AmericanMilitaryBaseProstitution

JenniferLatstetter

Sincethedawnofhumanity,societyhasbeeninvolvedinconstantbattlesandwarsthatreinforce
thepatriarchalnatureofourworld.Rarely,ifever,hasawarbeenfoughtinwhichthesoldiershavenot
usedthenativewomenofthecountrysexually,throughrape,kidnapping,andslavebrothelsthatfollow
armies.[1]Unfortunately,theUnitedStatesacountrythatprofessesequalityforallisoneofthe
biggestperpetratorsofthiscultofmilitaryprostitution.Thisvictimizationofwomenhasaccompanied
allAmericanmilitaryinvasionsandhasbeencondonedbytheUnitedStatesgovernment,aswellasthe
occupiednation'sgovernment.Furthermore,theuseofRest&Recreationsites,i.e.,governmentfunded
brothels,bytheAmericanGIshasbeeninfullfledgeusesincetheKoreanWar.Therationaleforthis
blatantmistreatmentofwomenisthatitcreatesanecessarysenseofbrotherhoodandcamaraderieamong
thesoldiers.[2]Theproblemwiththislineofreasoning,however,liesinthefactthatitnecessitatesa
breechofwomen'srightstheirrighttoequality,happiness,andtobetreatedashumanbeings.
ThroughexaminingtheAmericanmilitary'suseofRest&RecreationestablishmentsduringtheKorean
War,VietnamWar,andPhilippineoccupation,itbecomesapparentthatdecisivestepstowardsthe
cessationofmilitarybaseprostitutionmustbemadeinternationally.Thereisnoreasontoallowthis
commoditizationandvictimizationofwomentocontinue.Therefore,inordertopromoteandachieve
equalhumanrightsforallwomen,theUnitedNations,TheAmericangovernment,andinternational
governmentsmustconfrontthismistreatmentofwomenandputastoptosuchwarcrimes.
Therearemanyexplanationsastowhywomenbecamemilitarybaseprostitutesduringthe
KoreanWar,theVietnamWar,andthePhilippineoccupation,butthemostfrequentreasonsare
attributabletoeithersocioeconomicstatusorgovernmentexploitation.Forthemostpart,the"foreign
invasionofanationwasunderstoodasathreattogenderedinthiscase,femalebodies,whichledto
closersurveillanceofthewomenandtheirsexuality."[3]Somewomenusedprostitutionasameansto
escapepoverty,especiallyduringtheKoreanWar.Koreanwomenwereofferedmoneybythe
governmenttoservetheU.S.military.Whatthesewomendidnotknow,however,wasthattheywould
neverseeamajorityoftheirearnings.[4]Womenandtheirfamilieswereledtobelievethatprostitution
wasacceptablebecauseitwouldincreaseagirls'socialstatusandworththroughhereconomic
contributiontothefamily.[5]However,asKatharineMoon,theauthorofSexAmongAllies,pointsout,
foreigngovernmentsthrivedonthemisconceptionthatprostitutioncouldincreasesocioeconomicstatus.
Inreality,militarybaseprostitutiondidlittlemorethanripyounggirlsawayfromtheirhomesandthrow
themintoatumultuousanddegradinglifestyle.Moonstatesthat"war,withitsaccompanyingpoverty,
socialandpoliticalchaos,separationoffamilies,andmillionsofyoungorphansandwidows,'mass
produced'prostitutes,creatingalargesupplyofgirlsandwomenwithouthomesandlivelihoods."[6]
Womenandgirlswerelured,bytheirgovernments,intoprostitutionwiththepromiseofawellpaid
governmentjob.Onlyupontheirsubsequentenslavementdidthesewomenlearnthattheyweretobe
militaryprostitutes.[7]
Needlesstosay,thecommoditization,victimization,andexploitationofthesewomenappearsin
manyforms,andisalmostalwaysattributabletogovernmentpoliciesorinterventions.Forexample,the
Koreangovernmentstatedthatmilitarycomfortgirls(prostitutes)shouldbeabletoserve29officersper
dayifthecomfortgirlisworkingathermaximumlevel.Thegovernmentevendictatedthatintercourse

shouldnotexceedthirtyminutes,otherwise,theprostitutemaynotbeabletoserveasmanymen,and
thusbeunabletomakeenoughdailyprofitforthegovernment.[8]
Furthermore,oneoftheearliestreportedcasesofgovernmentcommoditizationofwomen
occurredin1938whentheJapanesegovernmentsignedadocumentmentioningthenecessityofmilitary
brothelsineachbattalionandthenproceededtoorder321millioncondomstoensurethesoldiers'safety.
