YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE

SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA

Abstract: Yakhsagana, a four hundered year old operatic form of indian tradition
al theatre, from karnataka, rich in colour, vibrance, myth, rhythm and drama, as
the name suggests is the dance of the celestials, Its repetoire is made up of sto
ries from the great epics of india the ramayana the mahabhatarata and the dashav
atara. All elements of theartre, dance drama and music used in this form are not
merely entertaining but also serve a higher purpose of community building, upli
fting and spiritually elevating. We aim to study yakshagana in this social frame
work. We look at three theorists of mordern theatre, and nd that charecteristics
that they admire most in theatre have their roots in, and closely parallel some
aspects of indian theatre.This paper is an attempt to observe these parallels in
Yakhagana. 1. Motivation and Overview We started out by studying the spiritual
signi cance of yakshagana, and its relevance in its social environment. We then st
umbled upon the notion that some modern theorists have worked hard to incorporat
e certain principles in their ideal of theatre and that Yakshagana and other for
ms of indian theatre have had these elements in their structure for many hundred
s of years. In chapter 1 we plan to outline the elements in Yakshagana stressing
more on its purpose, origins and its social context rather than on the actual p
erformance or its reportoire. In Chapter 2, we will sketch in simple terms the i
deas that three great theorists of modern theatre (Brecht, Artaud and Grotowski)
, have tried to infuse into their representation of modern theatre. In Chapter 3
, we aim to see aspects in Yakshagana that echo the ideas of these modern theori
sts. In Chapter 4 we conclude that Yakshagana as a form of theatre has had the e
lements that modern theorits admired for many hundereds of years before them. By
studying Yakshagana in the light of these modern theories we hope to bring out
the timelessness of the art and to explain to those unfamiliar to this art form
the comparable elements in modern theatre. 2. Yakshagana: A brief introduction 2
.1. Origins. The Bhagavad Gita explains that liberation or salvation may take th
e form of action, knowledge and devotion, giving the highest place to devotion.
The vaishanvite Bhakthi movement is related directly to this devotional way to l
iberation . Vishnus manifestations as Rama and Krishna are the most popular and h
ave inspired a vast treasury of mythical and puranic stories. These stories form
ed the primary impulse in the creation
Date: February 2009.
1

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SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA
of drama and traditional theatre in india.. Yakshagana performances are based on
stories from the great epics Ramayana and Mahahbarata, popular themes from the
puranas dealing with the ten incarnations of Vishnu, the Dashavatara. Thats is w
hy it is also called Dashavatara atta, or simply Bayalata (opera in the feilds). I
n north Karnataka it is Doddatta, in old Mysore it is Moodalapaya, and in the co
astal districts it is called Yakshagana. I Yakshaganas origins can be traced to t
he Sanskrit plays of the 4th century AD. In the rural parts of karnataka, Jakkin
i is a local diety. Dr Shivram Karanth says that the word Jakkini in Kannada mea
ns Yakshini. And this may be the reason for the form to be called Yakshagana. Sh
ri K. S. Upadhyaya, suggests that Yakshagana is representative of the great cult
ural traditions of Karnataka, particularly in the areas from Udupi to Gokarna. H
e says that it draws its inspiration from pre-historic, ritualistic dances used
in the worship of Naga, the snake god. The graceful and serpentine patterns that
Yakshagana dancers make, apparently resemble the nagamandala. We will now brei y
introduce the salient aspects of Yakshagana, including its music and its theme,
and its space and content. 2.2. The stage as a performance space. In a typical s
tage performance, the stage is a simple mud platform lit by hand held burning to
rches, or petromax lamps. It is a nuetral space, easily manipulated by the actor
capable of portraying a multiplicity of locales and simultainity of action. The
stage is sancti ed with water before a performance. Women were never allowed to e
nter the stage. The sanctity on stage would be lost then. Men dressed as women w
henever neccessry and the womens role was usually only to serve as a distraction
and as a light change of interest from the heavy puranic themes. The audience is
seated around the stage, that has no walls for props or decorations, except for
the actors themselves. The actor is the focus. He stands on the bare stage and
creates the vivid scenes with his dynamic presence. This very complex and multip
le interaction between performance space, its environment, the spectators and pe
rformers is a fascinating aspect of Yakshagana performances. Today it has also m
oved to the proscenium stage and performed in the cities and overseas, for from
the land of its origin. Lighting techniques have been modernised and in such sit
uations the ethereal e ect of the mud stage is lost. These new spaces change the a
esthetics of reception of a performance and mar the intimate relationship betwee
n the actor and spectator, and reduce the dramatic impact. Indian traditional th
eatre was designed to be seen from all sides, just as sculpture on the temple wa
lls can only be appreciated by making a parikrama (cicumambulation). The simple,
mikeless, minimally lit stage possibly de ned the costume and the elaborate movem
ent. such that they may be seen from a distance. The dim light adding to the mag
ical aura of the puranic charaters that were portrayed. 2.3. Costume and makeup
and role type. In Yakshagana, the role type determines the costume make up, the
headgear, the entrance and the exit. These elements are highly codifeied and con
sidered sacred so much so that performers and their roles are sometimes passed f
rom father to son. The characters are made to look larger than life since they h
ave to be seen from a distance. Hence the costume is elaborate, with a layer of
checquered fabric and and a skirt

YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE

3
like frilly layer over that. The shirts vary in colour depending on the role, nis
hing with very large gilted gold ornaments made of wood. They wear elaborate hea
d gear,(see appendix 1 for the various headgear) heavy make up exaggerating thei
r eyes (sometimes drawn over the eyebrows), and wear bushy large moustaches. (se
e cover picture).Their gtittering costumes and elaborate head gear add to their
larger than life portrayal of mythical characters. Their costumes and headgear b
ecome part of the actors persona rather than being an addtional decoration or pr
op. The scenic e ect is enhanced only by the actors codi ed gait, acting, and symbol
ic hand gestures. The costume and the dramatic entry are important factors in es
tablishing the role right at the onset. All objects used in the drama are consid
ered objects of worship, and thus treated with reverence. All performances begin
with a puja to Lord Ganesha, the remover of obstacles. Interestingly a puja is
performed wit the headgear as a symbol of god. Also there is an elaborate ritual
before the performer dons his headgear. Even after he puts on the headgear, he
does not enter the character completely. Instead he keeps a distance and is fuly
aware of his audience he will please. The actors keep the audience informed of
their plans and some speeches are directly addressed to the audience. 2.4. The p
erformer and the performance text. That brings us to the most important aspect o
f a yakshagana performance, the actor himself. Considering the fact that perform
ances run through the night he must rst of all be t, disciplined and focussed. Sec
ond he must be a dancer, a singer, and an evocative narrator, who can throw his
voice and reach the audience. Lastly he must be well versed in the study of pura
nas and their characters in the context of the story. As part of the training th
e performer learns the role, the dance, the music, and the epic stories, since i
ts the dramatic text and the actor who carry the burden of describing the settin
g, in the absence of rehearsed speeches and dialogue. With a need for such all r
ounded involvement it is no surprise that artists were born into their roles. Ap
parently there were families designated with the performance of a certain role.
Generations of performers learned to live and breathe the role that they would p
erform. And just as we venerate lm heroes, Yakshagana artists were hero worshippe
d and people thronged to see the role of their favourite epic hero (such as Rama
) performed by a particular artist. As for any work of art, to mark out the boun
daries between the world of representation and the real world, requires a frame
or a performance text. In Yakshagana the dramatic text is not merely words but i
ncorporates gestures, movements, music etc. As part of the training, the Yakshag
ana performer learns role, and absorbs music, dance, and gestures along with the
words in the text. 2.5. Time space and context. In the month of February when t
he harvest is done and the larder full, it is time for giving thanks and a time
for Yakshagana too. This form was always presented as a ritual thanksgiving and
as an o ering to God, and sometimes as a vow and sacri ce too. It was part of a larg
er environment and community life outside the performance space, always celebrat
ing the seasons, festivals, fairs and other community events, thereby embedded i
n a strong socio-cultural context.

