensional Stress

-

In general, design problems are 3-dimentional

In design, 3-dimensional transformations are rarely performed since most
maximum stress states occur under plane stress conditions.
Exception: contact stress (follows)
Given: Normal stresses: x, y, z, xy , xz , yz .
To find: : 1, 2, 3, 12 , 13 , 23 .
Transformation equations:
%    7      8

10




8
8
%    7  % 7      9   8 



%  7    8  8
 8
8 
 2 8 8

11

12

Furthermore, 1, 2, 3 may be obtained by finding the roots of the equation:




;
8
8
 7 :    8 ;   :   8   8 



:  8  2 8 8  8  8 8  ;

14

The principal shear stresses are given as

%/ 

% 
2

/7 

 7
2

%/7 

% 7
2

13

14

Also the principal stresses may be obtained using three Mohr circles in one
diagram.

3.8 Elastic Strain

Uniaxial:
- Normal strain:
-

>

?
@

Normal stress:  

HOOKE:
  =A
@?
Elongation:
B
C
Poisson Ratio:
D

=

?EFGHE? .FHEIJ
EIE? .FHEIJ

15

16
17
18
K

 K LMN

LOPQ

18

This equation is valid only by linear-elastic behavior

lat in this equation due to axial load only
Shear strain is the change in a right angle of a stress element when subjected to
pure shear stress.
HOOKE:   RS

For linear, isotropic, homogeneous materials, we have:

Triaxial in x, y, z coordinates:
1
T D 8 U
A 
1
=  T D 8 U
A
1
=8  T8 D  U
A
= 

15

A  2S1  D

Elastic Stress- Strain Relations (Principal States):

Type of stress
Uniaxial

Biaxial

Triaxial

Principal Strain

%
=% 
A
=  D=%
=7  D=%
1
=%  T% D U
A
1
=  T D% U
A
D
=7  T%  U
A
1
=%  T% D 7 U
A
1
=  T D% 7 U
A
1
=7  T7 D%  U
A

Principal Stress
1 = E1
2 = 0
3 = 0
A=%  D=
% 
1 D
A=  D=%
 
1 D
3 = 0

AT=% 1 D  D= =7 U

1 D 2D 
AT= 1 D  D=% =7 U
 
1 D 2D 
AT=7 1 D  D=% = U
7 
1 D 2D 
% 

3.9 Uniformly distributed Stresses

Under certain assumptions, we may assume that only one kind of stress (pure) acts. For
example pure tension   V/W is assumed when:
The bar be straight and of a homogeneous material
The line of action of the force contains the centroid of the section
The section be taken remote from the ends and from any discontinuity or abrupt
change in cross section
Pure Shear (average value):
Pure Bending :   /X
Pure Torsion:   Y/Z

16

  V/W

3.10 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

Assumptions:
1. The beam is subjected to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero,
and that no torsion or axial loads are present.
2. The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
3. The material obeys Hookes law.
4. The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the
beam length.
5. The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending.
6. The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending rather than by
crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling.
7. Plane cross sections of the beam remain plane during bending.
The bending stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral axis, y, and is
given by
[
1
 
X
where I = Iz is the second moment of area about the z axis. That is
X   [  W

2

The maximum magnitude of the bending stress will occur where y has the greatest
magnitude (ymax = c).
\E 

 

X
]

where Z = I/c is called the section modulus.

17

3

Two-Plane Bending
y, z : principal axes
  ^
8  ^

is positive when directed from the +z axis toward

the +y axis.

x-y and x-z planes. For cross sections with one or two planes of symmetry:
 

8 [  9

X
X8

4

The maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses occur where the summation
gives the greatest positive and negative stresses, respectively.
The orientation of the neutral axis is given as:
!"_ 

X8
!"^
X

is measured positive from the +z axis toward the +y axis.

The maximum bending stress for a solid circular cross section is

 ` 8 2
32
\ 


b 8
a
X
&7
& /64

5

Beams with Asymmetrical Sections

The relations developed earlier in this section can also be applied to beams having
asymmetrical sections, provided that the plane of bending coincides with one of the two
principal axes of the section.

18

3.11 Shear stresses for Beams in Bending

Most beams have both shear forces and bending moments present.

Fx = 0:
d

c 
e

[
W  0
X

1

With V=dM/dx, we get for the shear stress

 d
   [W
Xc e

2

Where I is the second moment of area of the entire cross-section about the neutral axis
and b is the width of the section at the particular distance y1 from the neutral axis. Eq. (1)
may be written as:


f
Xc

3

where Q is the first moment of the area of the isolated vertical face about the neutral axis,
defined as
d

f   [W  [g h Wh
e

4

where A' is the top (or bottom) portion of the members cross-sectional area, defined
from the section where b is measured, and [g h is the distance to the centroid of A',
measured from the neutral axis.
19

Horizontal shear stress is always accompanied by vertical shear stress of the same
magnitude, and so the distribution can be diagrammed as in the figure.

