A quadcopter or a multicopter helicopter is a multirotor copter that is lifted and propelled by

four rotors. All the four arms have a motor and a propeller at their ends each. The lift is
generated by a set of rotors and vertically oriented propellers.
A quadcopter uses 2 sets of identical fixed pitched propellers; 2 clockwise (CW) or in one
direction and 2 counter-clockwise (CCW) or opposite direction. This helps the machine to hover
in a stable formation.
Control of vehicle motion is achieved by altering the rotation rate of one or more rotor discs,
thereby changing its torque load and thrust/lift characteristics. These use variation of RPM unit
(revolutions per minute) to control lift and torque.
Quadcopters have four motors. Quadcopters are the most popular multirotor design because
they strike a balance among mechanical simplicity, lifting capacity, stability, and ease of control.
The four motors on quadcopters are arranged such that each motor spins in the opposite
direction than its neighbors. Two of the motors spin clockwise, and two counterclockwise. This
arrangement creates a balance of rotational forces, meaning that the quadcopter will not yaw.
X Configuration
The quadcopter X configuration is the most popular quadcopter design, making it the most
popular multirotor design overall. The X configuration is commonly used for aerial
photography/videography because the camera can point out between the front two motors.
+ Configuration
The + configuration is commonly used in acrobatic flying because, compared to the X
configuration, a + configuration quadcopter flies more like an airplane and is easier to control.
Quadcopters are known by different names, including: quadrocopter, quadrotor, quad- copter,
UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), UAS, or drone. There are series of bicopters(two blades),
tricopters (three blades), quadcopters(four blades), hexacopters (six blades), and octocopters
(eight blades).
If the quad copter wanted to roll left it would speed up motors on the right side of the frame
and slow down the two on the left. Similarly if it wants to rotate forward it speeds up the back
two motors and slows down the front two.
The copter turns (aka yaw) left or right by speeding up two motors that are diagonally across
from each other, and slowing down the other two.
Horizontal motion is accomplished by temporarily speeding up/slowing down some motors so
that the vehicle is leaning in the direction of desired travel and increasing the overall thrust of all
motors so the vehicle shoots forward. Generally the more the vehicle leans, the faster it travels.
A multicopter is a mechanically simple aerial vehicle whose motion is controlled by speeding or
slowing multiple downward thrusting motor/propeller units.
A quad copter can control its roll and pitch rotation by speeding up two motors on one side and
slowing down the other two.

 Components of a Quadcopter
The main components used for construction of a quadcopter are the frame, propellers (either
fixed-pitch or variable-pitch), and the electric motors.
The electrical components needed to construct a working quadcopter are similar to those
needed for a modem RC helicopter, which include the electronic speed control module, onboard computer or controller board, and battery.
Frame:
It is the structure that holds or houses all the components together.
The center plate where the electronics are mounted
Four arms mounted to the center plate
Four motor brackets connecting the motors to the end of the arms
Frames are usually made of:
Carbon Fiber- Carbon fiber is the most rigid and vibration absorbent but it is the most
expensive too.
Aluminium
Wood/ Plywood /MDF (Medium-density fibreboard)
As for arm length, motor-to-motor distance is sometimes used, meaning the distance
between the centers of one motor to that of another motor of the same arm. The motor to
motor distance usually depends on the diameter of the propellers in order to have enough
space between the propellers.
Motor or Rotor
The purpose of motors is to spin the propellers. Brushless DC motors provide the necessary
thrust to propel the craft.
Though the brushless motors do not have a brush on the shaft which takes care of switching the
power direction in the coils, and that's why they are called brushless. Instead the brushless
motors have three coils on the inner (center) of the motor, which is fixed to the mounting. On
the outer side, it contains a number of magnets mounted to a cylinder that is attached to the
rotating shaft. So the coils are fixed which means wires can go directly to them and therefore
there is no need for a brush. Brushless motors spin in much higher speed and use less power at
the same speed than DC motors. Also they don't lose power in the brush-transition like the DC
motors do, so it's more energy efficient. The Kv(kilovolts)-rating in a motor indicates how many
RPMs (Revolutions per minute) the motor will do if provided with x-number of volts. The higher
the kV rating is, faster the motor spins at a constant voltage.
Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated
motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors which are powered by a DC electric source
via an integrated inverter/switching power supply, which produces an AC electric signal to drive
the motor; additional sensors and electronics control the inverter output amplitude and
waveform (and therefore percent of DC bus usage/efficiency) and frequency (i.e. rotor speed).
Brushless motors may be described as stepper motors; however, the term stepper motor tends
to be used for motors that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they are
frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position.

