Asia Europe Institute

University Of Malaya Kuala Lumpur

QXGD6101
History, Society and Culture in Southeast Asia

Tittle
Discuss The Various Theories On
The Arrival Of Islam To Southeast Asia

Lecturer Name
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jatswan S. Sidhu

Name
Farahwahida Bt Ariff

Matric Number
QGD130007

Date Of Submission
10 April 2014

Table Of Content
Content

Page

Table of Content

1.0

History

2.0

Theory Of Islamization In Southeast Asia

3.0

Theory On The Arrival Of Islam In Southeast Asia

3.1

Theory Islam Directly From Arab

3.2

Theory Islam From China

3.3

Theory Islam From India

Factors Islam Spread In Southeast Asia

4.1

Trade activities

4.2

Marriage and Converting of Kings and The Nobility

4.3

The Role Of Missionaries

4.4

The birth of Islamic Kingdom

4.0

5.0

Influence of Islam in Southeast Asia

10

6.0

Islam In Southeast Asia Today

10

7.0

Conclusion

11

Reference

13

1.0

History
Before the arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia, the communities in the region are the
adherent of the Hinduism and Buddhism believed. The decline of Hindu and Buddhist
kingdoms such as Srivijaya and Majapahit from the fourteenth century stimulated the
rise of Islamic kingdoms in Sumatera, Malay Peninsula, and Java. Islam in Southeast
Asia has started and developed through marine trading activities. Because of the
strategic settlement and port in Southeast Asian, the urban areas like Aceh, Malacca,
Pasai, Brunei, Kerisik, Bangkok, Pattani and Makasar have facilitated and helped the
spread of Islam in the region.

By which Islam came to Southeast Asia, still been debated by the scholars. Although
there are several theories about the arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia, There are little
direct evidence available to support any particular theory. However, the arrival of Islam
in the Southeast Asia happened peacefully and followed the path of the trade networks
linking the region with South Asia, China and the Middle East, in which Muslim traders
and traveling preachers or holy men from these regions served as the main means of
transmission.1 The first confirmed of the existing a Muslim community in Southeast
Asia was came from the well-known traveler, Marco Polo, who stopped in north
Sumatra in 1292. Inscriptions and graves with Muslim dates was in others coastal areas
along the trade routes. A major development was the decision of the ruler of Melaka,
on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, to adopt Islam around 1430.2

The time taken for conversion to Islam in the region also uncertain. Although there are
leftovers of archeological such as tombs which exist from earlier periods, Islam becomes
more clearly dominant in the region after 13th century, when the archeological found a
new kingdoms or sultanates along the important maritime trading routes. Most important
Islamic kingdom found in the Southeast Asia was the sultanate of Melaka, which was
founded around 1400 by a local prince who converted to Islam3. The sultanate was
established along the straits of Melaka and became the main and effective administration
entrepot for merchants traveling between India and China.

1 UC Regents
2
Barbara Watson Andaya
3
Sejarah Melayu compiled after 1500

Other important sultanates in Southeast Asia around the time of Melaka's ascendancy
included Aceh in northern Sumatra; Johor on the Malay Peninsula; the port cities of
Demak and Banten on the north coast of Java; the kingdom of Mataram in central Java;
and Ternate and Tidore in what is now Maluku. By the 16th century, Islam had also
spread into the Sulu archipelago, where an important sultanate was established, and the
island of Mindanao, in what is now the Philippines.4

2.0

Theory Of Islamization In Southeast Asia

Islamization process in Southeast Asia take various form of theories which has been
agreed by historians. First theory is through trade activities that links the Middle East,
India and Southeast Asia together. This situation give advantage to the Muslim traders
to spread Islam to the region. Second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis who
have an important role in spreading the Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and
religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam which further aided the
absorption of religion throughout the region. Leader of the most important ports in the
region, the Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, marked a period of
rapid conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force
among the ruling and trading classes.

