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Contents
1.1 SDOF systems and their rationale
1.2 Motion of SDOF systems after initial disturbance
1.2.1 Undamped systems
1.2.2 Damped systems
1.3 Analysis of forced response of SDOF systems
1.3.1 Definition of a dynamic force
1.3.2 Types of dynamic force
1.3.3 Motion of SDOF systems under harmonic loading
1.3.3.1 Undamped system
1.3.3.2 Damped system
1.3.4 Visualising using rotating vectors
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
x (t )
displacement x
1
k
-1
Energy
1
PE
KE
PE+KE
0.5
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
time /seconds
0.7
0.8
0.9
1 2
U spring ( t ) = kx ( t ) ,
2
1-6
1
T ( t ) = mx 2 ( t ) .
2
x (t )
mx( t )
x+ (t )
fk
m
1-8
f = mx
kx ( t ) = mx( t )
or
kx ( t ) mx( t ) = 0
1-9
fI (t ) + fs (t ) = 0
(7)
mx ( t ) kx ( t ) = 0
or
(8)
mx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = 0
x ( t ) = A sin( n t + )
1-10
(10)
x ( t ) = n A cos ( n t + ) ,
and
(11)
x ( t ) = n2 A sin( n t + )
m n2 A sin ( n t + ) = kA sin ( n t + )
Since the sine function is not necessarily zero and we are not interested in
zero amplitude (A=0) this equation can only be satisfied only if:
(13)
n2 =
k
.
m
time for the cycle to repeat itself is the (natural) period , which is related to
n by:
(14)
2 rad 2
s
T=
=
n rad/s n
1 n
[Hz],
fn = =
T 2
which indicates how many cycles of vibration are made per second.
To describe motion fully, it is necessary to find the two constants A and .
(Two constants are necessary because of the second order ordinary
differential equation). These constants can found from initial conditions
x ( 0 ) = x0 and x ( 0 ) = x0 v0 using equations (16) and (17):
(18)
x ( 0 ) = x0 = A sin
and
1-12
(19)
x ( 0 ) = v0 = n A cos
v 02 = n2 A2 cos 2
(20)
n2 x02 + v02
A=
n
(21)
and
n x0
= tan
,
v0
1
n2 x02 + v02
1 n x0
sin n t + tan
(22) x ( t ) =
n
v
0 .
This solution is shown in Figure 6 and indicates that the vibration does not
diminish with time passing.
1-13
Figure 6: Summary
of description of
simple harmonic
motion
1-14
A=_______m
Peak velocity:
V=_______m/s
A=_______m
Peak velocity:
V=_______m/s
1-15
A=_______m
Peak velocity:
V=_______m/s
A= x +
2
0
vo2
2
n
Hence the term cx ( t ) is added to LHS of the equation of motion (8) so that:
(24)
mx ( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = 0 ,
The damping force will acts to dissipate energy by opposing motion (like
friction) so that any oscillations will die out or decay, provided that c is a
positive constant having units [N/s].
The cx ( t ) term represents a damping force fC ( t ) which acts in the
direction opposite of the direction of mass motion (velocity).
1-17
In other words, the force acts in the same direction as the stiffness and
inertia forces, as shown in Figure 7, and helps establish the following
equilibrium of all dynamic forces acting on the mass:
f I ( t ) + fc ( t ) + fk ( t ) = 0
(25)
x (t )
mx( t )
x+ (t )
k
c
fk
m
fc
The solution of the differential equation for the undamped case was found
assuming that the response should be harmonic. In the same way, the
general solution for a second order differential equation is taken to be:
x ( t ) = ae t ,
(26)
( m
+ c + k ) ae t = 0 .
m 2 + c + k = 0 ,
(29)
1,2 =
c
1
c 2 4km .
m 2m
ccr = 2m n = 2 km ,
c
.
ccr
Considering this new notation, and after dividing equation (24) by m , the
equation of motion can be re-written as:
(32)
x ( t ) + 2 n x ( t ) + n2 x ( t ) = 0 ,
which clearly shows how natural frequency n and damping ratio come
into the calculations of response.
1-20
In this case c 2 4km < 0 , so c < ccr i.e. < 1 and the solutions 1 and 2
are:
(33)
1 = n j n 1 2
and
(34)
2 = n + j n 1 2
where j = 1 .
