Getting The Picture of Iconography1

Getting the Picture of
Iconography:
An innovative way to teach
English to young learners
Getting the Picture of

Iconography:
An innovative way to teach
English to young learners
Jennifer Alejandra Delgado, MA

Claudia Marcela Chapetn, PhD
Catalogacin en la fuente - Biblioteca Central de la Universidad Pedaggica Nacional.

Delgado, Jennifer Alejandra y Claudia Marcela Chapetn
Getting the picture of iconography an innovative way to teach English to young learners / Jennifer Alejandra
Delgado y Claudia Marcela Chapetn.
Germn Vargas Guilln y Vctor Eligio Espinosa Galn, editores.
Bogot : Editorial Aula de Humanidades, 2015.
184 p.: il (English Language Research and Pedagogy Series)
Incluye Referencias bibliogrficas.
Incluye 10 apndices.
ISBN: 978-958-58685-5-7 (versin rstico)
ISBN: 978-958-58685-6-4 (versin digital)
1. Iconografa Ingls. 2. Ingls Metodologa. 3. Ingls - Enseanza para Nios. 4. Ingls Enseanza Aprendizaje. 5. Mtodos de Enseanza Ingls. 6. Estrategias de Educacin - Ingls. 7. Planes
de Estudio Ingls. 8. Libros y Lectura para Nios. I. Chapetn, Claudia Marcela. II. Vargas Guilln,
Germn, editor. III. Espinosa Galn, Vctor Eligio, editor. IV. Tt.
372.6521 cd. 21 ed.
ISBN: 978-958-58685-5-7 (rstico)

ISBN: 978-958-58685-6-4 (digital)
Editorial Aula de Humanidades, S.A.S
Jennifer Alejandra Delgado, MA, Claudia Marcela Chapetn, PhD
English Language Research and Pedagogy Series
Editorial Aula de Humanidades
Dr. Germn Vargas Guilln
Director
Vctor Eligio Espinosa Galn
Editor
Mauricio Salamanca
Diseo y Diagramacin
Evaluacin acadmica y cientfica: Febrero 2015.
Hecho el depsito legal que ordena la Ley 44 de 1993 y su decreto reglamentario 460
de 1995
www.editorialhumanidades.com
We dedicate this book to our families for their love and

support during this fascinating research journey.
To Blanca, Jesus, Diego, and Dairo
Jennifer Alejandra
To Nino and Juan Miguel
Claudia Marcela
Contenido
Introduction ...............................................................................................11
Statement of the Problem ....................................................................... 13
Statement of Purpose.............................................................................. 15
Rationale ................................................................................................ 16
Theoretical Foundations .............................................................................19
Understanding Iconography .................................................................... 21
Early Literacy: A Visual Process and a Socially Situated Practice............... 29
English Language Teaching to Young Learners ......................................... 34
Researching Iconography in the EFL Pre-School Classroom ......................47
Type of study .......................................................................................... 47
The context of the research .................................................................... 49
Data Collection: Instruments and Procedures.......................................... 53
Procedures for Data Analysis................................................................... 60
Iconography as a semiotic literacy practice where icons and symbols are
used to convey meaning.............................................................................65
Icons and symbols as EFL meaningful images .......................................... 67
The combination of icons and symbols
as a communicative system ..................................................................... 71
Iconography as a socially situated semiotic practice................................. 75

The uses of Iconography in the EFL classroom: a socially situated semiotic
practice .................................................................................................. 78
The post-method as the pedagogical underpinning that guides the EFL
teaching practice based on Iconography ...................................................81
Pre-school as a particular context ............................................................ 82
Iconography as a fusion of personal and professional theories ................. 84
Experiences that shape the teaching practice .......................................... 88
Unveiling the EFL Teaching Practice in Pre-school ....................................91
Teaching techniques used in the classroom ............................................. 91
Principles involved in the teaching practice ........................................... 104
Procedures that encompass the whole practice ..................................... 117
Participants perceptions about the use of Iconography in pre-school ...123
Challenges faced by Iconography .......................................................... 123
Opportunities for Iconography .............................................................. 127
Synthesis and future directions ................................................................133
Conclusions .......................................................................................... 134
Implications of the study ....................................................................... 137
Limitations ............................................................................................ 139
Further research ................................................................................... 139
References ................................................................................................141
Appendices ...............................................................................................147
Appendix 1. Principals Consent Form ................................................. 147
Appendix 2. Students Consent Form .................................................. 149
Appendix 3. Teachers Consent Form ................................................... 150
Appendix 4. Parents Consent Form ...................................................... 151
Appendix 5. Field Notes Format ........................................................... 153
Appendix 6. Principals semi-structured interview ................................. 154
Appendix 7. Sample Teachers Interview .............................................. 155
Appendix 8. Cuestionario Padres De Familia ........................................ 156

Appendix 9. Students Questionnaire.................................................... 159
Appendix 10. Transcription Conventions .............................................. 163
List of graphs
Graph 1.
Graph 2.
Graph 3.
Graph 4.
Graph 5.
The relation of sign, icon, and symbol ........................................24

Visual understanding of sign, icon, symbol and image ................25
Icon and symbol comparison .....................................................71
Visual understanding of the pedagogic parameters of the postmethod ......................................................................................82
Procedures evidenced in the teaching practice. ........................118
List of tables
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9.
Table 10.
Table 11.
Table 12.
Table 13.
Definition of Teaching Concepts ................................................36

Principles presented by Larsen-Freeman (2000). ........................39
Participants of the study .............................................................51
Data collection matrix ................................................................53
Data collection plan ...................................................................60
Coding process ..........................................................................62
Categories resulting from the analysis .........................................62
Icon and symbol comparison .....................................................66
Degrees of Iconicity ...................................................................69
Teaching techniques used in pre-school .....................................92
Principles evidenced in the teaching practice ...........................105
Analysis of students questionnaire, Question #9 .....................124
Analysis of students questionnaire, Question #5 .....................129
List of figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
SCISSORS (T.E. S3) ...................................................................66

Pencil (T.E1. S13) .....................................................................66
In (T.W3. S10) ..........................................................................66
HOUSE (T.W3. S10) .................................................................67
TABLE (T.W3. T).......................................................................68
Apple (T.W. S5) ........................................................................69
House (T.W. S3) .......................................................................69
Hospital (T.W. S5) ....................................................................69
In (T.W. S10) ............................................................................69
On (K.A. T) ...............................................................................69
IS (T.E1. S4) ..............................................................................70
THE (T.E1. S4) ..........................................................................70
The pencil is on the table. (K.A. T) ............................................72
The cat is in the house. (T.W3. S6) ...........................................72
The apple is on the table. (T.W3. S11) ......................................73
Item from an exam (T.E. S15) ...................................................76
THIS (T.W3. T) .........................................................................76
THESE (T.E1. S13) ....................................................................76
The doctor is in the hospital. (T.W3. S5) ...................................77
Sammy: the EFL class pet..........................................................93
Handicraft of a face ..................................................................99
Handicraft of a dog.................................................................100
First period monthly achievement
test transition Item 1. .............................................................115
List of abbreviations
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ELT: English Language Teaching
MEN: Ministerio de Educacin Nacional, Colombia
10
Introduction
Teaching English to young children has been a great challenge for preschool teachers. Firstly, because people consider that teaching English
to young children involves taking care of them, sometimes assuming a
somehow mothering role. Secondly, there is a misleading perception that
children only learn simple language (Cameron, 2001). This situation has
led teachers and theorists to reflect upon teaching young learners and
the implications this practice has in the English as a Foreign Language
EFL classroom.
This situation is familiar to English language teachers at the private
Colombian School where this study took place. These EFL teachers
decided to change their practice by implementing a new way of teaching
English in the pre-school class. They started to think about the reality
they were living in the class and the difficulties their students were facing
when conventional English literacy was taught1. When one of the authors
of the present book assumed the position of the head of the English
Department in the school, she realized that the existence of this practice,
which for her was unknown, was particular for the context. Then, she
started asking to teachers and principal about it and, in informal talks,
1
The evidence gathered from the interviews will be presented and interpreted in the data analysis (See chapter
4).
11
Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn
she started to understand a little bit about how this practice was used.
However, when she asked about the documents where iconography was
supposed to be explained or characterized, the principal said that the
documents had been lost and thus, not existing. After some search, it was
found that the only document where Iconography was mentioned was
the School English Project:
La iconografa es el enfoque usado de prescolar a tercero, ya que permite al estudiante enunciar sus sentimientos e ideas a travs de iconos
(dibujos, imgenes) que posteriormente son expresados de forma oral.
Por otro lado, la iconografa respeta las etapas de desarrollo del estudiante, quien no ha terminado de adquirir los conocimientos de la lengua materna y debe adquirir, en este caso ingls. Por ende, este mtodo
ha permitido que el estudiante desarrolle las estrategias comunicativas
que el departamento de ingls busca que el estudiante cultive en esta
etapa (School English Project, 2006).
As can be seen, in the little information present in the document, there

