CARE GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CYCLE TEST II
ANSWER KEY
YEAR / SEM: IV/ VII

DATE &SESSION: 08.09.2015 & AN

DURATION : 90 MIN

MAX MARKS : 50

SUB CODE/SUB NAME : EC2401/ WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

PART-A

Answer all the Questions

(7 * 2 = 14 Marks)

1. Define Equalization. (Nov 2013).

When the signal is passed through the channel distortion is introduced in terms of 1) amplitude 2) delay this
distortion creates problem of ISI. The detection of the signal also become difficult this distraction can be
compensated with the help of equalizer. Equalization is used to compensate the inter-symbol interference
created by multipath within time dispersion
channel.
2. List out the methods of Micro-Diversity. (Dec 2011).
Multipath/frequency diversity
Temporal/time diversity
Spatial/space diversity
Polarization diversity
Angle diversity
Antenna diversity
3. State the significance of Linear and Decision feedback equalizer. (May 2012)
An adaptive equalizer is an equalizer that automatically adapts to time-varying properties of the communication
channel. A well-known example is the decision feedback equalizer,a filter that uses feedback of detected
symbols in addition to conventional equalization of future symbols.Some systems use predefined training
sequences to provide reference points for the adaptation process.
4. Define Diversity concepts. (May 2013)
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong signal. By having more
than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may be improved.
5. List the different types of Speech coding techniques. (May 2012).
1. waveform coders 2.vocoder
6. What is slotted frequency hopping? (Nov 2012)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a
carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and
receiver. It is used as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FHCDMA) scheme.
7. Define Coding gain. (Nov 2012)
Coding gain is the measure in the difference between the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) levels between the
uncoded system and coded system required to reach the same bit error rate (BER) levels when used with the
error correcting code (ECC)

PART-B

(3 * 12 = 36 Marks)

8 a) 1.Explain with a block diagram Maximal ratio combiner. (Nov 2014)

Selection diversity wastes signal energy by discarding (Nr 1) copies of the received signal. This drawback is
avoided by combining diversity, which exploits all available signal copies. Each signal copy is multiplied by a
(complex) weight and then added up. Each complex weight wn can be thought of as consisting of a phase correction,
10 plus a (real) weight for the amplitude:

Phase correction causes the signal amplitudes to add up, while, on the other hand, noise is added
incoherently, so that noise powers add up.
For amplitude weighting, two methods are widely used: Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) weighs all
signal copies by their amplitude. It can be shown that (using some assumptions) this is an optimum
combination strategy. An alternative is Equal Gain Combining (EGC), where all amplitude weights are the
same (in other words, there is no weighting, but just a phase correction).

MRC compensates for the phases, and weights the signals from the different antenna branches according to their
SNR. This is the optimum way of combining different diversity branches if several assumptions are fulfilled. Let us
assume a propagation channel that is slow fading and flat fading. The only disturbance is AWGN. Under these
assumptions, each channel realization can be written as a time-invariant filter with impulse response:

where n is the (instantaneous) gain of diversity branch n. These signals at the different branches are multiplied with
weights wn and added up, so that the SNR becomes

8 a)

2. With neat sketch explain about Rake receiver(May 2014)

A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It does this by using several
"sub-receivers" called fingers, that is, several correlators each assigned to a different multipath component. Each
finger independently decodes a single multipath component; at a later stage the contribution of all fingers are

combined in order to make the most use of the different transmission characteristics of each transmission path. This
could very well result in higher signal-to-noise ratio (or Eb/N0) in a multipath environment than in a "clean"
environment.
The multipath channel through which a radio wave transmits can be viewed as transmitting the original (line of sight)
wave pulse through a number of multipath components. Multipath components are delayed copies of the original
transmitted wave traveling through a different echo path, each with a different magnitude and time-of-arrival at the
receiver. Since each component contains the original information, if the magnitude and time-of-arrival (phase) of
each component is computed at the receiver (through a process called channel estimation), then all the components
can be added coherently to improve the information reliability.
The rake receiver is so named because it reminds the function of a garden rake, each finger collecting symbol energy
similarly to how tines on a rake collect leaves.