WhatisevenmoreamazingaboutthisisthatwhenitwaspublicizedtheJapanesegovernmentdismissed
thedocumentbysayingthatitwasapolicyintendedtominimizethewartimerapeofwomenby
legalizingmilitaryprostitution.[9]Essentially,theJapanesegovernmentwasimplyingthatbecause
prostitutesaremakingamonetaryprofittheyarenotbeingrapedorotherwisevictimized.Howeverthe
Japanesegovernmenttriedtocharacterizetheiractions,theywillneverbeabletojustifytheblatant
mistreatmentofwomenthattheyperpetuated.Regardlessofhowagovernmentmayattempttocondone
orexplainmilitaryprostitutionthereisnodenyingthefactthatboththeoccupyingnation'sgovernment
andtheoccupiednation'sgovernmentactaspimpswhorecruitorforcewomenintoprovidingsexual
servicesformilitarymen.[10]
Inthe1950's,sincethebeginningoftheKoreanWar,sextourismhasflourishedinAsian
countries.ThisislargelyduetothehugeinfluenceoftheAmericanmilitarypresenceineasternnations.
KoreaviewedtheU.S.troopsasanopportunityforeconomicgain,despitethefactthatthisgainwould
comeattheexpenseofKoreanwomen.AlmostasquicklyastheAmericantroopsarrivedinKoreathere
wereroadsignsdecoratingthehighwaysgivingdirectionstoAmericantownsorcamptowns,whichare
alsoknownasRest&Recreationsites.TheseR&Rfacilitieswereadjoinedtomajormilitarycampsin
SouthKoreaandweresaidtocatertothelifestyleandconsumerneedsofthesoldiers.[11]Whatthose
"consumerneeds"translateintoarethesupposedlyinherentandbiologicalsexualneedsofmen.
Whatisevenmoreastoundingisthefactthatthesecamptownswereestablishedandcondonedby
boththeKoreanandAmericangovernmentregimes.TheRest&Recreationsiteswereestablishedunder
theauspicesoftheMetropolitanPoliceBoard,andtheownersoftherestaurantsandsexindustries
enlistedbytheBoardwerefinanciallycompensatedbytheJapanesegovernment.[12]TheKorean
governmentissuedregistrationtoallmilitaryprostitutes,whichwouldenablethemtoentertheseR&R
sites.TheonlypassamanneededwasaU.S.militaryuniform.[13]
However,MeredithTurshenandBriavelHolcombauthorsofWomen'sLivesandPublicPolicy:
TheInternationalExperience,statethatthispracticeofwomenservicinggovernmentofficials,foreign
diplomats,andmilitaryservicemenisnotanewinstitutioninKorea.[14]Thisseveremistreatmentof
womenhasbeenapatriarchaltraditionsincethetenthcentury.ThesewomenareknowninKoreaas
kisaeng,whichmeans"rentedwife."[15]Thetermrentedwifeproposesthattheprostitutewillactasa
housekeeperforthesoldierandthenbeforcedtoprovidesexualservices.Thesewomenareforced
becausetheyarepaidnexttonothing,asthemajorityoftheirearningsaregiventothegovernment.[16]
Furthermore,KatharineMoon,theauthorofSexAmongAllies,believesthattheforeigngovernmentsof
U.S.occupiednationsconstructR&Rbrothelsbecause"simplemarketeconomics'wheretheboysare'
hasdictatedthenumberofprostitutesandhighdensityareasofmilitaryprostitution."[17]Byplacing
aneconomicvalueonwomen'sbodies,societyisabletocompletelyobjectifywomenandturnablind
eyetothetortuousnatureofthesemilitarypractices.Thisunfortunate"boyswillbeboys"approachto
militarybaseprostitutionpervadesallgovernmentattitudesincludingthePentagon.[18]
Moreover,itmayseemthattheseKoreancamptownsareablackmarketservice,butthisishardly

thecase.Inthelate1950stheU.S.governmentandtheRepublicofKoreasignedaMutualDefense
Treaty,whichformallygrantedthestationingofU.S.troopsinKoreawiththestipulationthatR&Rsites
wouldbeprovidedforAmericanGIs.TheseAmericantroopsareseenasthedemandsideofthe
prostitutionequationandtheyinducedahugeeconomicboomforKorea.[19]Itispreciselythis
economicincentiveforlargesumsofU.S.currencyinThirdWorldmarketsthathindersthetermination
ofthisabuseofwomen.Evenin1988theuseofKoreancamptownsbyU.S.soldierswasstill
occurring.Moreover,statisticsshowthatthenumberofprostitutesdealingsolelywiththe43,000U.S.