 The term outrunner refers to a type of brushless motor primarily used in electrically propelled,
radio-controlled model aircraft. This type of motor spins its outer shell around its windings.
The stationary (stator) windings of an outrunner motor are excited by conventional DC brushless
motor controllers. A direct current (switched on and off at high frequency for voltage
modulation) is typically passed through three or more non- adjacent windings together, and the
group so energized is alternated electronically based upon rotor position feedback. The number
of permanent magnets in the rotor does not match the number of stator poles, however. The
difference between the number of magnet poles and the number of stator poles provides an
effect that can be understood as similar to planetary gearing. The number of magnet poles
divided by 2 gives the ratio of magnetic field rotation speed to motor rotation speed.
In our project we use MYSTERY A2212-15 930KV BRUSHLESS OUTRUNNER MOTOR.
Specification of Brushless Motor:
Model: D2822/14
Weight: 38g
Dimensions: 22 x 28
Voltage: 7.2v~11.1v 2s~3s
Lipoly Kv: 1450rpm/v Shaft: 3.17mm Diameter
Max Watts: 160W
Suggested Propeller: 8x6(2s) 7x4.5(3s)
Battery - Power Source (Lithium-Polymer Battery):
LiPo batteries also have a C rating and a power rating in mAh (which stands for milliamps per
hour). The Crating describes the rate at which power can be drawn from the battery, and the
power rating describes how much power the battery can supply.
Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion or more commonly Li-Po batteries
(abbreviated Li-poly, Li-Pol, LiPo, LIP, PLI or LiP) are rechargeable (secondary cell) batteries. LiPo
batteries are usually composed of several identical secondary cells in parallel to increase the
discharge current capability, and are often available in series "packs" to increase the total
available voltage.
Specially designed electronic motor speed controls are used to prevent excessive discharge and
subsequent battery damage. This is achieved using a low voltage cutoff (LVC) setting that is
adjusted to maintain cell voltage greater than (typically) 3 V per cell.
Here we use LiPo 3000MAH Power Battery & Charger
Specification:
Dimensions (L x W x H): 115 x 34 x 26.5mm, 4.53 x 1.34 x 1.04 inches
Capacity: 3000mAh
Voltage: 11.1V
Max Continuous Discharge: 30C / 90A
Max Burst Discharge: 40C / 120A Number of Cells: 3 Configuration: 3S1P
Battery Connector Type: None
Charge Balancer Type: 4 Ports Balance Net Weight: 209 grams
Suitable Model: RC Airplane /Quadcopter/ Helicopter

 B450AC Compact balance charger Specification:

Type: Lipo/Life/Li-ion, NiCd/NiMH Charger Type: Electric Charger
Nominal Voltage: 12V
Max Charge Power: 45W
Charge Current Rate: 0.1-4.5.0A Integrated in: Power Supply
Li-Xx Battery Cell Count: 1-4 Cells
Input voltage range: DC 11-15V DC, AC input: 100-240V AC 50/60 Hz Charge current range:
0.1-4.5.0A
Charge powr limited: Max 45W
Battery capacity range: 100-9900mAh ( 6000mAh Default) NiCd/NiMH battery cell count: 110 cells
Lithium battery types: Lipo, Li-ion, li-fe ( 1-4 CELLS)
Pb: 6-12 V
ESC- Electronic Speed Controller:
The electronic speed controller controls the speed of the motor or tells the motors how fast to
spin at a given time.
Because the motors on a quadcopter must all spin at precise speeds to achieve accurate flight,
the ESC is very important. This firmware in a ESC changes the refresh rate of the ESC so the
motors get many more instructions per second from the ESC, thus have greater control over the
quadcopter's behavior. The frequency of the signals also vary a lot, but for a quadcopter it is
preferred if the controller supports high enough frequency signal, so the motor speed can be
adjusted quick enough for optimal stability.
Specification:
Amp rating: 30A
Burst Rate (10sec): 40A BEC Output : 5.0V / 3A
Voltage: 7.4-11.1V (2-3 cell Lipo/5-10 NiCd)
Dimensions: 43x23x6mm
Weight: 25g
Propellers:
A quadcopter has four propellers, two "normal" propellers that spm counterclockwise, and two
"pusher" propellers that spin clockwise to avoid body spinning.
By making the propeller pairs spin in each direction, but also having opposite tilting, all of them
will provide lifting thrust without spmnmg in the same direction. This makes it possible for the
copter to stabilize the yaw rotation, which is the rotation around itself.
Radio Transmitter and Receiver: The radio transmitter and receiver allows to control the
quadcopter. Four channels for a basic quadcopter is required .
Here we are using FLYSKY (FS-T6-RB6) 6CH 2.4GHz Air Transmitter
with RB6 Receiver
TX Specification
Channels: 6
Model type: glider / heli / airlane
RF range: 2.4 - 2.485GHz Bandwidth: 500KHz Band: 160
RF power: less than 20 dBm 2.4G system: AFHDS Sensitivity: 1024

Low voltage warning: yes(less than 9V) DSC port: yes(PS2; output: PPM) Charger port: yes
Power: 12V DC(1.5AA*8)
Weight: 590g
ANT length: 26mm Size: 191*93*302mm
Certificate: CE0678, FCC
RX Specification
Channels: 6
Model type: heli / glid / airplane
RF range: 2.4 - 2.48GHz Bandwidth: 500KHz Band sum: 160
RF.receiver sensitivity: -105dBm 2.4G system: AFHDS
Code type: GFSK
Sensitivity: 1024 Power: 4.0-8.4V DC
Weight: 13g
ANT lenght: 26mm Size: 45*23*9mm
Certificate: CE FCC
Radio Control
First-person view (FPV), also known as remote-person view (RPV), or simply video piloting, is a
method used to control a radio-controlled vehicle from the driver or pilot's view point. Most
commonly it is used to pilot an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or a radio-controlled aircraft.
Radio frequencies
The most common frequencies used for video transmission are: 900 MHz, 1.2 GHz, 2.4 GHz, and
5.8 GHz. Specialized long-range UHF control systems operate at 433 MHz or 869 MHz and are
commonly used to achieve greater control range, while the use of directional, high-gain
antennas increases video range. In addition to the standard video frequencies, 1.3 GHz and 2.3
GHz have emerged as the common frequencies get more crowded.
FPV Video Transmitter Frequency
There are basically four different frequency bands used in FPV analog video transmission:
900 MHz
1.2 & 1.3GHz
2.3 & 2.4 GHz
5.8GHz
The lower the frequency the better the signal can penetrate through objects so if your goal is to
fly behind large stands of trees, buildings, or hills; getting a 900MHz may be the best bet.
The issue with lower frequencies is the antennas have to be larger so if space and portability are
a concern, then you will be better served with higher frequencies and stick to line of sight flight.
900MHz needs big antennas and in most areas also requires a radio operators license to use
legally;
The other issues with 900MHz is the video transmission image quality is not as good and there
can be many other noise sources transmitting near this frequency such as cell networks so the
lower frequency bands are more likely to experience noise and interference issues.