(OR)
8 b) 1.With a neat block diagram, explain the principle of macro diversity. (Nov 2014)
The diversity methods that combat small-scale fading i.e., the fading created by interference of MPCs.
However, not all of these diversity methods are suitable for combating large-scale fading, which is created by
shadowing effects. Shadowing is almost independent of transmit frequency and polarization, so that frequency
diversity or polarization diversity are not effective. Spatial diversity (or equivalently, temporal diversity with moving
TX/RX) can be used,but we have to keep in mind that the correlation distances for large-scale fading are on the
order of tens or hundreds of meters. In other words, if there is a hill between the TX and RX, adding antennas
on either the BS or the MS does not help to eliminate the shadowing caused by this hill.
Rather, we should use a separate base station (BS2) that is placed in such a way that the hill is not in the
connection line between the MS and BS2. This in turn implies a large distance between BS1 and BS2, which gives
rise to the word macrodiversity. The simplest method for macrodiversity is the use of on-frequency repeaters
that receive the signal and retransmit an amplified version of it. Simulcast is very similar to this approach; the
same signal is transmitted simultaneously from different BSs. In cellular applications the two BSs should be
synchronized, and transmit the signals intended for a specific user in such a way that the two waves arrive at the
RX almost simultaneously (timing advance).8 Note that synchronization can only be obtained if the runtimes
from the two BSs to the MS are known. Generally speaking, it is desirable that the synchronization error is
no larger than the delay dispersion that the RX can handle. Especially critical are RXs in regions where the
strengths of the signals from the two BSs re approximately equal. Simulcast is also widely used for broadcast
applications, especially digital TV. In this case, the exact synchronization of all possible RXs is not possible each RX
would require a different timing advance from the TXs.
A disadvantage of simulcast is the large amount of signaling information that has to be carried on landlines.
Synchronization information as well as transmit data has to be transported on landlines (or microwave links) to the
BSs. This used to be a serious problem in the early days of digital mobile telephony, but the current wide availability
of fiber-optic links has made this less of an issue.

8 b) 2. Explain the operation of an adaptive equaliser at the receiver side. (Nov 2014)
An adaptive equalizer is a time-varying filter which must constantly be retuned. The basic structure of an adaptive
equalizer is shown in Figure ,where the subscript k is used to denote a discrete time index

Notice in Figure that there is a single input Yk at any time instant. The value of Yk depends upon the instantaneous
state of the radio channel and the specific value of the noise (see Figure). As such, Yk is a random process. The
adaptive equalizer structure shown above is called a transversal filter, and in this case has N delay elements, N + I
taps, and N + I tunable complex multipliers, called weights. The weights of the filter are described by their physical
location in the delay line structure, and have a second subscript, k, to explicitly show they vary with time. These
weights are updated continuously by the adaptive algorithm, either on a sample by sample basis (i.e., whenever k is
incremented by 1) or on a block by block basis (i.e., whenever a specified number of samples have been clocked into
the equalizer).
The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek. This error signal is derived by comparing the output of the
equalizer, dk. with some signal which is either an exact scaled replica of the transmitted signal xk or which represents
a known property of the transmitted signal. The adaptive algorithm uses Ck to minimize a cost function and updates
the equalizer weights in a manner that iteratively reduces the cost function. For example, the least mean squares
(LMS) algorithm searches for the optimum or near-optimum filter weights by performing the following iterative
operation:
New weights = Previous weights + (constant) x (Previous error) x (Current input vector)
Where, Previous error = Previous desired output Previous actual output

9 a) Write short notes on 1) Spatial Diversity 2) Temporal Diversity 3) Polarization Diversity (May2015)
Spatial Diversity
Spatial diversity is the oldest and simplest form of diversity. Despite (or because) of this, it is also the most widely
used. The transmit signal is received at several antenna elements. But, irrespective of the processing method,
performance is influenced by correlation of the signals between the antenna elements. A large correlation
between signals at antenna elements is undesirable, as it decreases the effectiveness of diversity. A first
important step in designing diversity antennas is thus to establish a relationship between antenna spacing and the
correlation coefficient. This relationship is different for BS antennas and MS antennas, and thus will be treated
separately.