soldiersstillstationedinSouthKoreawasmorethat18,000.Thatequalstoapproximatelyoneprostitute
foreverytwotothreesoldiers.[20]Presumably,societywouldseeaproblemwiththiscontinual
victimizationofwomen,however,itisapparentthatwherethereareAmericansoldierstherewillalsobe
governmentfundedandcondonedbrothels.
Similarly,sextourismincreasedagaininAsiaduringthe1960sand1970sbecauseoftheVietnam
War.[21]ThedifferencebetweenVietnamandKorea,however,isthatVietnamR&Rsiteswerenot
directlyattachedtothemilitarybases.ThemajorityofRestandRecreationestablishmentsexistedin
Bangkok,Thailandandthousandsofsoldierswerereferredthere.TheU.S.concludedapactwith
Thailandin1967toprovideRestandRecreationleaveforsoldiers.Theunfortunateconsequenceofthis
pactwasthattheUnitedStatesmilitaryfueledThailand'ssearchforforeigncapitalthroughthebodies
ofThaiwomen."[22]AgeneralintheThaiRoyalAirForce,whosewiferanThailand'sfirstmilitarysex
touragency,negotiatedthistreatywhichinitiatedahugeinfluxofcurrencyintotheThaieconomy.[23]
ThisinfluxofmoneywasduetothefactthattheU.S.governmentwantedtofundtheRestand
Recreationsitesinordertoensuregoodmoraleamongthesoldiers.However,theAmericangovernment
knewthatthemoneycouldnotbedirectlyinvestedforfearthattheywouldbeheldaccountablefor
perpetuatingthecycleofmilitarybaseprostitution.Therefore,theUnitedStatesandThailandsoliciteda
numberofinternationalinvestorssuchasChaseManhattanCorporationandBankofAmerica
CorporationtoloanmoneytotheThaigovernment.Thesemoneys(approximately$4million)were
loanedunderthepretenseofinvestinginThaihotels,bars,andrestaurants.Inreality,thelaundered
moneyfundedtheconstructionofnumerousRestandRecreationsites.[24]
AsBangkokincreasinglybecamethecenterformilitaryprostitutionduringtheVietnamWar,the
U.S.soldiersgraduallybecamemoreopenwiththeirsevereabuseofwomen.Forexample,soldiers
begantorefertoRestandRecreationsitesas"IntoxicationandIntercoursebreaks."[25]Andtheybegan
totake,whatthesoldiersreferredtoas,"minorwives,"whichmeansthatthesoldierusesthesame
prostituteeachtimeandmayevenleadthewomantobelievethathelovesher.Theproblemwiththis,
accordingtoBrockandThistlethwaite,isthatattheendofthewarmanyminorwivesareleftwith
childrenofGIs(a.k.a.,souvenirbabies)andnoeconomicsupport.[26]Unfortunately,thispractice
merelyperpetuatesthisendlesscycleofprostitutionandsextourismbecausetheminorwivesareoften
mistakenlyledtobelievethattheywillmarryaU.S.soldierandconsequentlyobtaineconomicstability.
Thiswasrarelythecase,andbecausethesewomenhadnoeconomicbasetosupportthemselves
with,manyoftheirchildren(souvenirbabies)feltasthoughitwastheirdutytohelpsupportthefamily
byprostitutingthemselvesaswell.Likewise,thishorrendoustreatmentofwomendidnotstophere.
U.S.soldiersbecameevenmoreblatantwiththeirmaliciousattitudestowardswomen.KatharineMoon
saysthatinOkinawatheU.S.servicemen"couldbeseenintownwearingoffensiveTshirtsdepictinga
womanwiththelettersLBSM[1],whichmeansLittleBrownSexMachine."[27]
Continually,between1962and1976,approximately700,000Americansoldiersweresent

toR&RbrothelsinThailandeachyeartorecoverfromthestressofwarfare.[28]Deplorably,this
recoverycomesattheexpenseofThaiandFilipinowomen'ssenseofselfworthandwellbeing.