is not a definition, not even a methodological or theoretical description
of Iconography. Also, as evidenced not only in the document but in her
experience in the school as a teacher and as the head of the English
Department, this practice is referred to as the Iconography approach.
With these issues in mind, the purpose of this research is to characterize
the way Iconography works, understand its pedagogical and theoretical
underpinnings, and find out if it is an approach or not. For this reason,
in the present book this innovation is referred to as Iconography.
In the present study, Iconography is described and characterized. This
is done with the purpose of providing feedback to the school community
in order to qualify Iconography as well as the teaching practice held
in pre-school in this particular context. A case study was carried out in
order to characterize this EFL teaching practice; the case study included
the use of class observations, interviews, questionnaires, and documents.
In order to conduct the present study, it was necessary to gain a deep
understanding on three concepts: semiotics, because Iconography has as
12
Getting the Picture of Iconography: An innovative way to teach English to young learners
its basis the use of icons (drawings), literacy, since it was used as part of
the English literacy process, and teaching English to young learners, due
to the fact that the population involved in the use of Iconography are
pre-school children.
Statement of the Problem

Teaching English to children has been a great challenge in the educational
system, as is shown by Rodriguez and Varela (2004) and Cameron
(2004) who are concerned with the English Language Teaching -ELT
practice with young learners. In the ELT history, there have been different
methods and approaches to teach English as a foreign language but, as
Garton, Copland and Burns (2011) claim, not all of them are focused
particularly on teaching young children (e.g. Communicative Approach,
Direct Method, Suggestopedia, etc.). For this reason, teachers have tried
to adapt the existent methods and approaches to young learners. Also
educational institutions, as the school where this study was conducted,
have implemented methods and approaches in the way they think best
fit the purpose they have. However, there is not a clear guideline for
teachers who are teaching the foreign language in pre-school; in fact, this
educational level is not included in the standard documents of the National
Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educacin Nacional -MEN, 2006).
As far as this school is concerned, teachers reflected upon the
circumstances they faced in their teaching practices in pre-school, such
as the confusion students had between English and Spanish literacy or
the problems students had learning both literacies at the same time.2
Thus, they created Iconography. From informal talks, it was discovered
that EFL teachers took the main theory about icon from the semiotics
perspective, and they created this new practice in order to teach English
to students at pre-school. Iconography was created with the main
purpose of allowing students to have the first language literacy process
without inserting the foreign language literacy process at the same time;
2
This issue is addressed deeper in chapter 4.
13
this means that with the use of Iconography students could achieve their
early Spanish literacy without the use of the English conventional literacy
at the same time. Another aim Iconography has is helping students to
achieve a successful English learning process without inserting the foreign
language into the academic subjects or following a complete bilingual
school model, where all the subject areas are taught in English.
With Iconography as an approach to teach English as a foreign
language, preschoolers have been developing the ability to communicate
their own thoughts and ideas through icons (images) and they can show
this in an oral way. Thus, Iconography consists of a view of literacy
different from the conventional one, in which students express their
ideas through icons instead of written words, but they still can produce
orally in the foreign language.
During the time Iconography has been applied, Iconography has
never been systematically observed or characterized by the institution,
the parents, or teachers. Besides, as previously discussed, there is only
a written document at school where Iconography is mentioned but
Iconography is not described or characterized in detail. In an informal
conversation with the principal, she said that the project got lost when
there was a change of principal five years ago; then, some teachers
created the new project for the English area but they included little
information about Iconography. Moreover, Iconography has been carried
out during six years and it has never been observed systematically, not
even characterized in a serious exercise of documentation. Here lies the
importance of characterizing it in the context where it is used.
On the other hand, there is just one expert teacher in the use of
Iconography at school. In spite of her efforts to train the new teachers
in the use of this innovative practice in their EFL classes, the lack of
an official document has become a problematic situation for the school
community, and especially for the EFL Department. These educational
problematic situations showed the need to conduct research in order to
characterize Iconography and find out the implications it has upon the
foreign language teaching processes of the students at pre-school levels
and the way this practice is performed by the teacher.
14
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of the present study is to characterize Iconography, an
innovative practice used to teach English to young learners in pre-school
level. In doing so, this study focuses on the EFL teaching practices in
order to figure out what Iconography is, what its characteristics are, and
what theoretical and pedagogical perspectives underpin it.
General objective
To examine and characterize the way Iconography works in the EFL preschool classroom at this particular school context.
Specic objectives
1. To identify and describe the pedagogical underpinnings of the EFL
teaching practice held in this particular school context when this is
based on Iconography.
2. To characterize the way the EFL teaching practice is developed in
pre-school when using Iconography.
3. To investigate the perceptions that the educational community has
of the use of Iconography.
Research Questions
The following research questions arose in relation to the previous research
objectives:
15
Main research question

How does Iconography work in the EFL pre-school classroom?
Sub-questions
1. What are the pedagogical underpinnings of the EFL teaching practice held in this particular school context when Iconography is
used?
2. How is the EFL teaching practice developed in pre-school when
using Iconography?
3. What are the perceptions that the educational community has of
the use of Iconography?
Rationale
Teaching English as a foreign language has been a concern for the ELT
community in Colombia. Several research studies have been done in
the field, and some have focused on teaching English to young learners.
Some examples include Rodriguez & Varela (2004), who studied the
use of pictures in an EFL class with young learners, or Rodriguez (1999),
whose research was about pictograms used to introduce English syntax to
children. These types of studies are important because they help teachers
in their classes when they have young learners as their main population.
This situation was present some years ago at the school where this study
was developed, when the teachers there started a reflection about
their EFL teaching practice. However, there was not a formal research
carried out. English teachers at this particular school were concerned
about their teaching practices in pre-school and primary levels, and they
incorporated an innovative practice for them: Iconography.
This research project came up due to the need of knowing more
about Iconography because there was no document at school nor has it
16
ever been examined or characterized by the institution. Besides, taking

into account that Iconography is an innovative practice to teach English
used by this particular school and that it has been applied since 2007,
it is necessary to find out how this teaching practice is carried out in this
context.
The main aim of this study is to provide a description and
characterization of how iconography works. This is important for four
main reasons. First of all, at a local level, the educational community can
be informed about the pedagogical underpinnings that support this EFL
teaching practice and the way it is implemented in the daily performance
in the pre-school classroom. Secondly, those teachers at this school (and
those to come) who have to teach using iconography at pre-school may
find this characterization helpful to gain understanding of its nature and
particularities. Thirdly, the institution will be favored from this study in
the sense that it will help the directors make important decisions about
the use of Iconography at the school, having then an impact upon the
institution policies regarding the EFL teaching practices. Finally, at a
broader level, unveiling the way iconography works may provide the EFL
community with an innovative teaching possibility to be considered in
the pre-school classroom.
The structure of this book is organized in eight chapters. Having
provided a general introduction in this chapter, in the next one we
discuss the constructs that provide the theoretical foundations of the
study along with a brief review of the main related previous research.
Chapter three explains the research methodology of the study and
provides details about the setting and participants, the instruments and
procedures for data collection and data analysis. Chapters four, five, six,
and seven present a discussion of the analysis and the main findings of
the study. The book closes with chapter eight where the conclusions
and implications of the study are discussed along with an account of
the limitations and the avenues for future research on the field. We also
provide the corresponding appendices.
17
Theoretical Foundations
This chapter deals with the theoretical background of the present study.
The theoretical support includes three main constructs: Iconography,
early literacy, and EFL teaching to young learners. It is important to
mention here that these three constructs were established to make
sense of the data gathered; and thus, in this chapter, we present the
concepts relevant to this study as they emerged from the understanding
of the very data. In this chapter, first of all, a general overview of each
construct is presented; then, we discuss the theory that supports each of
these constructs as well as relevant previous research studies that have
explored them.
Iconography is used by teachers in order to teach English as a foreign
language to pre-school, first and second graders in the particular school
setting where this study was developed1. The idea of Iconography came
up from the understanding of the icon as a means to communicate and
the way students use the images in the class to help them learn English.
In the English project of the school, Iconography is understood as a way
to teach English where the concepts are represented through pictures or
drawings that keep a strong connection with the object that is represented
(School English Project, 2010).
1
Considering ethical issues in educational research, the school name is kept confidential in this study.
19
According to Davies (2004), literacy acquisition is one of the domains