In Southeast Asia, most of the areas spread Islam in peaceful and voluntary conversion
rather than conquest and force in spreading the faith. Almost all over the place in the
islands of the region, trading contacts paved the way for conversion. Muslim merchants
and sailors introduced the ideas and rituals of the new faith to local peoples and also
impressed on them how much of the known world had already been converted. Muslim
vessels also carried Sufis to various parts of Southeast Asia, where they were destined
to play a vital a role in spreading the religious. The first areas to be won to Islam in the
last decades of the 13th century were several small port centers on the northern coast of
Sumatra. From these ports, the religion spread in the following centuries across the Strait
of Malacca to Malaya.5

4 UC Regents, University of California, Berkeley

5

International World History Project

3.0

Theory On The Arrival Of Islam In Southeast Asia

There is no exact theory to prove the date of the arrival of Islam as well as the first to
accept Islam in the Southeast Asia region, scholar however agreed that there are three
theories advent of Islam in the Southeast Asia, which are through the Arabian, china and
India around 7th and 8th century and spread by the missionaries when trading activity
is carried out. These theories suggest by some historians such as Pijnappel, Snouck
Hugronje, B. Harrison, Syed Muhammad Naquib al -Attas, and many more.

3.1

Theory Islam Directly From Arab

The first theory on how Islam came to Southeast Asia is directly from Arab. The
theory mention by some historians such as Sir John Cramford was support by a
local intellectual Professor Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas. There are a lot of
evidence has been used to support the theory that Islam first came to Southeast
Asia are directly from of Arabic. First evidence was from a Chinese historical
records, which believed that Arabs trader has arrived in Java in 7th AD based on
the evidence that Arab trader have built a village on the west coast of Sumatra
Island. Other records state that, during the reign of the Caliph al-Mamun ibn
Harun Ar- Rashid, he sailing with a total of 100 missionaries with one person
from amongst Quraish descendant to the archipelago to spread Islam. The
Quraish descendant then married the king daughter while other missionaries
married a local women. Effect from this marriage, the spread of Islam among the
locals was emerged. Apart from that, there is also a record in the Western history
that a Muslim fleet consisting of 35 ships sailed from Arabia to China in 1717
AD. On the way to China, all fleet stopped at Ceyloon in Sri Lanka, Srivijaya
and Palembang. When they stopped, they were preaching and spreading Islam
there.

Other evidence used to support the theory that Islam came from Arab are the
converted of king and ruler. According to the Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai written
after 1350, Sheikh Ismail come from Makah by ship via Malabar to Pasai, where
he converted the ruler of the area, Merah Silau to Islam which latter adopted the
title of Malik al-Salih. About a century later, according to Sejarah Melayu
which has been compiled after 1500, the Malacca ruler was also converted to
5

Islam by a Sayyid Abd al-Aziz, an Arab from Jeddah6. The ruler, Parameswara,
adopted the name and title of Sultan Muhammad Shah.

Another

Malay

chronicle, the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, written after 1630, relates that
a certain Sheikh Abdullah Yamani came from Makkah and converted the
ruler, Phra Ong Mahawangsa, ministers and the people of Kedah to Islam. The
ruler adopted the name of Muzaffar Shah and title of Sultan. According
to the tarsilahs (silsila, genealogical links) of the Muslim kings of the
Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines, Islam was disseminated to this region in
the second half of the 8114th century by an Arab named Sharif Awliya Karim
al Makhdum, who came from Malacca in 782/1380. According to an
Acehnese chronicle, the progenitor of the sultans of the Sultanate of Aceh
was an Arab named Sheikh Jamal al-Alam, who was sent by the Ottoman Sultan
to convert the people of Aceh. Another Acehnese chronicle mentions an Arab
called Abdul Allah Arif who introduced Islam to the area in 506/1111.7

There are other additional evidence that has been used to show that the arrival of
Islam is directly from the Arabian. For example, most of the religious texts of
Malay language and writing style was influenced by the Arabic language in the
early stages such as the Hikayat Nabi Bercukur. There is no element of India
or China, which are identified in the book written by local scholars. This
evidence is further strengthened by demonstrating the influence of the Arabic
language and references of the Arabian Peninsula in local script in the
interpretation of the Quran, and the Hadith.
3.2

Theory Islam From China

Second theory on how Islam came to Southeast Asia was presented by Emanuel
Gadinho Eredia and SQ Fatimi which states that Islam came to Southeast Asia
from China. According to historical record, Canton has become the main
attraction base among Islamic preachers. Evidence of the arrival of Islam from
China can be seen through the trade relations between Arabs and Chinese are
said to have occurred since before the birth of Islam. They carry merchandise
like pearls, silk and pottery from China.