Therefore, there are two solutions of Equation (32):
x1 ( t ) = a1e 1t and x2 ( t ) = a2 e 2t . The sum of the two solutions is also a
solution, so the overall solution is of the following form:
(35)
x ( t ) = a1e
n j n 1 2 t
+ a2 e
n + j n 1 2 t
or
1-21
(36)
x (t ) = e
(a e
1
j n 1 2 t
+ a2 e
+ j n 1 2 t
),
(37)
and
e j = cos j sin ,
(38)
x ( t ) = Ae nt sin ( d t + )
A=
( v0 + n x0 )
d2
+ ( x0 d )
1-22
and
(41)
x0 d
= tan
v
x
n 0
0
1
1-23
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
1-24
stiffness: k = ( 2 f n ) m =1,621N/m
2
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
Conclusion from Exercise 1-2: damping has little influence on initial peak
displacement values.
1-25
In this case:
(42)
x (t ) = e
n t
(a e
1
n 2 1t
+ a2 e
+ n 2 1t
x ( t ) = ( a1 + a2 t ) e nt .
From the form of Equation (43) it is clear that there is no oscillation (no sin
or cos terms). Similarly as before, constants a1 and a2 are determined from
initial conditions as, a1 = x0 , and a2 = v0 + n x0 , so the final solution for
critically damped system is:
(44)
x ( t ) = [ x0 + ( v0 + n x0 )t ] e nt .
1-27
Figure 10: Response of a critically damped system for three different initial
velocities. The system properties are: k = 225N/m , m = 100kg and = 1.
Critical damping ccr can be understood in a number of ways:
1. it is the smallest value of damping that yields aperiodic motion (i.e.
removes oscillation as dynamic response of the system)
2. it can be shown (not shown here) that critical damping provides the
fastest return to zero without oscillation.
1-28
If the force variation is much slower than the natural oscillations, then the
oscillator behaves like a spring (governed by f=kx) in which case it is
stiffness-dominated and may be analysed by static analysis. A usual cutoff is r < 1/ 3.
Likewise if the force variation is much faster than the natural oscillations,
then the oscillator behaves like a mass, governed by f=ma.
1-29
1.
2.
periodic
3.
transient
4.
random
There are specific techniques best suited for each type of force.
1.3.3 Equation of motion for forced response of SDOF system
Figure 11 shows the damped SDOF oscillator with applied external force.
mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = f ( t )
1-30
x (t )
mx( t )
x+ (t )
k
c
fk
m
fc
f
Figure 11 Damped SDOF oscillator with external forcing f(t)
The following figures give examples of forcing functions.
1-31
ch 1 (N)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
5
seconds
1-32
ch 1 (N)
1000
800
600
400
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
1000
500
0
-500
10
12
seconds
14
16
18
20
1-33
1
0.5
Input
(ground movement)
-0.5
-1
Response
ch 3 (mm/sec )
(building sway)
-5
500
550
600
650
700
750
seconds
800
850
900
950
1-34
ch 1 (N)
2
0
-2
-4
ch 4 (mm/sec2)
10
5
0
-5
-10
0
10
15
20
seconds
1-35
Under harmonic loading equation the forcing function for equation (46) is
f ( t ) = F0 cos (t ) where F0 is the amplitude and is the frequency in
radians per second.
The equation of motion is:
(47)
mx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = F0 cos ( t )
x ( t ) + n2 x ( t ) = f 0 cos ( t ) ,
where f 0 = F0 / m .
Differential equation (48) is linear and non-homogenous, which means that
its solution is a sum of homogenous and particular solutions:
(49)
x ( t ) = xh ( t ) + x p ( t )
1-37
xh ( t ) = A1 sin ( n t ) + A2 cos ( n t )
f0
x p (t ) = 2
cos ( t )
2
( n )
1-38
x ( t ) = A1 sin ( n t ) + A2 cos ( n t )
(52)
f0
+ 2
cos ( t )
2
( n )
Finally, initial conditions are used to calculate A1 and A2 , so that the total
solution is of the form:
f0
x (t ) =
sin ( n t ) + x0 2
cos ( n t )
2
n
n
(53)
f0
cos ( t )
+ 2
2
n
v0
Two very important phenomena occur when the driving frequency becomes
close to the systems natural frequency: beating and resonance. This is
illustrated in the following exercise.
1-39
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos ( t ) , F0 = 100kN
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
1-40
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos ( t ) , F0 = 100kN
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
Peak displacement:
A=_______m
1-41
v0
sin ( t ) + x0 cos ( t ) +
f0
t sin ( t ) ,
2
as shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that the response grows without
bound and this phenomenon is known as resonance.
1-42
1-43
or
(56)
x ( t ) + 2 n x ( t ) + n2 x ( t ) = f 0 cos ( t ) ,
X=
f0
2
n
2 ) + ( 2 n )
,
1-44
(59)
2 n
= tan 2
2
1-45
c X
kX
F0
at angles
+ t
2 + t
t .