of applied linguistics. The domain considers different issues related to
literacy. First of all, according to Pennycook (2004), literacy is a social
practice that takes place in a specific context. Additionally, Williams
(2004) states that literacy in applied linguistics focuses its attention on
the deployment of literacies in different contexts. This issue is present in
this study because literacy is seen in the specific context of the school
where Iconography is used.
Secondly, as Davies (1999) asserts, the meaning of literacy has
changed during the last century. Literacy is not only a matter of reading
and writing, it has broadened its connotation. Actually he uses the term
multiple literacies to refer to the new approaches that literacy practices
have had. Referring to the same issue, Williams (2004) explores the field
of new literacy practices presented by the New London Group, related
to the use of different elements as videos, images, and gestures in the
pedagogy of literacy. This view is connected with this study since the use
of visual elements as images is present in Iconography.
Finally, in order to comprehend the teaching practices at this school,
it is necessary to understand that this teaching practice is an EFL teaching
practice. Thus, it is necessary to differentiate EFL from English as a
Second Language -ESL. According to Richards & Schmidt (1992), ESL is
understood as the role of English in countries where it is widely used
within the country (p. 93); this implies that the language is used for
instruction at schools, or it is used in everyday communication; however,
it is not the first language in the country. Otherwise, EFL is the role of
English in countries where it is taught as a subject in the schools but
not used as a medium of instruction in education nor as a language of
communication within the country (Richards & Schmidt, 1992, p. 93).
Bearing in mind the definitions above, in this study English is conceived
as a foreign language. First of all, because in Colombia English is not
used as the language to communicate; secondly, English is taught at
this school setting as a subject students learn but they do not use it in
everyday communication nor in the instruction at school.
20
Having provided this general overview of the three key constructs, we

now proceed to go deeper into each one of the concepts related to the
constructs that support the study.
Understanding Iconography
In this section the theoretical background that supports Iconography
will be explained. It includes the semiotic concepts relevant to this
study: sign, icon, symbol, and image, which are considered essential in
understanding Iconography.
Semiotics: One of the most relevant constructs for this study is
semiotics since this science allows us to comprehend and explain the
way Iconography works. Saussure (1916, cited in Eco, 1976) and Morris
(1985) assert that semiotics is the science that studies signs in society.
The study includes the way in which the signs are used to convey
meaning. According to Morris (1985), semiotics cannot be conceived
as the science that studies every kind of signs but it focuses on the signs
that are involved in semiosis, which is the process of interpreting signs in
meaning making. In other words, semiosis is the process where signs are
used (Morris, 1985).
As Locke (1886) asserts, semiotics has two basic functions: first, it
focuses on signs as means of communication and how they help us to
establish relationships with society; secondly, it studies the way signs
help us achieve knowledge and transmit it. For the present study, the first
function semiotics has is relevant since Iconography is seen as the means
students and the teacher use to communicate in English.
In order to comprehend Iconography, it is necessary to understand
some basic concepts that belong to the field of semiotics and which are
strongly connected to the teaching practice carried out in pre-school.
These are: icon, symbol and image which are considered signs.
Signs: A sign is a unit consisting of an expression and a content which
are connected with each other by a mutual correlation or sign function
(Eco, 1976). It means that a sign is an entity that represents another entity
21
because there is a clear relation between the objects represented and the
sign. Eco (1976) defines a sign as anything which may be interpreted to
stand for (or substitute for) something due to some characteristics that
the represented object has.
Moreover, Ong (1982) states that a sign refers primarily to something
visually apprehended (p. 73). He means that the signs are produced by
human beings because there is a contact with the object, which is the
visual experience that allows them to make the connections. Likewise,
according to Peirce (1998), a sign has as primary function to evoke the
meaning of the object it represents in the interpretants mind, because of
the characteristics the object has.
Besides, a sign is conceived as an element involved in the
communication process. According to Eco (1986), a sign is used to transmit
any kind of information. For this reason anything used to communicate
can be considered a sign. However, Peirce (1977) makes a distinction
of signs and proposes a specific typology. This typology includes, among
others, two different types of signs which are relevant to this study: icons
and symbols. Depending on the relation established with the object they
represent, these can be seen as images. These three concepts, icons,
symbols, and images, are now discussed.
Icon: There are few theoretical documents on the study of icon.
One of the most recognized is the one presented by Peirce (1977) who
defines an icon as a sign that refers to the object it denotes. He states that
this connection is achieved merely by virtue of characters of its own and
which it possesses, just the same, whether any such object actually exists
or not (Peirce, 1977, p. 291).With this definition Peirce gives the icon a
special feature, the fact that the object represented could be concrete or
abstract; this means everything in the world can be represented even if it
just exists in the mind of people.
Moreover, an icon is a sign that is defined by Leibniz (cited in Beuchot,
2004) as the image that we create because it is joined with something
else due to a previous experience. This means that an icon can just be
created by a person when he/she has enough experience to connect it
with something else. For example, when we think of a house and we
22
have to represent it, we usually draw a square with a triangle at the top;
it is because of the visual experience we have had with a house.
In addition to these definitions, Beuchot (2004), following Peirce,
defines an icon as an intermediate sign that has a natural and an artificial
part, due to the fact that it is created by human beings, but it must keep
relation with reality. This perspective gives humankind the responsibility
in the creation of icons, as it is the case in the present research in which
students and the teacher create the icons that are used in class.
Hence, the icon will be understood in this study as a type of sign
which represents something in the world by keeping a strong relation
with the qualities the object has. Those qualities are given to the icon
because of the experience someone has had with the object it represents.
Moreover, as a vehicle of meaning it must be clear and understandable
for a specific group of people. The previous definitions of icon are useful
to this research because they help to understand how an icon works as
a tool of communication in any language, as it is the case of the students
at EFL pre-school classrooms.
Symbol: Another important concept for the present study is
symbol since it is a kind of sign but it is different from an icon. A symbol
is a sign related arbitrarily with the object it denotes (Eco, 1986). This
means that the connection between this type of sign and the object it
represents is not clear.
Additionally, Eco (1986) claims that a symbol contains an idea that
has an arbitrary relation with the image that was codified to represent.
Besides, he asserts that a symbol is a vague sign because it has a relation
with a number of meanings. It means that a symbol could have several
meanings but they rely on the context where the symbol is used.
Peirce (1931) defines a symbol as an arbitrary sign that determines its
relation with the object it represents by a law, for instance the linguistic
sign. It implies that the symbol is created by another entity with the
purpose of representing something else. Besides, to encode and decode
a symbol it is necessary to recognize the laws that rule the existence of
them.
23
Graphic 1 portrays a visual understanding of the relationship between

sign, icon, and symbol. Sign is the umbrella term that encompasses icon
and symbol. They are different because the icon has a clear relation with
the object represented, while the symbol is connected with the objects
represented arbitrarily.
Icon: a sign that represents
an object due to the
characteristics it has
Sign: anything which may substitute
or represent something else
Symbol: an arbitrary sign

that does not have a clear
connection with the objects
represented
Graph 1. The relation of sign, icon, and symbol
Image: Beuchot (2004) states that an image is a kind of icon that is

seen as a copy of the object that is represented by an analogy. In fact,
Peirce (1998) talks about the image as an icon asserting that the icon
exists in our consciousness because when we think of the object, we
evoke an image. Besides, Peirce (1998) asserts that an image is an icon
in itself because it represents the whole characteristics of the object it
represents, since it evokes the whole objects in the interpretants mind.
Moreover, an image may not be only understood as a passive sign, an
image goes beyond the object itself. According to Vitta (1999), we are
in a society dominated by visual communication, which implies that the
use of images is very common in our daily interaction. Then, an image is
not a static entity but it is open to different interpretations. In addition,
Zamora (2006) asserts that the object that is represented in the image
cannot be separated from the context where it appeared, which means
that it can also work as a symbol. Thus, the interpretations given to the
image must be associated with its contextual background.
Besides, images are divided depending on their function.
According to Zender (2006), there are different functions of an image
24
depending on its degrees of abstraction; they are: picture function,

symbol/icon function, signs function, and evocative function. The picture
function means that the image presents some features of the object
represented in order to evoke it; the symbol/icon function refers to the
generalized connection an image has with a group of objects that are
represented the sign function refers to the abstract meanings an image
has; and the evocative function implies the way an image evokes different
meanings without including any of their features in it.
To sum up, Iconography is a communicative system which employs
signs. Thus, in order to comprehend the way it works, it is necessary to
comprehend that a sign is a concept that encompasses different types,
such as icon and symbol. The icon is a sign that keeps a relation with an
object because of the qualities it has, while symbols are arbitrary signs
because they do not have a clear relation with the object they represent.
An image is context-dependent (Zamora, 2006) and it can work either as
an icon (Beuchot, 2004; Peirce, 1998) or as a symbol (Zamora, 2006).
A visual understanding of these constructs and how they are related is
shown in Graph 2:
SIGN
(Unit that represents
ICON
something else)
(Consistent relation with the

object it represents)
SYMBOL
(Arbitrary relation with the
object it represents)
IMAGE
(Could be an icon or a
symbol)
Graph 2. Visual understanding of sign, icon, symbol and image
One of the most recognized uses of signs in education is the Bliss