6
7

Sejarah Melayu
Azra

Inter-Arab trade with China indirectly creates relationships between China and
the Malay Archipelago. According to the Chinese people of Islam, that Muslim
Arabs have come to China during the reign of Emperor Tai Tsung dynasty Pang
around 627-650M.8

There are several theories that supports Islam coming to Southeast Asia region
from China. Emanual confident that Islam came from china, he provide such a
theory on the pretext that the Khan Fo or Canton (Guang Zhou) has been the
important business center that is well known among Muslim Arab traders since9th century AD. The movement of the traders was certainly occur and the Chinese
accept Islam. Continuous from this, China traders also conduct trade in Southeast
Asia which at the same time also presenting Islam to the people in the Southeast
Asia. This opinion was strengthened again with the support from S.Q. Fatimi
which further suggest that the mass transfer of Muslim traders who live in
Canton or Amoy to Southeast Asia take time around the year 876 AD.
Substantiate to this theory, in the year 878 AD, there was an uprising in Canton
which causes about 100 000 people were killed. Arab-Muslims then fled to
Kedah and Palembang. In the same entry Sung says that the advent of Islam to
Nature Malays through the South China Sea coast and carried by traders Muslim
traders from China in the early 977.9 The movement contributed to the spread of
Islam in the Southeast Asia.

The founding of inscription stone in Terengganu and common elements of

Chinese architecture has been used as the evident to support the theory that Islam
came to Southeast Asia from China. The inscription stone in Terengganu shows
the existing of trade between China and Southeast Asia and this lead to spreading
of Islam in the region by the traders. Another evidence to support the theory is
the common elements of Chinese architecture with architectural elements in
mosques across the archipelago like in Kelantan, Terengganu, Malacca and Java.
In Malacca, the elements of Chinese architecture can be seen through the roofs
of the mosques that have something in common with Chinese synagogue
(pagoda) that the end of the roof ridge looks concave.
8
9

Abdullah Ishak
Azhar Hj. Mad Aros

The similarities also can be seen in the used of China tiles, walls, stairs and a
pool of water in the mosque as well as the influence of red and yellow color on
the wooden doors and windows of the mosque.

3.3

Theory Islam From India

Last theory used on how Islam came to Southeast Asia is Islam came from India.
These theory was highlighted by some historians such as Snouck Hurgronje,
Thomas Arnold and others. They agreed that Islam in Southeast Asia was
originated from Gujarat, Malabar, and Bengal.10 There are two provinces in India
which are believed that Islam came from, first was Gujarat and Malabar and
second was Coromandel Bengal. According to Pijnappel in his study state that
the arrival of Islam in the region was by Arab Muslim trader who reside in
Gujarat and Malabar. This view then was support by Snouck Hurgronje and
Harry Hazzard. The theory of the arrival of Islam in Gujarat and Malabar was
affirmed by the founding of Pasai tombstone dated 1428M and 1419M in Kerisik
by Morquett.

Both tombstone has a physical similarities with gravestones in Gujarat. This led
to the conclusion that Islam reached the Southeast Asia in the early nineteenth
century and originated from Gujarat. This study was strongly supported by R.A.
Kern, W.F. Stutterheim and J. Gonda that Islam in the archipelago comes from
Gujarat. But this theory has a weakness for the establishment of kingdom of
Pasai in 1042M, Gujarat has not accepted Islam.11 Conversely, according to SQ
Fatimi, the arrival of Islam in the region was come from Bengal Coromandel.
Advent of Islam is done by the merchants from there. Bengal early Islam from
Gujarat and Malabar. Then, of course, the process of Islamization was done by
the province earlier this Islam. This opinion then was supported by the Arnold
in his book, The Muslim World. According to him, the trader of Bengal was
Shafie sect which is same sect in Southeast Asia.