The maximum horizontal shear occurs where the vertical shear is largest. This is usually
at the neutral axis but may not be if the width b is smaller somewhere else.

Shear Stresses in Standard-Section Beams

Rectangular cross section:

d

c[ 
c
j    [%
f   [W  c  [[  i
2
2 
e
e
e

Into Eq.(3) yields



 
 [%
2X

And with I = bh3/12, h = 2c, and A = bh = 2bc, we get:

20

7

5



3
[%
k1  l
2W


8

is zero at the outer surfaces ([%  )) and becomes maximum at the neutral axis (y1=0)
and equals:

Formulas for max:



3
2W

9

3.12 Torsion

Assume:
21

Circular cross section

The bar is acted upon by a pure torque, and the sections under consideration are
remote from the point of application of the load and from a change in diameter.
Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and parallel
after twisting, and any radial line remains straight.
The material obeys Hookes law.

Shear Stress:


Ym
Z

where J is the polar second moment of area and defined for a solid round section as:
Z

& a
32

where d is the diameter of the shaft. For hollow round section, we have:
Z

& a
 Ia
32 n

Maximum shear stress (occurs at the surface):

\E 

Angle of twist (in radians):

^

Yo
Z

Yp
SZ

For rectangular cross section b c, where b is the longer side, c the shorter side, max
occurs in the middle of the longest side b and is of the magnitude
\E 

The angle of twist is given by

Y
Y
1.8

33

4
_c  c 
c/
^

Yp
rc 7 S

Values for and are given in the table below

22

Closed Thin-Walled Tubes (tr)

The product of shear stress times thickness of the
wall, the shear flow
 ! is constant.
The total torque T on a tube

Y   !o  !  o  2W\ !

where Am is the area enclosed by the section median line. Solving for gives


Angle of twist:

^% 

Y
2W\ !

Ys

t

4SW\ 

For constant wall thickness (t), the angular twist per unit of length
^% 

Ys\
 !
4SW\

where Lm is the perimeter of the section median line.

Open Thin-Walled Sections

from the membrane analogy theory

  S^%  

3Y
s 

Where L is the length of the median line and c is the wall thickness.
Note that open thin-walled sections in torsion should be avoided in design.
23

3.13 Stress Concentration

Geometric irregularities:
- shoulders of shafts,
- key slots in shafts
- bolds heads
- screw threads
- oil grooves
- notches
- any change in cross-section of a member.
Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity. Elementary stress equations must be
modified.
Nominal stresses exist only if the members are free of stress raisers.
A geometrical stress-concentration factor may be defined for normal stresses as

and for shear stresses as

24

uF 
uF. 

vwx
y

vwx
y

Generally, 0 or 0 is the stress calculated by using the elementary stress equations

and the net area, or net cross section.
The maximum stress occurs at the smallest cross-sectional area.
Kt and Kts are geometrical. The material used has no effect on their values.
Stress concentration may reduced through
- introducing fillets
- Small grooves and holes placed at transition.

Static Load:
-

In ductile materials (f 0.05), the stress-concentration factor is not usually

applied to predict the critical stress, because plastic strain in the region of the
stress is localized and has a strengthening effect.
In brittle materials (f < 0.05), the geometric stress concentration factor Kt is
applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength.

3.14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders

-

25

Cylindrical pressure vessels, hydraulic cylinders,

gun barrels,
Assumptions
- Axial elongation is constant around the
circumference of the cylinder
- Homogeneous, isotropic material
- Linear elastic behavior.

Tangential stress

Radial stress

F 

zI oI zn on oI on zn zI /o 
on oI

zI oI zn on  oI on zn zI /o 
H 
on oI

Axial (longitudinal) stress for closed cylinders

zI oI
?   
on oI
Note: the above equations apply only to sections taken a significant distance from
the ends and away from any areas of stress concentration.

Special case: (p0 = 0)

Tangential stress:

Radial stress

F 

oI zI
on
k1
l

o
on oI

H 

on
oI zI
k1
l

o
on oI

Thin-Walled Vessels
o { 20!, pi = p, po = 0.
-

Regardless of the wall thickness, the average tangential stress is defined as

F,E| 

where di is the internal diameter.

For a thin-walled vessel an approximation to the maximum tangential stress is
F,\E 

where di + t is the average diameter.

Longitudinal stress

zI  !
2!

? 
26

zI
2!

zI
4!

315 Stresses in Rotating Rings

-

Flywheels, blowers,
Restrictions:
- The outside radius of the ring, or disk, is large compared with the
-

thickness ro 10t.
The thickness of the ring or disk is constant.
The stresses are constant over the thickness.

Tangential stress
3D
oI on 1  3D 


4 koI  on  
o l
F  m} 3
8
3D
o


Radial stress

3D
oI on
H  m} 3
4 koI  on  o  l
8
o

where r is the radius to the stress element under consideration, is the mass density, and
is the angular velocity of the ring in radians per second. For a rotating disk, use ri = 0
in these equations.