System. The Bliss System or Semantography appeared as answer to a
need to make communication possible among people of different
countries with different languages. The Bliss System was considered
25
as an ideographic writing system called Semantography consisting of

several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which
can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new
concepts (Bliss, 1985, p. 1).
The system was based on two semantic premises. The first one
is the ideographic language, which is the basis of the Chinese characters
that show how a concept can be represented through a figure. The
second refers to the way people make meaning, supported by Orgen
and Richards (1923) and their triangle of reference, in which three parts
are essential: the reference, the meaning, and the word. These premises
are relevant for the use of symbols not only in the Bliss System but also in
Iconography.
However, later, semantography became a method to teach people
with specific problems to engage in a communicative process. This
method is considered a literacy process where students learn to
communicate having fun through the drawings. Besides, they acquire
vocabulary by making connections between the picture and the concept.
Moreover, with the use of the symbols, learners start recognizing that
they convey meaning and that this meaning has a structure (Blissymbolics
Communication International, n.d.).
As it was presented, the Bliss system is the beginning of the use
of symbols in education to teach students to communicate. This use of
icons and symbols in education is useful for the present study because
it allows us to comprehend how these types of signs are employed
in communicative processes in class. Also, because in Iconography,
concepts and ideas are represented through symbols and icons, and this
involves the process of meaning making and communication.
Some research studies have been carried out related to the use of
images in the EFL classroom. One of them is Sarmiento (2010), who used
images in a third-grade classroom in order to develop critical thinking
and communicative skills. She realized that students did not have enough
opportunities to develop their first language L1 literacy process, they
had low academic achievement, and they were not motivated to learn
English as a foreign language. Then, she decided to carry out a descriptive
research using a guided reading of images where she could describe the
26
role of images in the EFL classroom. Her theoretical perspective was

taken from two concepts: critical thinking and visual literacy. The first
finding presented is related to the role the images had on the motivation
of students; it means that students were motivated to look for different
meanings of the images in different contexts. In the second finding, the
images were seen as an activator in the critical thinking process.
This study is relevant here because it included the use of images in
the EFL classroom. As Sarmiento (2010) asserts in her research, students
should learn to construct meaning from any type of image as part of their
literacy practices (p. 73), which is basically what Iconography is doing
in the English class; that is, to use images in the development of their
EFL literacy. However, the use of images in Sarmientos study is different
from the one in this study because of the purpose. In Sarmientos study,
images are used in order to develop critical thinking, but in the present
study they are used to introduce students to EFL literacy practices.
The inclusion of icons in language teaching is also shown in a research
developed in the United States and presented by Guinan (1997). The
main purpose of that project was to naturally teach a second language
through icons in a computer system, which represents the parts of
speech. The idea of the project came up because there were other
programs which used a visual system but they did not represent all parts
of speech. Besides, the new system created by Guinans project included
the pronunciation of the word, which aims at helping students to learn
the spoken language.
One of the advantages of the system is that it represents the tenses
with icons as well as with numbers. Another positive aspect is that it can
be used to teach any language. Moreover, there is no reliance on the
L1 because the images help people understand the meaning of each
sentence. It is also useful for those with special intelligence who use
their right-brain visual memory the most to create relations between the
image and its meaning.
This project is useful for the present research because it has the same
purpose, which is teaching a foreign language through the use of icons.
However, it differs from the present study since its agent was a computer
27
system which involves other applications, such as the voiced one, which
helped students to learn pronunciation.
The last study we mention here is titled Stick writing stories: a quick and
easy narrative representation strategy. This study carried out by Ukrainetz
(1998) introduces the use of pictography in order to help students in
their written narratives, since it was evidenced that oral narratives are
forgotten by students. The theoretical framework presented by the author
focused on three main themes: writing, drawing, and pictography as an
alternative notional form. In the first construct, the author emphasizes
the idea that writing is a complex task because children find it difficult
to generate ideas, organize them, and develop a procedural plan.
When she presents drawing, it is conceived as a pre-writing activity
that stimulates the development of communicative skills and cognitive
potentials. Finally, pictography is a semantic organizer that does not
represent language directly, on a word-by-word basis (Ukrainetz, 1998,
p. 198) but it conveys the meaning of the whole idea.
The study consisted of an intervention of pictography in the narrative
process. The way learners used the pictograms was observed as well as
the pictographic narratives students created. Also, students were asked
about their pictographic representations. Findings revealed that the use
of pictograms was positive since it provided a visual base for working on
the narrative structure. Also, the use of pictograms facilitated to sequence
the time in the narrative, because they could organize the order of the
narrative before writing it. Finally, students achieved a higher level of
performance in their compositions.
This study is relevant for this research in two aspects. First of all,
it is important to see that semiotic components such as drawing and
pictograms are involved in the writing process. This is interesting because
the inclusion of these in the class has helped students in their writing
process. The second aspect that is significant for the present study is the
fact that Iconography differs from pictography because in Iconography
the icons convey the meaning word by word while the pictograms convey
the meaning of a whole idea or a whole part (scene) of the narrative.
28
Bearing in mind that Iconography involves more than the semiotic

practice, it is relevant to see it from literacy perspectives, due to the
fact that Iconography is applied to teach a foreign language involving a
literacy process. In the next section, we proceed to present early literacy.
Early Literacy: A Visual Process and a Socially

Situated Practice
According to Baynham (1995) literacy is not the same thing to everyone
(p. 6); this means that there have been different perspectives about this
wide term. For the present study early literacy is emphasized due to the
age of the pre-school learners involved in the use of Iconography.
Early literacy is defined by Gillen and Hall (2003) as an all-embracing
concept for a rich range of authorial and responsive practices using a
variety of media and modalities, carried out by people during their early
childhood (p. 9). This definition presents the conception that literacy
is not only reading and writing but, as the same authors claim, it had
to be recognized as a much more complex activity involving cognitive
and strategic behavior (Gillen and Hall, 2003, p. 5). This conception
of literacy allows us to conceive literacy as more than just reading and
writing but as a set of multimodal activities developed in class to involve
students in language learning and in the use of the foreign language in
classroom context.
Besides, early literacy is characterized by Ferreiro (1995) as the process
that involves the recognition of the signs used to communicate, but not
only to encode and decode, but also to interpret messages conveyed by
different means. This characteristic is relevant for the present study since
literacy is not seen from the conventional point of view that involves
reading and writing linguistic messages but, it is seen as a process of
meaning making that involves the recognition and use of particular signs
(e.g. images, colors, shapes).
As Christie and Roskos (2003) assert, the first contact children have
with literacy is drawing. This is one characteristic of early literacy because
29
through drawings children construct their world. This characteristic is

appropriate for this study because Iconography includes the drawing of
icons that students use to communicate.
According to Gillen and Hall (2003), children have the same
mechanism as adults to make meaning, which is the result of the social
context; however, they also assert that they utilize whatever they feel
is appropriate in whichever ways they want to intend a meaning (p. 9).
The elements used could involve maps, drawings, diagrams, and pictures.
This is relevant for this study since pre-school students in classroom
context use icons and symbols to convey meaning in the foreign language
they are learning. Moreover, as Lancaster (2003) asserts, children use
different types of marks to make meaning; what is important to highlight
here is that they use them consistently and systematically, and this is their
way of expressing meaning.
Early literacy as a visual process