Furthermore,towardstheendofthewarwhenmanysoldierswereMIA(MissingInAction),"thesaying
wasthattherewerenoMIAsinVietnaminrealitytheywereallMIBsMischiefInBangkok."[29]
Thisisprobablyalegitimatestatementbecausewhereelsecansoldiers,oranymanforthatmatter,feel
justifiedessentiallyrapingandvictimizingwomenwithgovernmentapproval.Andastonishingly,there
issometruthtothatstatement.ManyAWOL(AbsentWithOutLeave)soldiershaveturnedupin
Thailandasbrothelandbarownersbecauseofthelucrativeandacceptednatureofprostitution.[30]
Recently,Patpong(amajorprostitutionareainBangkok)hasbeguntoflourishbecauseoftheseAWOL
soldierswhoconvertedteahousesintobrothels.[31]Thereisnoexcuseforsuchblatantexploitationof
ThirdWorldwomenbyAmericansoldiers.Soldierswho,bytheirnationality,claimtoupholdthebasic
civillibertiesguaranteedtoallhumanbeings.
MilitarybaseprostitutionhasalsoplayedasignificantroleintheU.S.occupationofthe
Philippines.SincetheAmericantroops'departureintheearly1990s,theprevalenceofRestand
Recreationsiteshavegreatlydiminished.Untiltheirdeparture,however,thePhilippinesownedoneof
thelargestRestandRecreationestablishmentsinAsia.OlongapoatSubicBay,anAmericannavalbase
nearManila,hadsuchahugeproblemwithprostitutionthattheU.S.governmentfundedthe
establishmentofclinicsforthemilitaryprostitutestogetcheckedforvenerealdiseases.[32]These
clinics,however,wereonlyaccessibletothose"hostesses"whowerelicensedtoservetheU.S.soldiers,
ofwhomtherewereapproximately6,000.[33]ThefactthattheAmericanandFilipinogovernments
collaboratedinanefforttokeeptheU.S.soldierssafefromdiseaseclearlyillustratestheextenttowhich
AmericantroopsabuseThirdWorldwomen.TheAmericannotionofsuperioritypervadeseveryaspect
ofmilitarylife,andbecausethissuperiorattitudetendstotranscendinternationalborders,theFilipino
governmentwasquicktocomplywithmilitarybaseprostitutionandsetupthefirstclinicin1970.[34]
RacismpermeatedmilitaryoccupationinthePhilippines.Obviously,racismexistsinevery
aspectofmilitarybaseprostitution,butnonequitelikethatexhibitedinOlongapo.Avariationofthe
"LittleBrownSexMachine"Tshirt(soldinOkinawa)wasmarketedinOlongapo,onlythistime
incorporatingmoreoffensivelanguageandracialslurs.KatharineMoonstatesthatthispopularthemeT
shirtamongthetroops"bearsthemessage'LittleBrownFuckingMachinesPoweredwithRice.'"[35]So,
notonlydotheAmericanGIsravagethesewomenphysically,butmentallyandemotionallyaswell.
SeveralreasonshavebeenofferedastowhyAmericanmilitarymenfeelasthoughtheycanuse
Asianwomentofulfilltheirsexualneeds.Oneofthemostprominentreasonsofferedisthatprostitution
isaderivativeofthemilitarymindset.Inotherwords,militaryideologyconsistsofconquest,power,and
dominanceinwhich"sexbecomesanothervehicleofthesevalues."[36]Sexualrelationswithprostitutes
alsoinvolvesthepsychologicalactofdissociation,whichisacentraltenanttowar.Soldiersfrequently
havetodetachthemselvesfromtheirsurroundingsinanattempttocondonetheiractions.Therefore,the
notionthat"prostitutionreinforcespsychologicalstrategiesofdissociationnecessaryforsomemento
survivemilitarylife"isanotherpossibleexplanation.[37]
However,noneoftheseprobableexplanationscondonethecommoditizationofwomen.
Prostitutioninvolvesviolenceandabuse,itisanactofmaledominationthatstemsfromthepatriarchal
orderofmodernsociety.Thepossibilityexiststhatsoldiersuseprostitutionasameansof"provingtheir
strengthanddominancebysexualand/orphysicalconquest".[38]Theviolentactofwarcreates

individualfeelingsofpowerlessness.Thereforeitispossiblethattheactofdominatingawomanallows
thesoldierstoregainasenseofpowerandcontrolthatislostinthemidstofwarfare.Perhapsthisisthe
reasonwhyprostitutionandwartendtocoincidetheyarebothactsofdomination,bothfacesof
patriarchy.
