682

May

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE

The start of the war in August, 1914, soon interrupted

all attempts at establishing an international commercial
radio service. During the war years, the development of
high-power radio facilities continued, primarily for
military purposes.
Also (luring the war, in addition to the stations mentioned above, the U. S. Navy constructed high-power
stations at Darien (Panama Canal Zone),"3 Annapolis,
Md., and elsewhere. The Navy also installed arc transmitters at the former German stations located at Sayville, N. Y.,8 and Tuckerton, N. J.9
In cooperation with the U. S. Navy the General
Electric Company installed Alexanderson alternators at
the Miarconi station located near New Brunswick, N. J.
An important feature of the New Brunswick station was
the multiple tuning applied to the MIarcoini anitenina,
which increased the efficiency from 1.85 per cent to

about 14 per cent. This development is described elsewhere in this issue.'4

In Europe the power and efficiency of the station at
Nauen, Germany, was considerably increased. The
principal long-wave stations which were in operation
before the end of the war were as follows:
Germany-Nauen (POZ) and Hanover (OUI) using
alternators.
England- Carnarvon (MUU) using Marconi timedspark transmitters.
Norway-Stavanger (LCM) using Marconi timedspark transmitters.
France--Lyon (YN) and Lafayette (LY) using arc
transmitters.
After the war, several of the European stations mentioned above were used for commercial service, mostly
to the United States.

13 R. S. Crenshaw, "The Darien radio station of the U. S. Navy

(Panama Canal Zone)," PROC. IRE, vol. 4, pp. 35-40; 1916.

14 H. H. Beverage, "Antennas and

p. 879.

The History
Up

transmiiissioni lines," this issue,

Radio Wave Propagation

End of World War 1*

of

to the

CHARLES R. BURROWSt, FELLOW, IRE

Summary-Hertz in the 1880's demonstrated electromagnetic
wave propagation predicted by Maxwell from his equations in 1864.
Heaviside and Kennelly postulated the ionosphere to explain Marconi's historical transatlantic reception of radio waves in 1901. Austin
derived the first formula for radio propagation in 1911 from experimental data in the kilometer wavelength range taken in the daytime.
Much theoretical effort was expended on the effect of the electrical properties of the ground but the problem was not resolved until
A later date. Watson, however, cleared up the problem of diffraction
around a perfectly conducting sphere in 1919.
Up to the end of World War I, it was generally believed that radio
transmission improved with increase in wavelength so the expenmental data is concentrated in this region.

Fl

HE HISTORY of radio-wave propagation began

tin 1864, when Clerk Maxwell [1] introduced the
concept of dielectric current to satisfy the equa-

tion of continuity. This added symmetry to the equations that Inow bear his name. From these "Maxwell
Equations," he deduced the existence of electromagnetic
waves that would be propagated with the velocity of
light.
In the 1880's, Heinrich Hertz [2], experimenting with
the spark discharged from a Leyden jar, demonstrated
that the effect was propagated at a distance so as to
* Received
by the IRE, July 5, 1961; revised manuscript received,
October 23, 1961.
t Datronics Engiineers, Inc., Bethesda, Md.

cause a spark to occur across the terminals of a receiving

antenna. In these experiments he produced the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell. In describing his
experiments, Hertz used the concepts of rectilinear

propagation, polarization, reflection and refraction.

On the theoretical side, Hertz [3] calculated the field
from a rectilinear current element, and Abraham [4]
calculated the field from a half-wave dipole. Hack [51
plotted the fields around rectilinear antennas half wavelength, full wavelength and three-half wavelengths long,
based on the formulas of Abraham [4]. Rudenberg [6]
calculated the radiation resistance of the dipole which
made possible the expression of attenuation as the
ratio of the power radiated from one antenna to the
maximum power that could be extracted from the receiving antenna [7].
Blondel [8] pointed out in 1898 that the effect of the
earth on a vertical antenna was to produce an image
of the antenna, an approximation good for long waves.
Hence, for moderate distances the field was found to be
inversely proportional to the distance. Experimental
evidence for this was obtained by Tissot [9] in 1906.
In the 1890's, Heaviside interpreted the propagation of electromagnetic energy along a pair of wires as a
guiding of the wave energy, a concept also used by
Hertz during this period. Hertz discovered that by