1-46
cX
F0
kX
F0 cos (t )
in phase
m 2 X cos (t )
c X sin (t )
kX cos (t )
( k m ) + ( c )
2 2
c
and = tan
2
k
m
Dividing left and right or top and bottom by m leads to equations (58) and
(59).
From Figure 13 can be seen that the mass ( m 2 X ) and stiffness ( kX )
terms of equation (55) are similar in magnitude and opposite in sign and
both larger than the damping (c X ) and forcing ( F0 ) terms. The phase
angle is approximately 4 i.e. the response lags the forcing by about
45.
1-48
System:
k = (2 f n ) 2 m = 5200000N/m
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos ( t ) , F0 = 100kN
Case 1: Non-resonant forcing, Low-damping ( = 1% )
f = 9Hz leading to = 56.55rad / sec . Use T=10 seconds.
A=_______m
A=_______m
1-50
x p ( t ) = X cos ( t )
1-51
X n2
X
=
=
(62)
f0
F0
k
(1 r
2 2
+ ( 2 r )
and
(63)
2 r
,
2
1 r
= tan 1
r=
n
The nature of resonance and the phase angles can be seen by revisiting
Figure 13 for the resonant condition with = 2 .
The mass and stiffness terms are exactly equal and opposite. The forcing
term is also equal and opposite to the damping term. In fact at resonance
the driving force is acting only against the damping; the mass and stiffness
forces are perfectly balanced.
quadrature
m 2 X
cX
F0
t
= 2
kX
in phase
1-53
2.
3.
At resonance the force and response is 900 behind the force and
Figure 15 shows that for a given (constant) displacement, this
leads to the smallest value of driving force.
4.
5.
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; f ( t ) = F0 cos ( t ) , F0 = 100kN
Case 1: Low-frequency excitation
With regard to the last observation, when r = 1 the dynamic response can
be calculated from Equation (62) as:
(65)
F0 1
X=
k 2
1-56
1-57
-5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
time/seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
6
200
4
0
2
-200
0
0
20
40
frequency/Hz
60
80
20
40
frequency/Hz
60
80
1-58
Use T=2sec. Examine the acceleration trace and note peak values each
time.
Sum of fundamental and second harmonic
Run using user .MAT and select file yh1p2.mat when prompted.
Compare with each of the two separate sinusoidal excitations.
1-59
me
c
x(t)
1-60
The equation of motion for the system shown in Figure 16 is derived from
equation (47) as
(66)
mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = Fr ( t )
The only difference from the solutions for harmonic excitation in section
1.3.4 is that the forcing function increases with frequency so that the
response is given by
x ( t ) = X cos (t )
1-61
where
(68)
mr
X= ee
m
r2
(1 r
2 2
+ ( 2 r )
with
2 r
.
2
1 r
= tan 1
1-62
1-63
Force
1/
2
1
0
0
time
0.2
Damped response, h ( t 2 )
1Hz, 1kg oscillator
0.1
displacement
Undamped response , h ( t 2 )
1Hz, 1kg oscillator
-0.1
-0.2
1-64
0
3
time
d
mx ( t ) ) = f ( t )
(
dt
(70)
m ( x ( t2 ) x ( t1 ) ) = f ( t ) dt .
t1
The integral on the RHS of Equation (70) is the magnitude of the impulse.
In the case of a short unit impulse applied on a SDOF system: t1 = 0 and
t2 = , so the velocity at time t2 = can be calculated as:
t2
(71)
x ( ) =
f ( t ) dt
t1
1
.
m
1-65
1 nt
x(t ) =
e
sin d t
md
1-66
1 n ( t )
x(t ) =
e
sin d ( t )
md
=_______m
=_______m/sec
x0 = 0; v0 = 0;
f(t)=0 until t=0, f(t)=100 until t=0.1;
=_______m
=_______m/sec
1-69
1-70
The figures below represent the same data; a random signal with time
interval 0.32 seconds. In the left plot the data points are joined by smooth
continuously varying curves. In the right plot the data points are taken to be
constant at the sample time and dt/2 either side.