 5.8GHz antennas are also smallest of the bunch so that saves not only space, but a little money
as well. The only real issue with 5.8 is it has next to no penetration ability, meaning even flying
behind a tree or shrub can mess the image up. It's also not great for long range flying because
high frequency wave energy is absorbed in the air by humidity or other atmospheric particulates
much easier than lower frequency waves.
Here we are using 5.8G (TS-351) Wireless Transmitter.
Specification:
Built-in microphone audio pick up device
5.8G Technology 5645MHz~5945MHz
8 Channels selectable
Dual AV output
Video output: 1Vp-p 75ohm
Audio output: 1Vp-p 600ohm
Power supply: DC 12V
Video: PAL/NTSC
Dimension: 5.2cm x 6.8cm x 1.3cm
Weight: 55g (with antenna)
Here we are using 5.8G (RC-305) Wireless Receiver
Specification:
Receiving frequency: 5725-5865MHz; 8 channels
Receiving sensitivity: -90dBm
Frequency control: built-in frequency and phase lock loop
Double lines AV output: analog AV signal output
Antenna connector: SMA (Inside the needle)
Power supply voltage: 6.5-15V
Supply current: 150mA
Dimension: 61*52*13mm (aluminium alloy extrusion profiles)
FPV Camera:
1/3 Sony Color CCD Camera
FPV Camera 480p FishEye Lens Wide Angle
Resoulation: 480p
Lens: Normal Wide
Power: DC12V
System: PAL3.6mm (420TVL)
Flight Controller
A flight controller is a circuit board that reads sensors data and user commands, and makes
adjustment to the motor speed, in order to keep the quadcopter balanced and in control. All
multicopter flight controllers have Gyro (Gyroscopes) and Acc (Accelerometer) these days, some
more advanced FC even have Barometer (barometric pressure sensors), magnetometer
(compass) and GPS. For example the gyroscopes is for orientation, the barometers is for holding
altitudes, while the GPS can also be used for auto-pilot or fail-safe purposes.

 KK2.1.X (Hobbyking) Multi-rotor LCD Flight Control Board

Rolf R Bakke
The original KK gyro system has been updated to an incredibly sensitive 6050 MPU system
making this the most stable KK board ever and allowing for the addition of an auto-level
function. At the heart of the KK2.1.5 is an Atmel Mega644PA 8-bit AVR RISC-based
microcontroller with 64k of memory. An additional polarity protected header has been added
for voltage detection, so no need for on-board soldering. A handy piezo buzzer is also included
for audio warning when activating and deactivating the board.
The KK2.1.5 added polarity protection to the voltage sense header and a fuse protected buzzer
outputs, in case something is accidentally plugged in incorrectly.
Specification:
Size: 50.5mm x 50.5mm x 12mm
Weight: 21 gram (Inc Piezo buzzer)
IC: Atmega644 PA
Gyro/Acc: 6050MPU InvenSense Inc.
Auto-level: Yes
Input Voltage: 4.8-6.0V
AVR interface: standard 6 pin.
Signal from Receiver: 1520us (5 channels)
Signal to ESC: 1520us
What is KK2.1.5 Multi-Rotor Control board :
The HobbyKing KK2.1.5 Multi-Rotor controller is a flight control board for multi-rotor aircraft
(Tricopters, Quadcopters, Hexcopters etc). Its purpose is to stabilize the aircraft during flight. To
do this it takes the signal from the 6050MPU gyro/acc (roll, pitch and yaw) then passes the
signal to the Atmega644PA IC. The Atmega644PA IC unit then processes these signals according
the users selected firmware and passes control signals to the installed Electronic Speed
Controllers (ESCs). These signals instruct the ESCs to make fine adjustments to the motors
rotational speed which in turn stabilizes your multi-rotor craft.