10

Abd. Rahman Abdullah, 1981, Sejarah dan Pemikiran Islam

11

S.M.N. al-Attas, 1972, Islam dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu Cited by Hazriey

4.0

Factors Islam Spread In Southeast Asia

There are various factors that contributed to the spreading of Islam in Southeast Asia
region. Some of the factor are through:-

4.1

Trade activities
Main factor contribute to the spread of Islam is through trade activities by Arab
traders, Chinese and Indians who have long established a major trading port in
Southeast Asia. Beside a good relationships with local merchants, the purity and
behavior of Muslim merchants attract local people to mix with them. The traders
also set up a center for discussion about Islam around the village. Because of
their honesty and integrity, many of them has been awarded the position of Shah
Bandar.

4.2

Marriage and Converting of Kings and The Nobility

Islam also spread through marriage between royal families and local people with
Sufi or Muslim traders. Islam was spread through a new family and within the
community. Islam spread has also been influenced by converting to Islam by the
Kings and the nobility. When the king in a state embrace Islam, the people will
follow him because the king has a strong influence.

4.3

The Role Of Missionaries

Missionaries, preachers, scholars and Sufis has played a direct role and important
role in spreading of Islam. Examples of the earliest preachers is Sheikh Ismail
and Fakir Muhammad. In Malacca there are preachers like Sheikh Abdul Aziz,
Maulana Abu Bakar and Maulana Yusuf. In Malacca, Islam was teaching
through informal and formal system. In Aceh, Sufi became the king's adviser
while there have Nine Wali (Wali Songo) in Java

4.4

The birth of Islamic Kingdom

The existence of Islamic kingdom is also one of the factors that helped in
spreading Islam in the Southeast Asia region. Among the earlier Islamic
kingdom is Perlak, Samudera-Pasai, Malacca, Aceh, Demak, Mataram, Sulu and
Mindanao. Melaka emerged as a well-known center of Islamic propagation. Tun
Perak managed to conquer new areas where the people already embraced Islam.
9

Missionaries, preachers, and scholars sent to teach them about Islam. The
kingdom of Johor-Riau has sought recapture Malacca from the Portuguese in
order to avoid the Malacca to the spread of Christianity. At the time of Sultan
Iskandar Muda Mahkota Alam, Acheh be a powerful palce in Southeast Asia and
has been known as the Serambi Makah. King of Pattani, King Phaya Tu Nakpa
have embraced Islam and used Sultan Mahmud Shah as his name. Islam also
established in Brunei through its role as an important trade center in Borneo.
There also the evidence discovery of the tombstone in Champa in 1039M.

5.0

Islam In Southeast Asia Today

Islam is most widely practiced religion in Southeast Asia, almost half of the 629 million
people living within the Southeast Asia region are Muslims with majorities in Indonesia,
Brunei, and Malaysia and the remaining countries host Muslim minorities, ranging from
0.1 percent in Vietnam to nearly 16 percent in Singapore. Most Muslims in Southeast
Asia belong to the Sunni sect and within it, the Shafi school of fiqh or religious law. It
is the official religion in Malaysia and Brunei while it is one of the six official faiths in
Indonesia. Below show the breakdown of Muslim population in the Southeast Asia
region for the year 2013.
Country

Population

Muslim Population (%)

Muslim
Population

Brunei Darussalam

415,717

67%

278,530

Cambodia

15,205, 539

4% (est.)

608,622

Indonesia

251,160,124

88%

221,020,909

Laos

6,981,166

1%

69,811

Malaysia

29,628,392

60%

17,777,035

Myanmar

55,167,330

15% (Est.)

8,275,099

Philippines

105,720,644

10% (Est.)

10,572,064

Singapore

5,460,302

16%

873,648

Thailand

67,448,120

10%

6,744,812

10

Vietnam

92,477,857

0.1% (Est.)

