1.

3whenThe Basics
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C++ is a compiled language. For a program to run, its source text has to
be processed by a compiler, producing object files, which are combined by
a linker yielding an executable program.
C++ is a statically typed language. That is, the type of every entity (e.g.,
object, value, name,
and expression) must be known to the compiler at its point of use. The
type of an object determines the set of operations applicable to it.

1.4Functions
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A function cannot be called unless it has been previously declared.

In a function, if the declaration is not the function definition (in header files
for example) you dont need to specify the name of the argument. Ex:
double square(double)

1.5Types, Variables and Arithmetic

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Unsigned non negative integer type. Ex: 0,100,999

Bitwise comparison every bit of data is compared. Operator examples: &,
|, ^
C++ offers a variety of notations for expressing initialization, such as the =
used above, and a universal form based on curly-brace-delimited initializer
lists:
o double d1 = 2.3; // initialize d1 to 2.3
o double d2 {2.3}; // initialize d2 to 2.3
o complex<double> z = 1; // a complex number with double-precision
floating-point scalars
o complex<double> z2 {d1,d2};
o complex<double> z3 = {1,2};
o vector<int> v {1,2,3,4,5,6}; // a vector of ints
It saves you from conversions that lose information:
o int i1 = 7.2; // i1 becomes 7 (surprise?)
o int i2 {7.2}; // error : floating-point to integer conversion
o int i3 = {7.2}; // error : floating-point to integer conversion (the = is
redundant)
A constant cannot be left uninitialized and a variable should only be left
uninitialized in
extremely rare circumstances. Dont introduce a name until you have a
suitable value for it. User-defined types (such as string, vector, Matrix,
Motor_controller, and Orc_warrior) can be defined to be implicitly initialized
When defining a variable, you dont actually need to state its type
explicitly when it can be
deduced from the initializer:
o auto b = true;
o auto ch = 'x';
o auto i = 123;
o auto d = 1.2;
o auto z = sqrt(y);

Using auto, we avoid redundancy and writing long type names.

We use auto where we dont have a specific reason to mention the type
explicitly. Specific
reasons include:
o The definition is in a large scope where we want to make the type
clearly visible to readers of our code.
o We want to be explicit about a variables range or precision (e.g.,
double rather than float).
- Operator << (put to) ; Operator >> (get from);
1.6Scope and Lifetime
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A declaration introduces its name into a scope

Scopes:
o Local Scope (functions) Ex: arguments
o Class Scope(in a class, outside functions)
o Namespace Scope(outside classes or functions)
o Global Scope(in the global namespace)
- We can have objects without names, such as temporaries and objects
created using
new. Ex: auto p = new Record{ Hume }; //p points to an unnamed
Record(created by new)
- An object must be constructed (initialized) before it is used and will be
destroyed at the end of its scope. For a namespace object the point of
destruction is the end of the program. For a member, the point of
destruction is determined by the point of destruction of the object of which
it is a member. An object created by new lives until destroyed by delete.
1.7Constants
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C++ supports two notions of immutability:

o const: meaning roughly I promise not to change this value. This is
used primarily to specify interfaces, so that data can be passed to
functions without fear of it being modified. The compiler enforces
the promise made by const.
o constexpr: meaning roughly to be evaluated at compile time. This
is used primarily to specify constants, to allow placement of data in
read-only memory (where it is unlikely to be corrupted) and for
performance.
For example:
o const int dmv = 17; // dmv is a named constant
o int var = 17; // var is not a constant
o constexpr double max1 = 1.4square(dmv); // OK if square(17) is a
constant expression
o
constexpr double max2 = 1.4square(var); // error: var is not a
constant expression
o
const double max3 = 1.4square(var); // OK, may be evaluated at
run time
o double sum(const vector<double>&); // sum will not modify its
argument (1.8)
o vector<double> v {1.2, 3.4, 4.5}; // v is not a constant
o const double s1 = sum(v); // OK: evaluated at run time

constexpr double s2 = sum(v); // error: sum(v) not constant

expression
1.8Pointers, Arrays and references
- In declarations, [ ] means array of and means pointer to.
- The size of an array must be a constant expression
- A pointer variable can hold the address of an object of the appropriate type
- In an expression, prefix unary means contents of and prefix unary &
means address of.
- The variables are being copied: for (auto i=0; i!=10; ++i) ; for (auto x : v);
for (auto x : {10,21,32,43,54,65})
- The variables are being referenced: for (auto& x : v)
- In a declaration, the unary suffix & means reference to. A reference is
similar to a pointer,
except that you dont need to use a prefix to access the value referred to
by the reference. Also, a reference cannot be made to refer to a different
object after its initialization.
- When we dont want to modify an argument, but still dont want the cost of
copying, we use a const reference. For example: double sum(const
vector<double>&)
- We try to ensure that a pointer always points to an object, so that
dereferencing it is valid. When we dont have an object to point to or if we
need to represent the notion of no object available (e.g., for an end of a
list), we give the pointer the value nullptr (the null pointer). There is only
one nullptr shared by all pointer types:
o double pd = nullptr;
Link<Record> lst = nullptr; // pointer to a Link to a Record
int x = nullptr; // error : nullptr is a pointer not an integer
o

A test of a pointer (e.g., while (p)) is equivalent to comparing the pointer to

the null pointer (e.g., while (p!=nullptr)).
- Cool idea: Video game movement: in a while loop we wait for the
character. We create a point Delta (0,0) and we increase/lower the x or y
accordingly. And at the end we call: move(current+deltascale);
1.9Advice
- You dont have to know every detail of C++ to write good programs.