Wileman (1993) defines visual literacy as the ability to read, interpret,
and understand information presented in pictorial or graphic images
(p. 114). In this perspective, literacy goes beyond the use of linguistic
signs; it includes the understanding of images as part of the literacy
process. According to Debes (1969), visual literacy refers to a group of
vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the
same time having and integrating other sensory experiences (p. 27).
Those competences help the person to interpret what he/she sees in the
environment. Besides, when the person develops those competences,
he/she is able to use them to communicate with others.
Additionally, according to Elkins (2008) visual literacy is the
understanding of the way objects are perceived, interpreted, and what
people learn from this experience. In this sense, visual literacy is related
to all the visual experiences the person has. Moreover, Lund and Poole
(2008) claim that visual literacy requires students to read and write
visual language. In other words, students learn to recognize and interpret
30
visual information and compose their own meaningful forms of visual

communication. This perspective is meaningful for the present study,
since students communicate visually their ideas through icons and signs.2
On their discussion of visual literacy, Kress and Leeuwen (1996)
affirm that there are two kinds of literacy: the old literacy and the new
literacy. The old one refers to the literacy where images are used as a
second source in communication and are understood as unstructured
replicas of reality (p. 23). They contend that the new literacy is where
the visual aspect has the same level of relevance the spoken language
has. This distinction of literacies is significant in this study because here
images are not used as a copy of the reality or as a second element used
in communication but, in fact, images are at the core of communication
in Iconography.
Early literacy as a social situated practice

Baynham (1995) defines literacy as a complete process which comprises
listening, speaking, reading, writing, critical thinking, and numeracy;
moreover, it includes the cultural knowledge which enables a speaker,
writer or reader to recognize and use language appropriate to different
social situations (p. 9). In this sense, literacy cannot be understood as
a universal fact but as a socially situated process that is constructed in a
culture.
Furthermore, as literacy goes beyond a process of coding and decoding
(Chapetn, 2007; Ferreiro, 1995; Gee, 2003), it must be understood as a
social process. Barton (2007) states that literacy can only be understood
in the context of the social practices in which it is acquired and used (p.
25). Barton not only refers to society but he also talks about something
really important for this study, the fact that literacy is not a universal item
but that literacy belongs to a society and as soon as people understand
their literacy process, it exists.
This is presented and discussed in chapter 4.
31
Besides, society plays another important role. Grossi (1990) talks about
the role of interaction in the literacy process, in the sense that interaction
allows people to understand the established criteria related to the written
signs and their meaning. It means that the codes are established by a
group of people who share them in the society. In addition, Cope &
Kalantzis (2000) assert that the literacy process is something people do
and learn by engaging in communicative interactions with other people
in social settings (as cited in Makin, Jones, & McLachlan, 2007, p. 46).
This is important in this study, because this interaction in the classroom
allows students to create the icons and to comprehend their meaning as
a socially situated literacy practice.
As far as this study is concerned, literacy is seen as a coding and
decoding process that starts in early school years, where students are
able to code and decode meaning through icons and symbols. However,
this process is not isolated from society; indeed, it is constructed in
the interaction within the society and the culture which surround the
students.
Bearing in mind that literacy is part of our lives and is constructed
through interaction, it is important to understand that literacy is a
tool with which our values, attitudes , aspirations, opinions, dreams,
goals, and ideas about the world are constructed, shared, represented,
reconstructed and deconstructed (Makin et al, 2007, p. 32). This
conception is relevant for this study because the construction of the
world made by students is represented in each icon they draw.
Furthermore, Gee (1996) states that literacy goes beyond the
knowledge of a text and that it is a process of apprehending a way of being,
which involves different ways of talking, thinking, interacting, valuing,
and believing. Moreover, Cameron (2001) asserts that socially, literacy
provides people with opportunities to share meanings across space and
time (p. 123). This implies that the literacy process is shaped by the
culture where it takes place as well as the moment when it develops.
We will now discuss two research studies that are connected to the
construct presented above and thus to the present study. The first study
was conducted in Colombia by Rodriguez (2007). It is a qualitative
32
case study that had as its main purpose to understand early literacy
teaching and learning through a discussion among a group of six preschool teachers. The study was carried out because it was important to
discover teachers understanding of early literacy in an EFL context. The
instruments used to gather data were questionnaires, field notes, group
discussions, and teachers journal.
The theoretical framework used in the study was strongly related
to early literacy. In that study early literacy is understood as the ability
children have to understand and produce written information. Different
authors are presented to support that claim; one of whom is Zuiga
(2001), who asserts that children learn to read by getting in contact with
the written language in early stages. The author also presents a discussion
on how children learn to read and write; additionally, the author presents
the steps children follow to get involved in the literacy process supporting
her claims with Ferreiros (1995) theory.
Findings show that teachers recognize the importance of developing
early literacy based on students needs and the context they are involved
in. Besides, they remarked the inevitable connection between L1 and
L2 at school. Rodriguez study is relevant for this research because after
having the discussions about early literacy processes in pre-school, the
teachers suggested that early literacy should be taught in the specific
context where the early literacy process takes place as it is the case of
Iconography and the EFL teaching practice in pre-school at the particular
setting where the present study takes place.
Another research study related to the writing process in pre-school
is the one carried out by Beltran (2009). The researcher was concerned
about the way children develop their L2 writing. So, she decided to
conduct a qualitative interpretative case study with the purpose of
analyzing and describing the responses of kindergarten students towards
the writing process through the use of fables, rhymes, and songs. The
study was carried out with five kindergarten students of a private school.
Field notes, conferences, and writing samples were used to collect the
data.
33
Early literacy was one of the constructs of the research; it was

conceived as a process children develop before getting engaged in
conventional literacy (conventional reading and writing). Moreover,
Beltran (2009) claims that early literacy is developed in a playful and
motivating environment so children can learn to write and read. Besides,
Goodman (1996) is cited by Beltran (2009) to affirm that children need
to experience with different types of activities and opportunities to get
involved in the literacy process. One of those opportunities is pictures
since childrens literacy process begins with them (Mckeown, 2001).
Another important concept is invented spelling, conceived as the
childrens attempt to write by arranging invented words.
Findings show that students started getting involved in the literacy
process by using different drawings to communicate. Also, the data
revealed that beginning to write relies on phonemic awareness since it
allowed them to get more in contact with the language used. The last
finding shows that children use literacy to express their feelings and
emotions; for this reason, it is important to give them the freedom to
express what they want to say.
Beltrans study contributes to this research in two basic ways. Firstly,
the theoretical framework provides insights in the understanding of early
literacy. Secondly, the findings reveal the importance of using pictures
during the childrens early literacy process, which is one of the aspects
involved in Iconography.
As Iconography and early literacy were just presented, now we
proceed to discuss the third construct: EFL teaching to young learners.
English Language Teaching to Young Learners

Brown (2007) defines teaching as showing or helping someone to
learn how to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of
something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand
(p. 8). This is a wide term that refers to different actions performed by
34
someone who takes the responsibility of guiding and teaching another

person.
Besides, Richards (2001) states that the teaching of any subject
matter is usually based on an analysis of the nature of the subject itself
and the application of teaching and learning principles drawn from
research (p. viii). In this sense, teaching English as a subject matter in
the pre-school classroom should be based on research conducted in the
particular setting where it takes place, as it is the case of the present
study that aims at characterizing a new way of teaching English to young
children at a particular classroom context. Furthermore, Richards (2001)
asserts that the teaching of any subject has been characterized by a
search for more effective ways of teaching (p. viii).
In the development of the present research, it was important to
consider that EFL teaching to young learners encompasses two main
aspects: firstly, the teaching concepts in the EFL field; secondly, the EFL
teaching processes focused on young learners. In this section, we present
theories related to both.
Language Teaching Concepts: an overview

Bearing in mind that the purpose of the present study is to characterize
Iconography and to set down what it is,3 it is necessary to have a
theoretical discussion where different key concepts are defined. These
key concepts include approach, method, technique, methodology,
principle and procedure. This discussion will be done taking into account
the perspectives of different authors. Table 1 portraits these perspectives,
making a distinction among them. In the first column the concept to be
defined is mentioned, in the second column the authors are presented
and, in the last one, the definition of each concept is given. Table 1
closes with a definition of the post-method, which is central to the
development of this study.
See the discussion presented in the introductory chapter of this book.
35
CONCEPT
APPROACH
METHOD
Includes different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learnt (p. 15)
It is axiomatic
It is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the process of teaching ( p. 24)
It is an enlightened viewpoint of teaching ( p. 123)
It embraces:
A goal of teaching
The role of the teacher
A perspective of the teaching-learning process
The evaluative techniques
The teaching methods to be employed
Theoretically well-informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings (p. 15)
Refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching ( p. 20)
DEFINITION
Richards & Rodgers,