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SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA
While it was entertaining it ws also a retelling of stories from the epics. A ki
nd of discourse on morality, virtue, heroism and the inevitable triumph of good
over evil. There were the heroes, the villains, demi-gods and kings, all in blac
k and white, either good or evil. Fascinating stories were woven around these ch
aracters, with each character entering with a distinctively elaborate introducti
on. Yakshagana, in dealing with the myths and legends, mixed the a airs of gods an
d heroes by puting the action in double time order, both divine and human as wel
l as mythical and historical. The pancha pandavas as heroes and their problems,
were portrayed with Krishna at the helm of a airs. In performances, lapse of time
was dealt with by using simple devices and conventions. The narrator, or the bha
gavatha announced the time and space of action. Entry songs and the half curatin
solves the problem of time and space in a metaphysical way. The half curtain is
an important part of all traditional theatre and can be a subject for a doctora
l thesis in its depth and variety. It is usually a six feet by eight feet piece
of rectangular cloth, which in modern times also carries the name of the troupe.
It is used in many ways. First it helps to create anticipation and expectancy a
s in the visual treat of veiwing a decorated diety in a temple, when revealed fr
om behind a curtain, when the performer is revealed bit by bit. It is charged wi
th religious spirit, and thus acquires the character of a symbol. Second it help
s to connect di erent time and space sequences, including human and divine time. Y
akshagana makes a most spectacular use of the half-curtain in manipulating a gro
up entrance, as of the Pandava heroes, making a powerful visual impact upon the
spectator. The half-curtain is held vertically about one foot above the ground.
When the actordancers perform the rst part of the introductory dance, they dramat
ically move the curtain forward. Finally the most important aspect of the curtai
n is that it serves to loosen the performance structure. Its usually held by two
vidhuskas, or comedians, and their frequent informal entry and exit a ects the pe
rformance structure in interesting ways. They perform out -of -frame activities
and comic interludes which help loosen the structure of the play. 2.6. Music, mo
ods(rasa) and movement and choreography. Shri Sarangadeva (13th century AD), in
his Sangeetha Rathnakara, describes a metre called rahadi, similar to the ragale
in Kannada. The blank verse of western wrtiting is similar to this metre. This
metre lends itself well to bring out the veera rasa, (emotions of valour). Its s
tructure lends itself to powerful delivery and easy assimilation of the text. Th
ese days in addition to this metre others like bhamini, vardhaakya, Kanda, vritt
a, dvipadi and shatpadi are used. Since the themes were of valour, victory, hero
ism and sacri ce, the veera rasa was the dominant sentiment. Thus movement and foo
twork were in keeping with this mood : fast paced, energetic with pirruoettes an
d jumps. A characteristic Yakshagana jump requires the actor to heave himself hi
gh up in the air both feet o the ground. The percussion instruments are the chand
e and the maddale. While the latter is similar to the mridanga, the former is no
t. Its sounds are very distinctive and characteristic of Yakshagana. This instru
ment lends itself very well to presentations of con ict, terror and war. Dance is

YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE

5
central to the entire dramatic enactment. Though much of the act is spontaneous,
there are elaborately choreographed passages of varying length , used to punctu
ate, highlight, or conclude a dramatic movement. Group choregraphy is used for e
nacting high points of action, speci cally battle scenes. The story does not rush
to a climax, instead it meanders along allowing the spectators to savour the sen
timent(rasa) that the scene evokes. The lyrics in songs are inspired by the rich
peotry of Kumara Vyasa, Kumara Valmiki and other 17th century poets. Devidaa, P
arthi Subba, Venkata, and Rama Bhatta are some of the folk writers who have comp
osed prasangas. The lyrics are set to ragas that are very typical and suited to
the themes in Yakshagana. With this brief introduction to Yakshagana, we will no
w proceed to introduce modern theatre and its theorists. 3. Modern Theatre Theor
y We choose three of most perceptive and creative theatre theorists of western t
heatre and look at the elements that they admired most in theatre. Each of them
have di erent approaches to the theatre experience. The rst speaks of technique whi
le the second looks to the spiritual aspects in the performance and the third em
phasizes the excellence of the artist himself. 3.1. Bertolt Brecht (18981956). w
as a German poet, playwright, and a very renowned theatre director of the twenti
eth century. Some of his principles have been in uenced by Chinese theatre. First,
let us look at his most celebrated principle, the alienation e ect (Verfremdungse
ffekt in German) which he uses in his epic theatre. Here the audience is always aw
are that it is watching a play. Epic theatre was a reaction against other popula
r forms of theatre, particularly the naturalistic approach pioneered by Constant
in Stanislavski. He wished to keep the audience from empathising deeply or engag
ing their rational faculties. He believed that this detachment was neccessary fo
r catharsis. Brecht used comedy as a tool to alienate the audience. Actors are r
equired to perform believably but not become the characters they portray. Actors
frequently address the audience directly out of character (breaking the fourth w
all) and play multiple roles. Brecht allowed his characters freedom, and tried to
develop a style of acting wherein it was evident that the characters were choos
ing one action over another. This he called xing the Not / But element. Second, He
believed that action of a play was a justi cation of the characters rather than a
revelation of it. Basic characters do not unfold but are established at the onse
t. Third, he wanted his plays to be a potential for social movement through thei
r didactic moralising. Fourth, the Relaxed Audience is how Brecht referred to the
audience he wished the epic theatre to attract. Brecht often spoke of what he te
rmed a smokers theatre, where spectators would pu on cigars, and relax, whilst wa
tching a performance. They are there to be entertained and interested in what th
ey see and therefore are able to think. Fifth, he advised treating each element
of a play independently, music, dance, story etc., and was heavily in uenced by mu
sicals and fairground performers, putting music and song in his plays.