Temporal Diversity
As the wireless propagation channel is time variant, signals that are received at different times are uncorrelated.
For sufficient decorrelation, the temporal distance must be at least 1/(2max), where max is the maximum
Doppler frequency. In a static channel, where neither transmitter (TX), RX, nor the IOs are moving, the channel
state is the same at all times. Such a situation can occur, e.g., for WLANs. In such a case, the correlation coefficient
is = 1 for all time intervals and temporal diversity is useless.
Temporal diversity can be realized in different ways:
1. Repetition coding: this is the simplest form. The signal is repeated several times, where the repetition
intervals are long enough to achieve decorrelation. This obviously achieves diversity, but is also highly bandwidth
inefficient. Spectral efficiency decreases by a factor that is equal to the number of repetitions.
2. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ): here, the RX sends a message to the TX to indicate whether it received
the data with sufficient quality. If this is not the case, then the transmission is repeated (after a wait period
that achieves decorrelation). The spectral efficiency of ARQ is better than that of repetition coding, since it
requires multiple transmissions only when the first transmission occurs in a bad fading state, while for
repetition coding, retransmissions occur always. On the downside, ARQ requires a feedback channel.
3. Combination of interleaving and coding: a more advanced version of repetition coding is forward error
correction coding with interleaving. The different symbols of a codeword are transmitted at different a time,
which increases the probability that at least some of them arrive with a good SNR. The transmitted codeword
can then be reconstructed.
Polarization Diversity
Horizontally and vertically polarized MPCs propagate differently in a wireless channel, as the reflection and
diffraction processes depend on polarization. Even if the transmit antenna only sends signals with a single
polarization, the propagation effects in the channel lead to depolarization so that both polarizations arrive at the
RX. The fading of signals with different polarizations is statistically independent. Receiving both polarizations
using a dual-polarized antenna, and processing the signals separately, offers diversity. This diversity can be obtained
without any requirement for a minimum distance between antenna elements. Let us now consider more closely
the situation where the transmit signal is vertically polarized, while the signal is received in both vertical and
horizontal polarization. In that case, fading of the two received signals is independent, but the average received
signal strength in the two diversity branches is not identical. Depending on the environment, the horizontal (i.e.,
cross-polarized) component is some 320 dB weaker than the vertical (co-polarized) component. As we will see
later on, this has an important impact on the effectiveness of the diversity scheme. Various antenna arrangements
have been proposed in order to mitigate this problem.
(OR)
9b) Explain in detail about Linear Equalizers with neat sketch. (May2015)
A linear equalizer can be implemented as an FIR filter, otherwise known as the transversal filter. This type of
Equalizer is the simplest type available. In such an equalizer, the current and past values of the received signal are
linearly weighted by the filter coefficient and summed to produce the output, as shown in Figure. If the delays and
the tap gains are analog, the continuous output of the equalizer is sampled at the symbol rate and the samples are
applied to the decision device. The implementation is, however, usually carried out in the digital domain where the
samples of the received signal are stored in a shift register. The output of this transversal filter before decision
making (threshold detection) is

where represents the complex filter coefficients or tap weights, ilk is the output at time index k, y1 is the input
received signal at time to + iT, t0 is theequalizer starting time, and N = N1 +N2 + I is the number of taps. The values
N1 and N2 denote the number of taps used in the forward and reverse portions of the equalizer, respectively. The
minimum mean squared error E [I e (n) L|2 that a linear transversal equalizer can achieve is

The linear equalizer can also be implemented as a lattice filter, whose structure is shown in Figure. The input signal
Yk is transformed into a set of N intermediate forward and backward error signals, fn(k) and bn(k) respectively, which
are used as inputs to the tap multipliers and are used to calculate the updated coefficients.