3.16 Press and Shrink Fits

27

It is assumed that both members have the same length

After assembly contact pressure p is created between the two parts at the nominal
radius R. to be determined!
p causes radial stresses in each member H  z.
Prior to assembly, the outer radius of the inner member was larger than the inner
radius of the outer member by the radial interference .

The contact pressure is given by

z

1 o
5 ~ 3 n
An on


1 5   oI

D
4

3
DI 4
n
AI 5  oI
5
5

If the two members are of the same material then

AB on 5  5  oI

z
25 7
on oI

The tangential stress in the inner member:

5   oI
FI  z 
5 oI

The tangential stress in the outer member:

on  5 
Fn  z 
on 5 

3.17 Temperature Effects

-

Temperature of unrestrained body increased uniformly thermal strains, no

stresses!:
=  =  =8  _Y

where is the coefficient of thermal expansion and T is the temperature

difference in degrees.
-

Volume increase with zero shear strains.

Restrained bar(in x-direction) compressive thermal stress
    =A  _YA

Restrained flat plate in x-y plane compressive thermal stress

     

28

_YA
1 D

3-18 Curved Beams in Bending

Examples: Hooks and Chains links, rings, crane hooks.

Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The cross-sectional area is constant.

Plane cross sections remain plane after bending
E-modulus is the same in tension and in compression
Pure bending
The cross sectional area has an axis of symmetry that is perpendicular to the
direction of the applied moment
6. The material is homogeneous and isotropic, and it behaves in a linear-elastic
manner.

- The neutral axis of a curved beam does not coincide with the neutral axis
stress varies nonlinearly from the neutral axis (hyperbolic).
- The location of the neutral axis with respect to the center of curvature O is given by
oJ 

29

W
W
o

Where A and r are the cross-sectional area of the beam and the arbitrary position of the
area element, respectively.
For composite areas, we have
W
oJ 
W

Balancing the external applied moment against the internal resisting moment yields the
bending stress in the form


[
WoJ [

At the inner and outer surfaces we obtain:

I 

I
WoI

n 

n
Won

Note:
- The above equations are valid for pure bending.
- In the general case, the bending moment is due to forces acting to one side of the
cross section under consideration. In this case the bending moment is computed
about the centroidal axis, not the neutral axis. Also, an additional axial tensile or
compressive stress must be added to the bending stresses given by Eqs. (2) and
(3) to obtain the resultant stresses acting on the section.
If the radius of curvature is greater than five times the depth of the member, the flexure
formula can normally be used to compute the stress with error < 7% (Hibbeler).

Approximations:
For a large curvature where e is small with oJ od , we can use the approximations
X

od W
[ od

X o
where o  oJ [.
Sections most frequently encountered in the stress analysis of curved beams are shown in
the following Table.

30

31

3-19 Contact Stresses (Hertzian Stresses)

Contact between curved surfaces

Contact-stresses arise in the contact of a wheel and a rail, in automotive valve
cams and tappets, in mating gear teeth, and in the action of rolling bearings.
causes cracks, pits, or flaking in the surface material.

Spherical Contact:
-

When two solid spheres are pressed together, a circular area of contact of radius a
is obtained
1 D% 1 D
3V A%  A
"
1
1
8

% 

Pressure distribution is hemispherical

Maximum pressure is given by
z\E 

32

3V
2&"

For plane surface set d = in Eq. (1)

2

1

For an internal surface, set d negative in Eq. (1).

The maximum stresses occur on the z axis, and these are principal and compressive stresses

1
9
4 1  D
%        z\E 31 !" %
|9"|
"
7  8 

z\E
9
1 
"

4

9
2 31   4
"

3

Theses equations are valid for both surfaces with corresponding .

-

Since 1 = 2, 1/2 = 0 and the maximum shear stress

\E  %/7  /7 

33

% 7  7

2
2

5

Note that the shear stress reaches a maximum value slightly below the surface
causes surface fatigue failure.

Cylindrical Contact:

Contact area is a narrow rectangle of width 2b and length l.

Pressure distribution is elliptical.
b is given as

1 D% 1 D
2V A%  A

c
1
1
&p

% 

Maximum pressure

z\E 
-

2V
&cp

7

For a plane surface set d = in Eq. (6)

For a cylinder and internal cylinder, set d negative for the internal surface in (6)
The stress state along the z axis is given by the equations:

  2Dz\E *1 

34

6

9
9

c
c

8


1  2 9


9
c

  z\E
2

c

9
b
1  c

7  8 

35

z\E


b1  9 
c

9
10

For 0 9 0.436c, %   , and \E  % 7 /2   8 /2. For

9 { 0.436c, %  , and \E   8 /2
The greatest value of max occurs at z/b = 0.786 with a value of 0.3pmax