1962

Burrows: Propagation Up to World War I

forming the inducing circuits, so as to become what is

known as a Hertzian dipole, the radiation was
greatly increased. In January, 1897, Marconi [10] was
able to greatly extend the range of radio wave propagation by employing a vertical grounded antenna, hence
demonstrating the superiority of vertical polarization
over horizontal polarization for propagation up to
several hundred miles on the longer waves.
The successful reception of radio signals across the
Atlantic by Marconi [11] on December 12, 1901, introduced much speculation as to the mechanism of radiowave propagation around the curvature of the earth.
Three mechanisms were proposed and seriously considered for several decades: 1) ionospheric propagation,
2) guided propagation by means of a surface wave and
3) diffraction into the earth's shadow [12]. To explain
the first mechanism, Kennielly [13] in America and
Heaviside [14] in England independently postulated
[15] the existence of an ionized region in the upper
atmosphere that would reflect the radio waves back to
earth. Eccles [16] showed mathematically how this
ionized region could bend the waves back to earth. In
view of our present knowledge, this was the mechanism
responsible for Marconi's transatlantic reception.
Zenneck [17] gave credit to Blondel [8] and Lecher
[18] for the concept that radio waves were of the nature
of surface waves. In 1907 Zenneck [19] showed that the
interface between two dielectrics, such as earth and air,
could support a surface wave. In 1909 Sommerfeld [20]
studied the problem of the propagation of electromagnetic waves from a Hertzian dipole in the interface
separating media of two different dielectric properties.
In his formulation he had a component which corresponded to a cylindrical surface wave which at great
distances over dielectric ground predominated and was
the same as Zenneck's surface wave. From this he concluded that radio waves would be guided around the
curvature of the earth. He believed that the effect of
the imperfect conductivity of the earth (which introduced cylindrical divergence described as a surface
wave) would probably be intensified by the curvature
of the surface and hence might counteract attenuation
of the waves by the curvature. Ten years later Weyl
[21 ] investigated the same problem, but his answer did
not explicitly include the surface wave component of
Sommerfeld. He, however, believed that quantitatively
his results were the same as Sommerfeld's. Many years
later Burrows [22] discovered that these two formulations, in fact, differed by exactly the surface wave of
Sommerfeld, and, in collaboration with his associates,
L. E. Hunt and A. Decino, conducted the crucial experiment which showed that Weyl's formulation was correct
and that the surface wave of Sommerfeld did not exist.
Later Rice [23] and Niessen [24] independently found

now

683

the leading mathematicians for many years before

Watson [25], in 1919, pointed out the errors of the earlier investigators and presented values for the diffraction of radio waves around a perfectly conducting sphere.
Much later Van der Pol and Bremmer [26] generalized
Watson's solution to take into consideration arbitrary
ground constants, and Gray [27] extended the work to
include horizontally polarized antennas.
In 1902 Marconi observed that the same transmitter
had a longer range at night, som-etimes having a range
two and a half times the daytime range. This was the
first observation of atmospheric absorption by the
ionosphere. Austin's [28] measurements confirmed this
and showed that the nighttime propagation was irregular. Marconi [29] observed that when part of the
propagation path was in darkness and part in daylight,
the signal was weaker than the steady daytime signal.
This was followed by stronger signals when it was sunset
over the entire path and preceded by stronger signals
just before sunrise at the eastern terminal. When it was
nighttime over the entire path, the signals were stronger
and variable. Signals were stronger in the daytime on
7000 meters than on 4000 meters, but the sunrise and
sunset maximums were stronger on the shorter wavelength.
Austin [28] gave us our first formula for radio wave
propagation [30]. It was an empirical formula representing the summary of experimental data for the propagation on wavelengths in the kilometer region over the
sea during the daytime. It is

Ir

4.25

Ishih2

---d-

0.015d\
)
exp /- 0

_(

where the currents are in amperes and lengths in kilometers. Ir is the current in the vertical antenna of
height h2 resulting from a current Is in an antenna of
height hi, separated by a distance d on a wavelength X.
Hogan's [31] experiments confirmed Austin's formula
and showed that it was valid over a greater range of
distances.
Austin's formula corresponds to the usual formula
E-=

1207rhlIs
Xd

for the field propagated along a perfectly coniducting

plane [7] multiplied by an exponential absorption
factor. Austin's formula showed that the exponential
attenuation factor was proportional to the distance and
inversely proportional to the square root of the wavelength. In Watson's [25] theoretical formulation for the
diffraction of radio waves around the curvature of the
earth, the exponential attenuation factor is inversely
proportional to the cube root of the wavelength. In a
inlater
paper [32], he considered the effect of the ionothe source of the error in Sommerfeld's work-the
correct choice of the square root of a complex quantity sphere, which then changed the dependence on the
wavelength from the cube root to the square root.
in an intricate mathematical derivation.
On the longer waves (in the kilonmeter range) the
around
radio
waves
The problem of the diffraction of
was studied as a function of wavelength,
of
of
several
propagation
efforts
the earth's curvature occupied the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE

684

May

C. R. Burrows, "Mechanisms of Propagation," presented at

ground conditions, time of day and season. The strength [121 Atti
del Congresso Internazionale per il Cinquantenario della
of signals on a wavelength of 1000 meters at a distance
scoperta Marconiana della Radio, Roma, Italy, September 28October 5, 1947. Published by Consiglio Nazionale della
of some 200 km was found to be maximum in winter and
Ricerche, Rome, 1948, pp. 43-51; 1948. (In English.)
minimum in summer with a variation of a factor of [13] A. E. Kennelly, "On the elevation of the electrically-conducting
strata of the earth's atmosphere," Elec. WVorld and Engr., vol. 39,
about six [33]. Daytime transmission over land on 3500
p. 4 73; March 15, 1902.
meters was more attenuated than over sea and depended [14] 0. Heaviside, Encyclopedia Britannica, 10th ed.; 1902.
[15] This ionized region had been previously postulated by Balfour
on weather and time of year [34]. Shorter waves (2500
Stewart to explain the variations in terrestrial magnetism. See
meters) were more attenuated than longer waves (3500
B. Stewart, "Terrestrial Magnetism," Encyclopedia Britannica,
9th ed., vol. 16, pp. 159-184; 1878.
meters). Taylor [34] attributed the increase in attenua- [161 W.
H. Eccles, "On the diurnal variations of the electric waves
tion in spring and summer to poorer conductivity which
occurring in nature, and on the propagation of electric waves
round the bend of the earth," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A, vol.
he attributed to the breaking up of the ground by frost
87, pp. 79-99; August 13, 1912.
and cultivation. Kennelly [35] discussed the influence [17] J. Zenneck, "Wireless Telegraphy," McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, N. Y.; 1908. Translated by A. E. Seelig, 1915.
of solar radiation on radio propagation. The dip both at [18] E.
Lecher, "Ueber drahtlosen Telegraphie," Physik. Z., vol. 3,
midsunrise and at midsunset with reinforcement both
p. 274; April, 1902.
before and after each dip were explained by reflection [19] J. Zenneck, "Ueber die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromagnetischer
Wellen langs einer ebenen Leiterflache und ihre Beziehung zur
effects at the shadow wall.
drahtlosen Telegraphie," Ann. Physik, ser. 4, vol. 23, pp. 846866; September 24, 1907.
The first report of selective fading was made by Dr.
A. Sommerfeld, "Ueber die Ausbreitung der Wellen der draht[20]
de Forest on the observations of the federal telegraph
losen Telegraphie," Ann. Physik, ser. 4, vol. 28, pp. 665-756;
1909.
operators on their transmissions between Los Angeles [21] March,
H. Weyl, "Ausbreitung elektromagnetischer Wellen uber einem
and San Francisco, a distance of 560 km on long waves
ebener Leiter," Ann. Physik., ser. 4, vol. 60, pp. 481-500; No20, 1919.
[36]. They observed that the mark wave would fade on [22] vember
C. R. Burrows, "The surface wave in radio propagation over
9.7 kc while the space wave some 5 kc lower in frequency
plane earth," PROC. IRE, vol. 25, pp. 219-229; February, 1937.
[23] S. 0. Rice, unpublished memorandum, privately communicated
remained normal.
to the writer.
In 1915 the AT & T and Western Electric Companies, [241 K. F. Neissen, "Zur Entscheidung zwischen den beiden Sommerfeldschen Formeln fur Fortpflanzung von drahtlosen Wellen,"
in cooperation with the United States Navy, demonAnn. Physik., vol. 29, pp. 585-596; April, 1937.
strated voice radio communication between Arlington, [25] G. N. Watson, "The diffraction of electric waves by the eatth,"
Roy. Soc. (London) A, vol. 95, pp. 83-99; October 7, 1918.
Virginia, and Hawaii and Paris. On November 29, 1915, [26] Proc.
B. Van der Pol and H. Bremmer, "The diffraction of electromagfrom
a
Honolulu,
in
were
copied
Prussia,
Nauen,
signals
netic waves from an electrical point source round a finitely conducting sphere, with applications to radiotelegraphy and the
distance of 9000 miles [37 ].
theory of the rainbow," Phil. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 25, pp. 141-175,
Many high-power radio transmitters were put in
July, 1937; vol. 24, pp. 825-864 (suppl.), November, 1937; also
vol. 25, pp. 817-834 (suppl.), June, 1938; and vol. 27, pp. 261operation during the war. Little is available in regard to
275; March, 1939.
the radio-wave propagation resulting from them, except [27] M.
C. Gray, "The diffraction and refraction of a horizontally
polarised electromagnetic wave over a spherical earth," Phil.
that transmissions were successful.
Mag., ser. 7, vol. 27, pp. 421-436; April, 1939.