Fortunately,therehavebeensomeadvancesmadetowardsthediscontinuationofsextourism,
RestandRecreationsites,andthegeneralexploitationofThirdWorldwomenbytheU.S.military.The
earlierattemptsthatcenteredaroundtheKoreanWargenerallyfailed,giventheperiodinhistoryandthe
socialstatusofwomenatthetime.Usually,anysanctionsagainstprostitutionresultedinnothingmore
thanaslaponthemilitaryshandbytheUnitedStatesgovernment.EventhoughtheAmerican
governmentitselfwasresponsibleforU.S.militarybaseprostitution,iftheissuewasbroughttothe
forefrontbyanyinternationalorganization,itwasquicktodenyhavingtakenanyroleintheprostitution
ofwomen.Forexample,inthesummerof1951whenthefirstcamptownboomsgotunderwayinKorea
the"eightharmywasforcedtoissueaforcefulorder:Wearenotinthiscountryasconquerors.Weare
hereasfriends."[39]AccordingtoKatharineMoon,thisstatementwassupposedlydirectedatthe
developmentanduseofRestandRecreationsitesbythemilitary,yetitisnotobviousgiventhepassive
natureofthestatement.[40]
Sincetheearly1950s,however,theUnitedNationshasmademoreformaladvancestowardsthe
cessationofmilitarybaseprostitution.Forexample,withtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsin
1949,whichexpressesanethicofresponsibilitytowardstheequalityofallhumanbeings.[41]Then
again,in1974,aCommissiononHumanRightsconvenedtorevisethisdeclarationandbemorespecific
abouttheregulationsregardingprostitution.Thiscommissionsetguidelinesforthe"preventionof
prostitution,rehabilitationofpersonsinvolvedinprostitution,repressioninthetrafficofpersons,
preventionandtreatmentofvenerealdisease,andorganizationofglobalprogramsforthepreventionof
internationalprostitution."[42]
Furthermore,therearealsoanumberofgrassrootswomen'sorganizationsthatworktotryand
pushlegislationthroughtheUNandvariousgovernmentregimes.Forexample,in1988thePhilippines
ImmigrationCommissionandGABRIELA(anumbrellafeministorganization)forcedtheFilipino
governmenttotesttheAmericansoldiersforAIDSandvenerealdisease,notjusttheregistered
prostitutes.[43]Then,in1990Japanesecomfortwomenfinallybeganspeakingoutanddemanding
reparationsandapologiesfromtheJapaneseandKoreangovernments.Notsurprisingly,however,the
Japanesegovernmentstatedthattheyhadnodirectinvolvementwithenforcedprostitutionandrefusedto
delvefurtherintothesubject.[44]LauraHein,authorof"SavageIrony:TheImaginativePowerofthe
'MilitaryComfortWomen'inthe1990s",believesthatJapanwillnotrecognizethemistreatmentofthe
comfortwomenbecause"Theirgreatestconcernisthatrecognitionofthegreatharmdonethemilitary
comfortwomenwillbothcriminalizeJapanesemasculinityanddiminishJapan'sinternationalpower."
[45]
Althoughthesemaybesmallsteps,theyaredefinitelystepsintherightdirection.Stepstowards
therectificationof"aclearsymptomofasicksocietyand,insocialasinphysicalsickness,thecause,not
justthesymptommustbeattacked."[46]Undoubtedly,theAmericanGIsandtheUnitedStates
governmentrepresenttwoofthemostprominentsymptomsofanillsocietythatallowsmilitary
prostitutiontodefaceanddevaluewomenbeyondrecognition.Untilsocietyrecognizesthatthebaneofa
womansexistenceisneithertoprovidesexualservicesformen,nortoactasmechanismsof
reproduction,societywillcontinuetobeill.