(2001)
Antony (1963) cited in KumaravaSet of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning (p.84)
divelu (2006)
Richards et al, (1985)
A way of teaching a language which is based on systematic principles and procedures (p. 176)
It is procedural
Garcia (1989)
Is an overall plan for orderly presentation of a lesson (p.24)
A method assumes that there is a single set of principles which will determine whether or not learning
Nunan (1991)
will take place (p. 3)
It is part of the approach.
Acero, Javier, & Castro (2000)
Refers to an organized, orderly, systematic, well-planned procedure (p. 122)
It consists of steps organized logically; these steps help the teacher to develop the class.
A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be
concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as
Brown (2001)
linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are almost always thought of as
being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of context (p. 15)
Brown (2001)
Acero, Javier, & Castro (2000)
Garcia (1989)
Richards et al, (1985)
AUTHOR
Table 1. Denition of Teaching Concepts
36
37
PROCEDURE
METHODOLOGY
TECHNIQUE
METHOD
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
A method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is
practically realized in procedure (p. 20)
For them the method is constituted by the approach, the design, and the procedure.
The study of the practices and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underline them (p. 177)
Richards et all, (1985)
Richards & Rodgers,

(2001)
The subcomponent of the curriculum concerned with selecting, sequencing and justifying learning experiences as well as the study of the theoretical and empirical bases of such procedure (p. 215)
Nunan (1991)
It is the level of conceptualization. This encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method (p. 34). In this
level the tasks and activities are integrated into lessons.
There are three dimensions at the level of procedure: a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues,
information-gap activities, etc) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language; b) the ways in which particular teaching activities are
used for practicing language; c) and the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners
concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences (p. 31)
Methodology denotes the study of the system or range of methods that are used in teaching (p. 604)
Pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever
considerations are involved in how to teach are methodological (p. 15)
Adamson, (2004) in Davis & Ellis

(2004)
Brown (2001)
Antony (1963) cited in KumaravaOverall plan for the orderly presentation of language material (p. 85)
divelu (2006)
Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing lesson
Brown (2001)
objectives (p. 15)
Antony (1963) cited in KumaravaA particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance to accomplish an immediate objective (p. 85)
divelu (2006)
Larsen-Freeman (2000)
Techniques are the actions that carry out a method (p. 1)
Richards & Rodgers,

(2001)
AUTHOR
POST-METHOD
PRINCIPLE
PROCEDURE
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Set of teaching strategies adopted/adapted by the teacher in order to accomplish the stated and unstated, short and long-term goals of language learning and teaching in the classroom. Classroom events,
activities, or techniques can be covered under procedures (p. 89)
Arikan, A. (2006)
Kumaravadivelu (2008)
It is a three-dimensional system consisting of three pedagogic parameters: particularity, practicality, and

possibility. (p. 170)
The construction of classroom procedures and principles by the teacher himself/herself based on his/her
prior and experiential knowledge and/or certain strategies (p. 29)
Refers to the qualities of the contemporary era in English language teaching in which previously well
trusted methods are put under serious scrutiny and in which a body of methods and techniques collected
from all previous methods and approaches are used pragmatically with a belief that such an eclectic
practice leads to success. (p. 1)
The principles are the thoughts (p. 1)
Larsen-Freeman (2000)
The principles are the theories. (p. 54)
Brown (2001)
Adams, (2004) in Applied linguisProcedure means the techniques and activities that are used in the classroom (p. 605)
tics eds Davis & Ellis (2004)
AUTHOR
38
As presented in the table above, each pedagogical concept has

different features and encompasses characteristics that accentuate the
differences among them. For instance, an approach includes the entire
theoretical framework (Acero et al, 2000); a method is part of an approach
and it refers to the process of carrying and approach out (Garcia, 1989);
and methodology refers to practices and procedures used in the actual
teaching moment (Richards et al, 1985). For the convenience of the
present study, two of the concepts presented above are worked deeply
in the following section; they are principles and post-method.
Principles: Larsen-Freeman (2000) asserts that principles in language
teaching are those thoughts that are involved in the teaching practice.
She proposes ten aspects that help to identify the principles that underlie
the teaching practice. In Table 2 the principles presented by LarsenFreeman are displayed. In the first column the aspect is presented, in the
second column the meaning of each is explained.
Table 2. Principles presented by Larsen-Freeman (2000).
PRINCIPLE
Goal of the teacher
Role of the teacher
Teaching/learning process
Students-Teacher interaction
Student-Students interaction
Feelings of students
Language and culture view
Language areas and language skills
Role of the students
Evaluation
Teachers response to students errors
MEANING
Those purposes and goals the teacher has in carrying out
her/his practice
The way the teacher assumes his/her position in the class
The way the teaching/learning process is seen
The way the participants of the class interact among them
The way the feelings of students are dealt with during the
class
The perspectives on the language and the culture of the
language taught
The language areas and skills that are emphasized during
the class
The way students assume their position in the class
How evaluation is accomplished
The way the teacher responds to students errors during
the class
As presented in Table 2, Larsen-Freeman (2000) proposes ten aspects

that are taken into account in a teaching practice and that help to build up
the principles which underlie the whole teaching practice in a classroom.
39
Post-method: According to Arikan (2006), post-method refers to the

qualities of the contemporary era in English language teaching in which
recognized methods are evaluated, and several aspects of methods and
techniques are gathered to be used pragmatically in an eclectic practice
with the purpose of being successful. It means that the view of method
breaks down and the idea of combining techniques taken from different
methods that have been proposed in the history of language teaching
comes into the language field.
Kumaravadivelu (1994) states that the post-method is the
construction of classroom procedures and principles by the teacher
himself/herself based on his/her prior and experiential knowledge and/or
certain strategies (p. 29). This idea implies that the teacher adjusts the
procedures and principles of his/her class based on the knowledge she/
he has by combining a number of strategies.
Kumaravadivelu (2006) also asserts that post-method is a threedimensional system consisting of three pedagogic parameters:
particularity, practicality, and possibility. The first one implies that a
teaching practice must be thought of taking into account the particular
context where it is held; it means that everything comes from the
participants of the practice itself.
The parameter of practicality refers to the relationship between theory
and practice. Kumaravadivelu (2006) states that there are two kinds of
theories: the professional and the personal. The professional theories are
those created by experts in the field; the personal are those theories
generated by the teachers while they are carrying out their teaching
practice. This kind of theory comes from the practice itself and the action
research that is conducted by the teacher on his/her own job.
Possibility is the parameter that deals with the experiences the
participants bring into the pedagogical setting and that shape the
teaching practice. These experiences are not only the experiences the
participants live in the class, but also those which come from a broader
social, economic, and political environment in which they grow up.
(Kumaravadivelu, 2006, p. 173)
40
Teaching young learners in the EFL classroom

Additionally to the teaching concepts aforementioned, it is relevant to
characterize teaching young learners in the EFL classroom. According
to Cameron (2001), teaching children is assumed as an extension of
mothering rather than as an intellectual enterprise (p. xii). This definition
means that most of the theories that have been presented in the language
teaching field with respect to young learners are related to taking care
of the children at school as mothers do at home. However, there have
been different perspectives presented by some authors about teaching a
second or a foreign language to children which are more connected with
activities and strategies to use in the class.
Related to foreign language teaching, some authors talk about different
strategies or activities that should be developed in an EFL classroom. First
of all, it is essential to talk about Bruners view (1983). He talks about
the routines that may be generated in the classroom; they help students
to get used to the use of language in different situations. Moreover, this
routine may seem quite natural as people learn a language because they
are in real situations communicating about important and interesting
things (Genesee, 1994, p. 16); thus, students will not get involved in the
teaching process if it takes place within a context or situation unknown
for them.
Secondly, it is important to mention that children learn best through
games, make-believe, storytelling, and songs. Both the context and the
content of the activities need to be varied, holding the childrens interest,
and giving them the opportunity to participate at their own level
(Ashwoth & Wakefiel, 1994, p. 34). This idea implies that activities used
in the class must be varied and provide students with opportunities to
improve their English proficiency. Activities must also be comprehended
as the tools used by the teacher in order to help students to achieve a
successful learning.
Another issue that arises in teaching young children is age, which is
one of the determinant factors in teaching children. According to Brown
(1994), age is a variable in the learning process that affects the teaching
41
practices. He provides five categories that must be taken into account