300
200
200
100
100
10
-100
-200
-100
-200
0
10
data value
bar area
equivalent impulse
impulse response
10.2133
3.268
3.268 (0)
3.268h ( t )
0.32
11.0500
3.536
3.536 (0.32)
3.536h ( t 0.32 )
0.64
-12.2728
-3.927
-3.927 (0.64)
-3.927h ( t 0.64 )
0.96
30.6986
9.824
9.824 (0.96)
9.824h ( t 0.96 )
1.28
-20.9759
-6.712
-6.712 (1.28)
-6.712h ( t 1.28 )
1.60
51.0890
16.348
16.348 (1.60)
16.348h ( t 1.6 )
1.92
124.9847
39.995
39.995 (1.92)
39.995h ( t 1.92 )
2.24
42.5725
13.623
13.623 (2.24)
13.623h ( t 2.24 )
1-72
6
4
h(0)
h(0.32)
h(0.64)
h(0.96)
0
0
-2
h(1.28)
10
h(1.60)
h(1.92)
h(2.24)
-4
-6
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 0
10
-2
-3
-4
-5
1-73
Figure 21 shows the full response. Note that up to 2 seconds the result is
the same as for adding the impulse response functions.
random2
ch 1 (N)
500
-500
ch 2 (m)
20
-20
0
5
6
seconds
(74)
i =1
Finding the limit of this discrete sum as the number n of equal divisions t
( t = t n ) increases to infinity n ( t d )yields:
t
(75)
x ( t ) = f ( ) h ( t )d
0
1-75
Repeat the exercise for a different damping ratio and then for a different
frequency and then use a forcing function of your choice (e.g. square or
triangular wave).
1-76
Since d T = 2 the sine terms are identical and cancel as does A leaving:
(76)
x0
e nt0
= ( t +T ) = enT
x1 e n 0
x0
= ln = nT
x1
2n
t +iT
x (t )
xi
e n( 0 )
n mT
= ( t +iT +mT ) = e
ln
= mnT = m
n 0
xi +m e
x ( t = mT )
1-79
=1.6196Hz , =0.56911%
0.4
0.3
0.2
ch 6
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0
10
15
20
25
30
A0=_______m
A1=_______m
= ln ( A0 A1 ) _______
A2=_______m
= ln ( A1 A2 ) _______
1-81
1-82
xg ( t )
x (t )
mx( t )
x+ (t )
k
c
fk
m
fc
spring force
damping force
f c = k ( x g ( t ) x ( t ) ) ,
inertia force
f I = mx( t )
f I ( t ) + fc ( t ) + fk ( t ) = 0 .
mx + c ( x g x ) + k ( xg x ) = 0
Note: using f=ma directly exchanges mx on the left for + mx on the right.
It is the relative movement that gives rise to spring and damper forces,
hence we define relative displacement
(81)
xr = x xg
m (
xg
x ) + c ( x g x ) + k ( xg x ) = mxg
(83)
Equation (83) can be used for determining the relative response to any base
excitation after which the absolute response can be found by adding the
base response.
If we are interested in the internal stiffness and damping forces we can use
xr directly. Note that equation (83) is identical in form to equation(46):
(46)
mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = f ( t )
so all the methods described in section 1.3 for different forcing functions
can be applied. The one that interests us is harmonic base excitation.
1-85
m (
xg
x ) + c ( x g x ) + k ( xg x ) = mxg
or
(84)
xg ( t ) = X g cos (t ) .
Assume that the transient part has decayed leaving a harmonic response:
(86)
x ( t ) = X cos (t ) .
2c X
kX g
kX
in phase
2 2
( k m )
2 2
2c
1 c
- tan
.
+ c and = tan
2
k
k m
1
2 2
X
=
Xg
n2 + ( 2n )
(
2
n
2 2
+ ( 2n )
2n
1
tan
, tan 2
( 2n )
2
n
1
X
=
Xg
1 + ( 2 r )
(1 r ) + ( 2 r )
2
2 r
1
, tan 1
tan
2 r .
2
1 r
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; xg = 1.cos (t )
1.6 Transmissibility
x (t )
mx( t )
x+ (t )
k
c
fk
m
fc
mx( t ) + cx ( t ) + kx ( t ) = f ( t )
The force fT transmitted to the support is the sum of the damping and
stiffness forces i.e. fT = f c + f k .
The ratio is defined as transmissibility ratio T or TR:
(90)
fT ( t )
f c + f k cx ( t ) + kx ( t )
T=
=
=
f (t )
f (t )
f (t )
c X sin (t ) + kX cos (t )
.
1-91
Once again the ratio of two vector quantities is best found via the force
polygon:
quadrature
m 2 X
fT
F0
cX
kX
in phase
1-92
k + ( 2c )
T=
( k m ) + ( c )
2 2
n2 + ( 2n )
2
2
2
n
) + ( 2 )
2 2
1 + ( 2 r )
2 r
1
tan
2 r
, tan
T=
2
2
2
1 r
(1 r ) + ( 2 r )
1
1-93
x0 = 0; v0 = 0; xg = 1.cos (t )
1-94
1-95
1-96
1-98
1-99