Focus on programming techniques, not on language features.

Package meaningful operations as carefully named functions;
A function should perform a single logical operation;
KEEP FUNCTIONS SHORT;
Use overloading when functions perform conceptually the same task on
different types;
Avoid magic constants; use symbolic constants;
Keep common and local names short, and keep uncommon and nonlocal
names longer.
Avoid ALL_CAPS names.
!!!Prefer the {}-initializer syntax for declarations with a named type;
!!!Prefer the = syntax for the initialization in declarations using auto;
Avoid uninitialized variables;
Keep scopes small;
Keep use of pointers simple and straightforward;
Use nullptr rather than 0 or NULL;
Dont declare a variable until you have a value to initialize it with;
Dont say in comments what can be clearly stated in code. State your
intent!
Avoid narrowing conversions;

2.2 Structures
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Structs do exist!
Structures are the same as classes, only that members are public by
default!!!
The new operator allocates memory from an area called the free store
(also known as dynamic memory and heap). Objects allocated on the free
store are independent of the scope from which they are created and live
until they are destroyed using the delete operator
!!! Dont reinvent standard-library components, such as vector and string;
use them.!!!
We use . (dot) to access members through a name (and through a
reference) and -> to access members through a pointer.

2.3 Classes
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The interface is defined by the public members of a class, and private

members are accessible only through that interface.

2.4 Unions
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A union is a struct in which all members are allocated at the same address
so that the union occupies only as much space as its largest member.
Naturally, a union can hold a value for only one member at a time.
The purpose of union is to save memory by using the same memory region
for storing different objects at different times.
Avoid naked unions; wrap them in a class together with a type field;

2.5 Advice
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Use enumerations to represent sets of named constants;

Prefer class enums over plain enums to minimize surprises;

Define operations on enumerations for safe and simple use;

3.1 Modularity
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A library is simply some other code we happen to use written with the
same language facilities as we use

3.2 Separate Compilation

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The .cpp file providing the implementation will also include the header file
to get the interface!

3.3 Namespaces
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C++ offers namespaces as a mechanism for expressing that some

declarations belong together and that their names shouldnt clash with
other names.
A using-directive makes names from the named namespace accessible as
if they were local to the scope in which we placed the directive.
Namespaces are primarily used to organize larger program components,
such as libraries. They simplify the composition of a program out of
separately developed parts.

3.4 Error Handling

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It is a good idea to design and articulate a strategy for error handling early
on in the development of a program.

3.4.1 Exceptions
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!!! The solution is for the Vector implementer to detect the attempted outof-range access and then tell the user about it. The user can then take
appropriate action. For example, Vector::operator[]() can detect an
attempted out-of-range access and throw an out_of_range exception.
The writer of the UDT doesnt know what to do in cases of exceptions. It is
the writers duty to detect the errors and to inform the client by throwing
him an exception and letting him deal with the problem by transfering the
control to the catch block of the calling function/client.
The exception handling mechanism will exit scopes and functions as
needed to get back to a caller that has expressed interest in handling that
kind of exception, invoking destructors along the way as needed.
The out_of_range type is defined in the standard library (in <stdexcept>)
and is in fact used by some standard-library container access functions.
Dont overuse try-statements. Use RAII.
A function that should never throw an exception can be declared noexcept.
If all good intent and planning fails, so that user() still throws, the
standard-library function terminate() is called to immediately terminate the
program. For example:
o void user(int sz) noexcept {}

3.4.2 Invariants
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Whenever we define a function, we should consider what its preconditions

are and if feasible test them.
- A statement of what is assumed to be true for a class is called a class
invariant, or simply an invariant. It is the job of a constructor to establish
the invariant for its class (so that the member functions can rely on it) and
for the member functions to make sure that the invariant holds when they
exit. (Check for proper constructor arguments)
- Exception example: length_error from the std library.
- If operator new cant find memory to allocate, it throws a std::bad_alloc
- Multiple catches one after another are not bad.
- Often, a function has no way of completing its assigned task after an
exception is thrown. Then, handling an exception simply means doing
some minimal local cleanup and rethrowing the exception. To throw
(rethrow) the exception caught in an exception handler, we simply write
throw;.
3.4.3 Static Assertions
- We can also perform simple checks on other properties that are known at
compile time and report failures as compiler error messages. For example:
o static_assert(4<=sizeof(int), "integers are too small"); // check
integer size
- The static_assert mechanism can be used for anything that can be
expressed in terms of constant expressions.
- The most important uses of static_assert come when we make assertions
about types used as parameters in generic programming.
- For runtime-checked assertions, use exceptions.
3.4.4 Advice
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Distinguish between declarations (used as interfaces) and definitions (used

as implementations);
Use header files to represent interfaces and to emphasize logical structure;
Avoid non-inline function definitions in headers;
Use namespaces to express logical structure;
Dont put a using-directive in a header file;
Develop an error-handling strategy early in a design;
!!! Use purpose-designed user-defined types as exceptions (not built-in
types);!!!
Dont try to catch every exception in every function;
Let a constructor establish an invariant, and throw if it cannot;