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SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA
3.2. Antonin Artaud(1895-1948). Antoine Marie Joseph Artaud, better known as Ant
onin Artaud was a French playwright, poet, actor and theatre director. Artaud dr
ew his inspiration from Balinese theatre, which he apparently never saw in its o
riginal environment. Much of the Wests fascination with rituals in theatre can be
directly attributed to him. His principles are rooted in a fundamental revolt a
gainst an insincerity in literature, where the written word corresponds to an at
titude or prejudice. His most cherished dream was to found a new kind of theatre
in French which would be, not an artistic spectacle, but a communion between sp
ectators and actors. He asks us, just as primitive men did, to look beyond the r
ituals and see the world as a result of mysterious and awesome forces. Thus it w
ould be a theatre of magic, a mass participation in which the entire culture wou
ld nd its vitality and its truest expression. Artauds greatest activity in the the
ater fell approximately between the years 1930 and 1935, when he proposed what h
e called the Theatre of cruelty. A true play, according to Artauds concept, will
disturb the spectators tranquillity of mind and his senses, and it will liberate
his subconscious. Aristotle apparently emphasized especially this ethical power
of the theater, in his time. The purpose of a play, he believed was to reveal th
e presence of extraordinary forces in man. The actor becomes a kind of magician,
a holy man, in a sense, because he calls to life themes that are not purely hum
an. He sought through his art to go far beyond human understanding and in an att
empt to reach a metaphysical truth. Toward the end of his career he was dissapoi
nted that his conception of ritual had diluted to patterned actions worn smooth b
y repetitions and was devoid of emotion. His frustration is evident in this quote
. The question we must now ask is whether in this slippery world which is committ
ing suicide without noticing it, there can be found a nucleus of men capable of
imposing this superior notion of theatre, men who will restore all of us to the
natural and magical equivalent of the dogmas we no longer believe (Artaud 1958).
3.3. Jerzy Grotowski (1933 -1999). was a Polish theatre director and innovator o
f experimental theater, and the theatre laboratory and poor theatre concepts. His th
eatre was famous for its numerous productions, signi cantly the Orpheus by Jean Coct
eau, Shakuntala based on the text by Kalidasa. He was the only one who had visited
india and has acknowledged using actor training methods used in the training of
kathakali performers. Towards a Poor Theatre (1968) written by Grotowski, is an
expression of his ideas. Here he says that theatre should not, because it could
not, compete against the overwhelming spectacle of lm and should instead focus o
n the very root of the act of theatre: actors in front of spectators. He maintai
ned that the actor needs to call on every aspect of himself. His eyes, ears, hea
rt and senses. Acting for him is a lifes work. He therefore created what was call
ed the theatre laboratory, where actors were trained for mastery. He believed th
at by constant exposure to the role, the actor acquires technical mastery over h
is physical and psychic self and allow all barriers to drop, and thereby permit
a role to penetrate him. Theatre - through the actors technique, his art in which th
e living organism strives for higher motives - provides an opportunity for what
could be called integration, the

YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE

7
discarding of masks, the revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical
and mental reactions. This opportunity must be treated in a disciplined manner,
with a full awareness of the responsibilities it involves. Here we can see the
theatres therapeutic function for people in our present day civilization. He talks
of a very nancially deprived Polish theatre, which he sought to make rich by his
concept of holy actors. To him the personal and scenic technique of the actor is i
n the core of theatre art (Grotowski 1969). It is the actor, who, in the absence
of gadgets and technology, through his committment and training makes an impact
on the audience. He believed that actors o er their performance as a ceremony, to
lay bare what lies in every man and that which is hidden in every day life. Grot
owski carries his theory for enough as to make poverty an ideal; his actors had
to give up everything except the their bodies as instruments and limitless time
available to them . To him theatre was holy because its purpose was holy and has
a clearly de ned place in the community.
4. Yakshagana and Modern Theatre We will now go on to examine The traditional da
nce theatre form of Yakshagagna in the light of the ideas used by modern theoris
ts. (1) Brechts description of the epic theatre closely and unmistakably resembl
es the Indian traditional theatre. In Yakshagana we nd that all aspects of theatr
e are present: music, dance, drama, abhinaya, (all four forms of ahinaya, angika
, vachika, aharya and sattvika abhinaya) and distinctively stylised footwork. Ea
ch of this has its own place in a performance structure and therefore a coordina
ted rehearsal is not needed when the actor is pro cient in all aspects of theatre.
Actors are introduced with distinct entries right at the onset of the play. Mus
ical instruments, and the singer are all visible on stage as part of the perform
ance. Their presence also helps to destroy the illusion of reality. (2) In Yaksh
agana the actor and the character are two poles of duality. This has been a subj
ect of study, admiration and theoretical investigation. Brechts concept of aliena
tion seems to relate to this duality. The actor dons his makeup and headgear and
enters and exits in a stylised way. He plays the part of the character but stays
away from the reality of it. He sings, dances, mimes and delivers dialogues, kn
owing well that he is performing the role of the character he is portraying. He
sometimes talks to the audience telling them of the plans and the course the nar
rative would take. During a performance, It is common to see the artist seat him
self on the stool on stage and relax, stretch a little, adjust his head gear, an
d seem very casual in a formal stage setting. He disengages himself and when he
returns to the acting arena he engages in action again. This is an essential com
ponent of theatre that traditionally is performed for several hours through the
night. It gives the actor and the audience a chance to be removed from the inten
sity of the performance. It is a de-linking of the actor- role relationship, tha
t Brecht seeks to employ in his theatre.

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SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA
(3) The spectator as you will notice in any Yakshagana performance walks around,
chats a little bit, spawls on the ground and takes a little nap and wakes up re
ady for his favourite act. He is not compelled to to applaud or focus or engage
himself, instead it is a wholesome participaton in the event. It is a relaxed un
folding of action where good triumphs over evil. The events on stage carries the
audience away from their daily problems, relaxes the mind and in turn helps to
solve issues of the real world. All this is done in a seamlessly unpretentious w
ay. This relates to the relaxed audience that Brecht admired. (4) The vidhushak o
r the kodangi in Yakshagana is also an important charater in the unfolding of th
e epic. He is not merely a bu oon. His role involves a keen sense of timing and a
quick mind. It is he who holds the social fabric of the audience together. He ke
eps the audience distracted and at once aware of the distinction betwen stage an
d reality. Firstly, his comic intrerludes bring the spectator away from the real
ity of the stage. Second he serves as an agent for social change, with his satti
rical monologues usually in the contemporary dialect, peppered with the latest j
argon. This is the third of Brechts principles that we mentioned earlier, where
Brecht saw theatre as a potential for social comment. (5) Yakshgana is primarily a
form of devotional theatre, and it arouses in the performer and in the spectato
r a sense of spiritual submission and peace. The actors play their part but are
always aware that they are not its lords. In fact they o er puja to Ganesha in all h
umulity, as also to the crown or headgear before each performance. It is the evi
dence of a humble submission to their art. This submission to an idea or act tha
t is performed, is at the core of these performances, and at this core lies Artu
ads goals for his theatre. He wants his audience to have the same acute sharpness
of feeling that primitive man experienced stripped of logic and cause and relat
ionship. He wanted theatre to shift its focus from the human psyche to the cosmic
form in the universe Ironically what Artuad refers to as primitive is in the easte
rn philosophy (be it Zen, Hindu, Buddhist or Jain) admired as exalted capacity o
f the human mind to willingly submit itself to the awesome forces of the supreme
. It is in allowing ourselves to soak in the rasa of the play and revisit anothe
r time and place that we are rejuvenated and ready for our daily existence. Artu
ads theory speaks to the spirit and it is indeed into that sprirtual world that Y
akshagana takes us. (6) Yakshagana as with other forms of indian theatre is a wa
y of life. Actors are born into theatre, and start training from a very young ag
e. Training and experience were gained hand in hand on the various aspects of th
e theatre form. Formal teaching is limited to footwork and study of the speci c en
tries for each character. All else is imbibed. This, Growtoski called role penet
ration and, was one of the key components of his theatre laboratory. Music, lite
rature, makeup, and a thorough knowledge of the epics was considered a must. Bef
ore his rst performance the actor is expected to have learned about 300 prasangas
or acts. Grotowskis concept of poor theatre being enriched by the actors excelle
nce is another aspect so evident in yakshagana performances. Here actors became
famous for the roles they played

YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE

9
and the richness they brought to their character, with no support from stage dec
or or props. They were revered and venerated for their ability to transport thei
r audiences to a di erent time. Their costumes and their gait and gestures were th
e core of their imposing persona.
5. Conclusion We are poised at a time in the evolution of man, when we can choos
e to either be scienti c, pragmatic and seek empirical eveidence to all our theori
es on the one hand, and on the other, relax let-go and allow ourselves to be car
ried away into a world, whose mystery is not yet evident to the comman man, but
that which our ancestors realised and therefore created avenues for their expres
sion. All forms of art have their roots in this realisation. We do not seek to p
romote Yakshagana. It has survived as an art form for over four centuries and wi
ll continue to in uence and be in uenced for centuries to come. As long as human bei
ngs seek salvation and a higher awakening our tradtional theatre forms will exis
t. As we have just seen modern man too yearns for elements in theatre that will
connect him to a higher force. Hence our e orts towards Yakshagana, are not as a f
avour to the art form but as a favour to ourselves, towards absorbing as much as
we can in our lifetime for our own sake. Our aim is more sel sh than altruistic.
In a fast paced world with globalising forces at work, our identity slowly melts
away as we become global citizens. And as global citizens whether modern man or
enlightened ancestors, we all seek salvation through art. On the one hand, It i
s interesting for our younger generation to understand the relevance of these th
eatrical elements in todays theatre too. While on the other it is important to s
avour our forms if only for a sense of identity and purpose. It brings to light
the timelessness and open endedness of our traditional form. As social beings we
must discover the joy in a collective sharing of stories and legends that are u
niquely our own, and nd new ways of framing and rescripting the underlying ritual
. That said we would like to conclude with a quote by Peter Brook, Theatre is an
instance of people getting together with a common or shared purpose. It is not
dissimilar in srtucture to going to church.....(it) is not an isolated cultural
structure but lies in the continuum of related human activity which includes som
e recognizable structure with people participating as doers and observers. Bibliograp
hy. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Performance Tradition: Aesthetics and Practice, by Sures
h Awasthi Performance Tradition and Modern Theatre by Suresh Awasthi The Empty S
pace, Peter Brook, 1968. Dionysus in Paris, Wallace Fowlie, Meridian Books, Inc.
, New York, 1960 Yakshagana bayalatta...K S Upadhyaya, in Lesser known forms of
performing arts in India, ed. Durgadass Mukhopadhyay. (6) The Dramatic Touch of
Di erence: Theatre, Own and Foreign, Edited by Erika Fischer-Lichte, Josephine Ril
ey, Micheal Gisenwehrer.

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SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA
(7) Social reality in south asian Theatre - Ataur Rehman. Article abridged from
seminar The idioms of South Asian Theatre. (8) Indian Theatre - Traditions of Perf
ormance.