Thefallaciousculturalbeliefthatmenneedsexisquicklybecomingtheofficialsanctionof
militarybaseprostitution.DespiteUnitedNationsandinternationalpoliciesagainstprostitution,the
UnitedStatescontinuestoprovideR&Rservicesforthemilitary.Thereisnojustifiablereasonforthe
UnitedStatesgovernmenttoprovidefundingandpoliciesthatcondoneandperpetuatesextourismand
militarybaseprostitutioninU.S.occupiedcountries.Moreover,theuseofRest&Recreationfacilities
cannotpossiblybindsoldierstogetheremotionallyassomemilitarymenclaim.Foriffightingforlifeor
deathtogethereverydaydoesnotprovideanemotionalbond,thenitisthoroughlyinconceivablethatthe
purchaseofprostitutescancreatethatsenseofcamaraderie.Prostitutionnecessitatesemotional
detachmentamongthesoldiers(purchasers)becauseitisanactofindividualempowermentand
dominance,notacatalysttotheempowermentoftheentiremilitarybase.Fightingforoneslife,onthe
otherhand,evokessurvivalinstincts,andconsequentlyshouldprovokeasenseofunityamongthe
soldierswhoarecollectivelystrugglingtosurvive.Moreover,theUnitedStatesgovernmentneedsto
stoptakinganapatheticandindifferentstanceonthisissueandputforththenotionthattheuseofR&R
sites,theparticipationinthetrafficofwomen,andgenerallyabusingthewomenofanAmerican
occupiedcountryisawarcrime,andparticipationintheseviolationsofhumanrightswillbepunishable
bylaw.
Unfortunately,theuseofR&Rsitesisstilloccurringtoday,evenasrecentasthePersianGulf
WarinIraq.DirectlyfollowingthisU.S.waragainstIraq,theU.S.militarysenttroopstoThailandto
enjoytheRestandRecreationsitesstillacceptedbythePentagon.[47]Thispostwarvacationwas
offeredtosoldiersasameansofrecuperatingfromthetrialsofwarfare.Thus,untileverynationstands
unitedagainstthecommoditizationandtraffickingofwomenduringtimesofwar,itwillbevirtually
impossibletostopthishorrendousmilitarypractice.Humansolidarityisanattainablegoalhowever,
womenoftheworldmustfirststandasoneagainstthepatriarchalstructureofourgildedworld.

[1]TheuseofthewordbrownreferstotheFilipinoorThaiwomenwhoconstituteamajorityofmilitary
prostitutesinOkinawa,Vietnam,andthePhilippines.
[1]RitaNakashimaBrockandSusanBrooksThistlethwaite,CastingStones:ProstitutionandLiberation
inAsiaandtheUnitedStates(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1996)6.
[2]MeredethTurshenandBriavelHolcomb,eds.,Women'sLivesandPublicPolicy:TheInternational
Experience(Westport,Connecticut:PraegerPublishers,1993)135.
[3]MireKoikari,"RethinkingGenderandPowerintheU.S.OccupationofJapan,19451952,"Gender
&History11.2July(1999):320.
[4]KatharineH.S.Moon,SexAmongAllies:MilitaryProstitutioninU.S.KoreaRelations(NewYork:
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1997)28.
[5]BrockandThistlethwaite219
[6]Moon28
[7]BrockandThistlethwaite73
[8]BrockandThistlethwaite71
[9]BrockandThistlethwaite72
[10]BrockandThistlethwaite72

[11]Moon167
[12]Koikai321
[13]Moon167
[14]TurshenandHolcomb116
[15]TurshenandHolcomb116
[16]LauraHein,"SavageIrony:TheImaginativePowerofthe'MilitaryComfortWomen'inthe1990s,"
Gender&History11.2July(1999):336.
[17]Moon29
[18]TurshenandHolcomb135
[19]Moon28
[20]TurshenandHolcomb117
[21]BrockandThistlethwaite5
[22]BrockandThistlethwaite58
[23]BrockandThistlethwaite116
[24]BrockandThistlethwaite116
[25]BrockandThistlethwaite5
[26]BrockandThistlethwaite58
[27]Moon34
[28]TurshenandHolcomb134
[29]BrockandThistlethwaite5
[30]BrockandThistlethwaite58
[31]BrockandThistlethwaite116
[32]YayoriMatsui,"SexualExploitationofWomen:ChildProstitutionandtheExpandingSex
Industry,"Women'sAsia(NewYork:ZedBooks,1989):72.
[33]Matsui72
[34]Matsui72
[35]Moon34
[36]BrockandThistlethwaite76
[37]BrockandThistlethwaite76
[38]BrockandThistlethwaite76
[39]Moon33
[40]Moon33
[41]JeanFernandLaurent,ActivitiesfortheAdvancementofWomen:Equality,Development,and
Peace(NewYork:UnitedNationsPublication,1985)6.
[42]FernandLaurent6
[43]Moon34
[44]Hein336
[45]Hein361
[46]Matsui74
[47]TurshenandHolcomb135