when carrying out the teaching practice. Firstly, it is the intellectual
development that implies that children need concrete activities, for
example no grammatical explanations. Secondly, he mentions the
attention spam that suggests that the activities must call students attention
in a short period of time. Thirdly, the sensory input that refers to the
five senses; thus, teachers must create activities where the five senses
are stimulated. Fourthly, affective factors are a key issue since teachers
must be able to create an environment where students feel comfortable.
Finally, it is the use of authentic and meaningful language, which means
that the activities must be connected with the context where students
are involved.
Scott (1990) characterizes childrens learning of different ages. Taken
into account that the participants age in this study ranges from 5 to 8,
the characterization of this group of learners is presented here. According
to Scott (1990), children at this age are called beginners in the learning
process, they learn by watching and listening, which implies that they are
concrete, which in turn means that they need to perceive the objects,
to learn with their five senses. They are not aware of the language skills,
although they develop them every day; they learn by doing. Children learn
because they follow the social processes they are involved in. Therefore,
to accomplish a meaningful learning process, students should first be
given opportunities to learn language in conjunction with experiences
that are compatible with their current abilities and knowledge (Genesee,
1994, p. 4).
In the present study, EFL teaching to young learners is understood
as the process of fostering and enhancing the learning of the foreign
language in children. Besides, teaching to young learners is affected
by age; therefore, there are some aspects to bear in mind, such as the
intellectual development, the attention spam, the affective factor, the
sensory input, and authentic and meaningful language use.
Four research studies that illustrate previous research connected to this
study and that back up the construct of EFL teaching to young learners are
presented as follows. The first research study was carried out by Garton,
42
Copland and Burns (2011). It is about global practices in teaching English

to young learners that include key aspects in EFL teaching processes.
The problematic situations of the study include three main concerns: 1)
the approaches to language learning that are implemented in childrens
classrooms, because they are adapted from theories of adults learning
processes; 2) the lack of policies in the countries towards the teaching
of young children; and 3) the teachers proficiency level of English. It is
an interpretive-exploratory research that took place in several countries
where English is taught as a foreign language, including Colombia.
Researchers used a survey of perceptions of Teaching English to Young
Learners-TEYL practices from a global sample of teachers of English and
detailed case studies of the contexts, practices and perceptions of five
teachers in different continents.
The findings of Garton, Copland, and Burns (2011) study show that
the practices followed by teachers to teach preschoolers are guided by
the national policies of the country, local documents and the Common
European Framework. Another finding related to class methodology
revealed that there are different activities used by teachers in order
to teach children; those include: children repeating after the teacher,
playing games, singing songs, role-playing, listening to a tape-recorder,
using flashcards, among others. Finally, the most striking finding is related
to the problems teachers find in teaching children. They state that it
is difficult to work with children with learning difficulties as well as to
motivate students to learn a language that is not used in their immediate
context. Besides, teachers said that it is hard to explain grammar rules to
young learners.
This study is relevant for this research because it encompasses all the
elements that are relevant in the process of teaching young children as
the policies, the approaches to language teaching and learning used in
pre-school classrooms, and the pedagogical issues that characterize this
particular context. In addition, it provides a wide view of the existing
teaching processes with children at this particular stage around the world
and particularly in Colombia.
43
One research study where the post-method condition is evidenced

was carried out by Huang (2009). Its title is A Post-method Condition
Pronunciation Teaching Approach in an EFL Classroom in Taiwan. The
researcher decided to implement a new culture-related and mnemonicsbased pronunciation teaching approach based on the post-method
condition presented by Kumaravadivelu (1994). She took into account
the context where the teaching practice was carried out and included
the Taiwanese pronunciation instruction in the new approach. The
theoretical background of the study is based on Prabhus (1990) ideas
about method, and Kumaravadivelus (1994) proposal about the postmethod condition and the macro-strategies it implies. It also includes
a definition of mnemonics devices and its uses in language teaching.
Finally, techniques of teaching pronunciation are presented including
the activities used in teaching pronunciation. Two instruments were used
to collect data: class observation and interviews.
The implementation consisted of a story made up of 24 consonants
and 17 vowels represented through pictures; that received the name of
Wowos adventure. It was used to teach pronunciation. Findings in the
study revealed that students learnt better with the use of this approach
because they felt motivated and interested in learning pronunciation. Also,
the teacher liked it because she evidenced that the visual representations
intensify her students memorization of consonants and vowels, and this
helps her students to produce correct pronunciation.
This research is relevant to this study in two main ways. Firstly, it helped
us to achieve a better understanding of the post-method condition used
in a teaching practice. Secondly, it provided important insights to reflect
about changing the EFL teaching practices in order to make them more
connected to the reality students live in.
Another relevant study is the one carried out by Porras (2010),
which had as its main purpose to find a fun and meaningful way to
teach English to children. The problem the research posed is the fact
that public schools do not have good teaching/learning material and, in
some cases, qualified teachers for teaching English to young learners. The
theoretical foundations of this study are based on Krashen and Terrells
44
(1983) statements related to the affective filter and input hypothesis in

which learners are expected to receive a qualified input in a friendly
environment. As it is an action research, they proposed using storytelling
and story reading as teaching strategies because they can provide
children with a lot of enriching and interesting input. After implementing
the proposal, Porras (2010) found out that not only stories are a good
and enjoyable strategy for teaching English to children but also games.
This study explores aspects that are interesting for the present research.
It involves the use of different teaching techniques with children, including
storytelling and games. It shows that these techniques are not only fun
and enjoyable for young learners but also bring a lot of possibilities for
children to learn, including vocabulary practice, real opportunities for
communication, fostering the use of productive and receptive skills at
the same time.
Teaching English to Young Learners in Colombia: Policy, Practice and
Challenges, is a discussion presented by Truscott de Meja (2009). The
articles main purpose is to discuss the implications of the National
Bilingual Program created by Colombias government in order to improve
the English language proficiency. In Truscott de Mejas discussion, some
research studies carried out in different parts of Colombia were presented
to show the application of the national policy with young learners.
In the discussion three main topics arose. Firstly, the lack of
contextualization of the National Bilingual Program since it is based
on the Common European Framework and does not take into account
the reality of students in different areas of Colombia. Secondly, the
inclusion of the descriptors for the different proficiency levels helps the
teachers to sequence and organize their teaching practice, if they take
them into account. Thirdly, the change of mind towards bilingualism;
because before, bilingualism was understood as being proficient in two
languages: Spanish and English; currently, bilingualism is understood as
the use of different languages, including also the indigenous languages
in Colombia.
Finally, some challenges in teaching to young learners in Colombia
are addressed. Firstly, universities should start preparing teachers to
45
face the situation of teaching English to young learners. Secondly, the

government needs to focus on the primary educational levels since most
of the policies are focused on high school levels. Finally, policy makers
should be aware of the gap between the implementation in the classroom
and what it is stated in the policy documents.
Truscott de Mejas discussion is useful to this study because it presents
a general view of what happens in Colombia in terms of teaching young
learners. It helps us to understand the policies related to young learners
and how the National Bilingual Program has been implemented in our
country.
The three constructs presented in this chapter can be interrelated and
understood as a coherent whole in order to understand Iconography as
an EFL teaching practice. The first construction, Iconography and the
concepts related to it are useful to understand Iconography from the
semiotic perspective. Early literacy is connected with Iconography since
Iconography can also be understood from the literacy point of view
and can be implemented with pre-school students. Finally, EFL teaching
to young learners provides a general view about the conceptual and
theoretical background for the teaching practices in the EFL classroom
with learners of a very young age. In the next chapter, the methodological
design and data collection procedures followed during the research
process are described.
46
Researching Iconography in the EFL Pre-School