10 a) Describe with the block diagram of /4 QPSK modulation and demodulation and its advantages and Probability
of Error (Nov 2014)
Figure shows a block diagram of a typical QPSK transmitter. The unipolar binary message stream has bit rate Rb and
is first converted into a bipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) sequence using a unipolar to bipolar convener. The bit
stream m (t) is then split into two bit streams mI (t) and mQ (t) (in-phase and quadrature streams), each having a bit
rate of R3 = Rb/2. The bit stream m1 (t) is called the "even" stream and mQ (t) is called the "odd" stream. The two
binary sequences are separately modulated by two carriers 1(t) and 2(t) which are in quadrature. The two
modulated signals, each of which can be considered to be a BPSK signal, are summed to produce a QPSK signal. The
filter at the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the allocated band. This
prevents spill-over of signal energy into adjacent channels and also removes out-of-band spurious signals generated
during the modulation process. In most implementations, pulse shaping is done at baseband to provide proper RF
filtering at the transmitter output.
The /4 shifted QPSK modulation is a quadrature phase shift keying technique which offers a compromise between
OQPSK and QPSK in terms of the allowed maximum phase transitions. It may be demodulated in a coherent or
noncoherent fashion. In i /4 QPSK, the maximum phase change is limited to 135. as compared to 180 for QPSK
and 900 for OQPSK. Hence, the bandlimited /4 QPSK signal preserves the constant envelope property better than
bandlimited QPSK, but is more susceptible to envelope variations than OQPSK. An extremely attractive feature of it/4
QPSK is that it can be noncoherently detected, which greatly simplifies receiver design. Further, it has been found
that in the presence of multipath spread and fading, /4 QPSK performs better than OQPSK . Very often, it/4 QPSK

signals are differentially encoded to facilitate easier implementation of differential detection or coherent
demodulation with phase ambiguity in the recovered carrier. When differentially encoded, /4 QPSK is called m/4
DQPSK.
/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques

/4 QPSK Detection Techniques

Baseband Differential Detection

IF Differential Detector
The IF differential detector shown in Figure avoids the need for a local oscillator by using a delay line and two phase
detectors. The received signal is converted to IF and is bandpass filtered. The bandpass filter is designed to match the
transmitted pulse shape, so that the carrier phase is preserved and noise power is minimized. To minimize the effect
of ISI and noise, the bandwidth of the filters are chosen to be 0.57/TS. The received IF signal is differentially decoded
using a delay line and two mixers. The bandwidth of the signal at the output of the differential detector is twice that
of the baseband signal at the transmitter end.

(OR)
10b) Explain how MSK signals are generated. And Explain MSK modulation and demodulation techniques. (May
2015)
Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a special type of continuous phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK) wherein the peak
frequency deviation is equal to 1/4 the bit rate. In other words, MSK is continuous phase FSK with a modulation
index of 0.5. The modulation index of an FSK signal is similar to the FM modulation index, and is defined as
kfsk= (2F)/Rb, where AF is the peak RF frequency deviation and Rb is the bit rate. A modulation index of 0.5
corresponds to the minimum frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be coherently orthogonal, and the
name minimum shift keying implies the minimum frequency separation (i,e. bandwidth) that allows orthogonal
detection. Two FSK signals vH(t) and VL(t) are said to be orthogonal if

MSK is sometimes referred to as fast ESK, as the frequency spacing used is only half as much as that used in
conventional noncoherent FSK. MSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and is particularly attractive for use
in mobile radio communication systems. It possesses properties such as constant envelope, spectral efficiency, good
BER performance, and self-synchronizing capability.
MSK Transmitter and Receiver
Figure shows a typical MSK modulator. Multiplying a carrier signal with cos [t/2T] produces two phase-coherent
signals at fc+ 1 /4T and fc- I /4T. These two FSK signals are separated using two narrow bandpass filters and
appropriately combined to form the in-phase and quadrature carrier components x(t) and y(t), respectively. These
carriers are multiplied with the odd and even bit streams, mI(t) and mQ(t), to produce the MSK modulated signal
SMSK(t).

The block diagram of an MSK receiver is shown in Figure. The received signal SMSK(t) (in the absence of noise and
interference) is multiplied by the respective in-phase and quadrature carriers x(t) and y(t). The output of the
multipliers are integrated over two bit periods and dumped to a decision circuit at the end of each two bit periods.
Based on the level of the signal at the output of the integrator, the threshold detector decides whether the signal is a
0 or a 1. The output data streams correspond to rn1(t) and mQ(t), which are offset combined to obtain the
demodulated signal.

MSK Power Spectrum