REFERENCES
[1] J. C. Maxwell, "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic
field," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), vol. 13, pp. 531-536; December
8, 1864.
[2] H. Hertz, "Ueber sehr schnelle elektrische Schwingungen,"
Ann. Physik usnd Chemie ( Wiedeman) N. F., vol. 31, pp. 421-448;
May 15, 1887.
[3] H. Hertz, 'Die Kraft electrischer Schwingungen, behandelt
nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie," Ann. Physik und Chemie
(Wiedeman) N. F., vol. 36, pp. 1-22; December 15, 1888.
[4] M. Abraham, "Die electrischen Schwingungen um einen stabformigen Leiter, behandelt nach der Maxwell'schen Theorie,"
Ann. Physik und Chemie ( Wiedeman) N. F., vol. 66, pp. 435-472;
October 20, 1898.
[5] F. Hack, "Das elektromagnetische Feld in der Umgebung eines
linearen Oszillators," Ann. Physik., ser. 4, vol. 14, pp. 539-546;
July 12, 1904.
[61 R. Ruidenberg, "Der Empfang elektrischer Wellen in der drahtlosen Teltgraphie," Ann. Physik, ser. 4, vol. 25, pp. 446-466;
March 3, 1908.
[71 C. R. Burrows, "Radio Propagation over plane earth-field
strength curves," Bell Sys. Tech. J., vol. 16, pp. 45-75 and 547577; January and October, 1937. See p. 48.
[8] A.' Blondel, Compt. rend. Assoc. franc. Avancement des sciences, Congres de Nantes, France, p. 212; 1898.
[91 C. Tissot, "Note on the use of the bolometer as a detector of
electric waves," Electrician, vol. 56, pp. 848-849; March 9, 1906.
[101 E. H. Armstrong, "The spirit of discovery," Electronic Engr.,

vol. 72, pp. 670-676; August, 1953.

[11] G. Marconi, "Signals across the atlantic," Elec. World, vol. 38,
pp. 1023-1025; December 21, 1901.
-- "Notes," Electrician, vol. 48, p. 329; December 20, 1901.

[28] L. W. Austin, "Some quantitative experiments in long-distance

radio telegraphy," J. Res. NBS, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 315-366;
October, 1911.
[29] G. Marconi, "Radio-Telegraphy," Electrician, vol. 67, pp. 532534; July 14, 1911.
[30] Much effort was spent in calculating the field for propagation
over the earth, but failure of subsequent authors to critically
compare their results with earlier workers left the situation far
from satisfactory. Sommerfeld's [20] equations for good conducting
ground (conduction current large compared with dielectric current in the ground) are sensibly the same as Weyl's [21], but this
was not known until a later period. The situation for propagation
around a spherical earth was very confused until Watson [25]
cleared it up. The effect of imperfect conductivity of the ground
and the effect of the earth's curvature was finally resolved by
C. R. Burrows and M. C. Gray, "The effect of the earth's curvature on ground wave propagation," PROC. IRE, vol. 29, pp.
16-24; January, 1941.
[31] J. L. Hogan, Jr., "Quantitative results of recent radio-telegraph
tests between Arlington, Va., and U. S. S. "Salem," Electrician,
vol. 71, pp. 720-725; August 8, 1913.
[321 G. N. Watson, "The transmission of electric waves around the
earth," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A, vol. 95, pp. 546-563; July
15, 1919.
[331 L. W. Austin, "Seasonal variations in the strength of radiotelegraphic signals," PROC. IRE vol. 3, pp. 103-105; June, 1915.
[34] A. H. Taylor, "Diurnal and annual variations in overland radio
transmission," Phys. Rev., vol. 4, pp. 435-439; November, 1914.
[351 A. E. Kennelly, "The daylight effect in radio telegraphy,"
PROC. IRE, vol. 1, pt. 3, pp. 39-52; July, 1913.
[36] L. DeForest, "Recent developments in the work of the federal
telegraph company," PRoc. IRE, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 37-51; January, 1913. (See p. 42.)
[37] "A Honolulu station gets war dispatch from Nauen, Prussia,"
QST, vol. X, p. 23; February, 1916.