92,478

629,665,191

42%

266,313,008

Total muslim
population in
southeast asia
Table 1. Muslim Population In Southeast Asia
Source : CIA Factbook & www.islamicpopulation.com

6.0

Conclusion
Before the arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia, the communities in the region are the
adherent of the Hinduism and Buddhism believed. The arrival of Islam in the Southeast
Asia happened peacefully and followed the path of the trade networks linking the region
with South Asia, China and the Middle East. There is no exact theory to prove the date
of the arrival of Islam as well as the first to accept Islam in the Southeast Asia region,
scholar agreed that there are three theories advent of Islam in the Southeast Asia, which
are Islam is directly from the Arabian, Islam came from china and also Islam first came
from India. However, historians such as Snouck Hugronje, Syed Muhammad Naquib
al -Attas, and many more suggest that islam came to southeast asia is around 7th and
8th century and it was spread by the missionaries when the trading activity is carried
out.

Theory Islam came to Southeast Asia is directly from Arab was state by Sir John
Cramford which was support by Professor Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas. There are
a lot of evidence has been used to support the theory such as the existing of Muslim
village in 7th AD in Java, the converted of ruler and the influence of language and writing
style in the local literature.

Second theory accept by the scholar is Islam came to the Southeast Asia from China.
Theory state by Emanuel Gadinho Eredia and SQ Fatimi was support by the movement
of people and also the founding of inscription stone in Terengganu. Other evidence used
to support the theory was the common elements of Chinese architecture with local
architectural elements in the archipelago.

11

Lastly, theory Islam came from India was state by Snouck Hurgronje. Islam reached
Southeast Asia by the fourteenth century via the Indian subcontinent, edging from
Sumatra, in present-day Indonesia, onward: Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore,
parts of the Philippines, and Thailand. Muslim minorities can now be found in every
state in the region. Southeast Asias 206 million Muslims represent 18 per cent of the
global total.12

Nowadays, Islam is most widely practiced religion in Southeast Asia with nearly half of
the region population adhere the religious. The theory Islam came to Southeast Asia is
directly from of Arabia as the first origin was maintained by Malaysia and Indonesian
scholars in a conference in 1963 which has concluding that according to sources which
they had, Islam entered for the first time in Indonesia in 7th century and start to emerged
in 15th to 18th century.

12

Greg Fealy, Islam in Southeast Asia: Domestic Pietism, Diplomacy and Security

12

Reference

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Abdullah Ishak. 1992. Islam di India, Nusantara dan China, Kuala Lumpur: Nurin Enterprise.
Anthony Reid, "Islamization and Christianization in Southeast Asia: the Critical Phase, 15501650"..
Dr. Susan Russell, Islam: A Worldwide Religion And Its Impact In Southeast Asia
Eric Tagliacozzo (editor), 2009. Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the
Longue Duree.
Greg Fealy, 2004. Islam in Southeast Asia: Domestic Pietism, Diplomacy and Security, in
Contemporary Southeast Asia: Regional Dynamics, National Differences, ed. Mark Beeson
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan)
Hall, D.G.E. 1987. Sejarah Asia Tenggara. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ismail Hamid. 1986. Perkembangan Islam di Asia dan Alam Melayu, Heinemann Sdn. Bhd.
Muhamad Ali, Islam in Southeast Asia
Murray Hunter, Islamic Freedom In ASEAN 2013. Nsnbc International
Noor Azma Seman. Teori Dan Bukti Kedatangan Islam Ke Asia Tenggara
S.Q. Fatimi. 1963. Islam Comes to Malaysia, Singapore: MSRI.
The Spread Of Islam To Southeast Asia. International World History Project. Retrieved from
http://history-world.org/
The world fact book, Central of the intelligence agency
Thomas, Arnold. 1968. The Preaching of Islam. Lahore: Sh. Muhamad Ashraf.
UC Regent, 2009. Islam in Southeast Asia, Islam today, youth and media University of
California, Berkeley

13