Classroom
In this chapter, the research design followed in this study is described.
The chapter begins by explaining the type of study that was conducted
including both the research paradigm (qualitative) and the research
approach (case study). A description of the context of the research, that
is the setting where the study was developed, the participants, and the
researchers role that was assumed while the study was conducted is also
presented. The next section provides an account of the instruments used
for data collection and describes the procedures followed to collect the
data. The final section is concerned with the analysis of the data and the
coding procedures used to develop this study.
Type of study
This research study is framed within the qualitative research principles.
According to Merriam (2009), qualitative research seeks information
related to the way people interpret experiences and the way they have
impact in their lives. In this study, what Merriam asserts is a key factor,
because the whole study is focused on the participants experiences with
Iconography.
47
A characteristic of qualitative research is that it is concerned with

understanding human behavior from the actors own frame of reference
(Nunan, 1992, p. 4). Regarding this, this study has as its purpose to
collect information from individuals who are involved in the practice
of Iconography and understand the context where Iconography is used
without manipulating it (Johnson & Christensen, 2004).
This paradigm is appropriate in order to analyse data collected related
to Iconography, since this study aims at producing qualitative holistic
knowledge about it. In addition, this study aims at investigating the
perspective of the community involved in the use of Iconography, which
is strongly connected with Denzin and Lincolns (2011) claims that a
qualitative research stresses the socially constructed nature of reality
(p. 8).
This is a qualitative case study due to its purposes. A case study is an
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
its real-life context (Stake, 1994, 1995, p. 13 as cited in Merriam, 1998,
p. 27). In this study, this claim is central since Iconography is investigated
in the context where it is used, involving the students who learn English
with it, and the teacher who uses it, the parents whose students are
learning with it, and the principal of the school.
According to Merriam (1998), case studies are intensive descriptions
and analyses of a single unit or bounded system such as an individual,
program, event, group, intervention, or community (p. 19); taking into
account that this study aims at characterizing a specific EFL teaching
practice (Iconography) used in a particular context (a private school in
Colombia), with a particular population (pre-school students), the case
study is the best research approach to carry out the research.
Case study is characterized by the fact that it is employed to gain an
in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved
(Merriam, 1998, p. 19). This characteristic is relevant for the present study
since the main purpose is to achieve comprehension of Iconography
and to characterize it. Moreover, according to Bell (2005), case studies
allow researchers to identify the features of any implementation and how
it affects the context where it takes place, which is basically the main
objective of the present study. Additionally, as Gray (2004) asserts, a case
48
study is ideal when a how or why question is being asked (p. 124).
This is the major characteristic of the present study taking into account
the main research question about how Iconography works.
To sum up, a qualitative case study is the best research type to carry
out this study since all the features of a case study fit with the purpose,
context, and characteristics of the study and the use of Iconography.
The context of the research

The study was conducted at a private school in Colombia. The school
is situated in a small village in a central county (Cundinamarca). The
school was founded in 2006. The school has five basic notions as its
ideological basis: conflict, which is conceived as an opportunity to
solve difficulties in order to grow up, to learn and to confront any life
situation; communication, which is the means that allows discussion
and daily interaction; truth, which is the result of a good communicative
process; restoration, conceived as the recovery of the relationships
through communication; and peculiarity, which refers to the individual
characteristics each person has and which make him/her different
from others (School Educative Project (PEI), 2006). These are the basic
elements in the teaching-leaning process which teachers must take into
account when preparing and teaching classes. Moreover, the emphasis
of the school is on humanities, in which the foreign language is included
as an important subject in the application of the five notions.
The school mission is to educate holistic students who can understand
their existence in a society and take active part in it. On the other hand,
the institutional vision is to become an institution that promotes social
opinion in order to encourage a social change (School Educative Project
(PEI), 2006). This is evident in the five notions mentioned above because
this is a school concerned with the social and personal development of
students. For this reason, in the English classes it is important to develop
the ability to communicate instead of providing the students with
countless grammar rules.
49
Related to the English project that the school is implementing, it has

as main its purpose to create an environment in which the students can
communicate their ideas, thoughts, and feelings using English. The project
aims at having a high and qualified quantity of input. Thus, preschoolers
and primary students have six English class sessions each week, and
high school students have eight class sessions; each class session lasts
50 minutes. Besides, the project presents two pedagogical parameters
to follow: Iconography -for pre-school, first and second graders, and the
communicative approach from third to eleventh grade. (School Educative
Project (PEI), 2006). In spite of the fact that these are the main pedagogical
parameters, the project also includes other teaching concepts which are
relevant in the English classes, such as teaching for comprehension, total
physical response, and English for specific purposes in the high school
grades.
The principal of the school, as the person responsible for most of
the processes at the institution, provided the institutional consent for
conducting the study there (see appendix 1).
Participants and sampling

The participants in this study were the community involved in the use
of Iconography at school. They were the students who were directly
implicated in the process; the teacher who was working with this
approach, the parents whose students were involved in the process,
and the principal of the school. Table 3 shows the participants who were
involved in the study.
50
Table 3. Participants of the study

PARTICIPANT
Students
Parents
GRADE
NUMBER
Pre-kinder
Kinder
Transition
Pre-kinder
Kinder
Transition
Nine (9)
Nineteen (19)
Twenty-five (25)
Nine (9)
Nineteen (19)
Twenty-five (25)
Pre-school Teacher
School Principal
One (1)
One (1)
Fifty-three students participated in the development of this study:

thirty-one boys and twenty-two girls. They were in the three grades of
pre-school: pre-kinder (nine students), kinder (nineteen students) and
transition (twenty-five students). They were between 5 and 7 years old.
Most of them had been studying in the school since they started their
educational process. They have been learning English with Iconography
and they recognized the characteristics of it. This implies that they were
familiar with the icons, the construction of them, and their intended
meaning. Forty students live in the village were the school is located
while reside in Bogot. In spite of the fact that their permission depends
on their parents due to their age, they gave consent for their participation
in the study by a consent form created for them (see appendix 2).
The teacher who works with this approach is a lady. She is a zoologist
who decided to teach English some years ago, so she decided to train
herself in pedagogy at a university in Bogot. She is one of the teachers
who started Iconography in 2006. She has been working in the school
since 2006 with pre-school and primary students, teaching English using
Iconography. She provided consent to participate in this study (see
appendix 3). In spite of the fact that there is another EFL teacher in
second grade, she is the only teacher interviewed because the second
grade teacher was new at the moment the study was conducted. Besides,
data were only collected in pre-school grades.
The parents who are part of this study are the ones whose children
are participants too; it means fifty-three Pre-school parents. As their
children, they have been part of the institution during a short period of
time (0, 1 or 2 years). They receive the consent form for their childrens
51
participation as well as their own (see appendix 4) and they all accepted
to participate voluntarily in this research.
The principal is a lady. She has been the principal of the school
since 2006, except in 2008 when another principal was in charge of the
institution. She studied Social Sciences and Educational Administration.
She is strongly interested in the English learning process students have in
the school because she emphasizes the importance of being bilingual in
a globalized world, even though she does not speak English.
The sample procedure followed in order to select the population
participating in the study is a unique purposeful sampling (Merriam,
1998) because participants are just found in the specific context where
Iconography is used. However, two main criteria for sampling were
considered. First of all, participants should be involved in the use of
Iconography in the EFL teaching practice. Secondly, participants should
be in pre-school level, since this is the first stage where Iconography is
implemented.
Researchers Role
The role of the researcher in this study was complete observer since
she did not take part in the activities proposed by the teacher, but
just observed the way they were carried out. According to Marshall
and Rossman (1999), the researcher is considered the instrument of a
qualitative research, being her role a very important issue in the present
study.
The technical aspects related to access the setting have been elucidated
since the consent form letters were provided and signed by the different
participants. In addition, all the participants were informed about what
the research was about through the consent forms. With regards to the
ethical issues (Punch, 1994), the code of ethics assumed during the
research process included and guaranteed: privacy, confidentiality of
data, respect for the agreements, trust, and honesty.
52
Data Collection: Instruments and Procedures

According to Seliger & Shohamy (2008), instruments are conceived as
the tools employed by the researcher in order to collect the information.
In this study four instruments were used to gather data: observation,
questionnaires, interviews, and documents. They were four because it is
necessary to show validity and reliability in the research development.
These are evident in triangulation (Sagor, 2000), which means the use of
different perspectives to support a claim and strengthen its validity and
reliability.
As each instrument has a different data collection purpose, it was
necessary to create a triangulation plan in which each instrument helped
to corroborate the findings by looking at them from different perspectives.
According to Sagor (2000), this plan takes different sources for each
question, as is shown in table 4. In the coming section, each instrument
for data collection is explained and a description of their importance and
usefulness for this study will be given.
Table 4. Data collection matrix
Research question
How does Iconography
work in the EFL pre-school
classroom?
What are the pedagogical underpinnings of the
EFL teaching practice held
in this particular school
context when Iconography
is used?
How is the EFL teaching
practice developed in
pre-school when using
Iconography?
What are the perceptions
that the educational community has of the use of
Iconography?
Data source #1
Data source #2
Observation (Class
sessions)
Questionnaire (students and parents)
Observation (Class
sessions)
Interview
(teacher)
Documents
Observation (Class
sessions)
Interviews
(teacher and principal)
Documents
Questionnaire (students and parents)
Interviews
(teacher and principal)
Observation
(Class sessions)
53
Data source #3
Interviews
(teacher and
principal)
Observation, field notes: According to Merriam (1998), field notes

are the written account of what the observer observes. However, they
are not just a narrative of what is happening in the class but are focused
on a particular aspect of teaching and learning. (Wallace, 2006)
Besides, according to Burns (2003), observation is the mainstay data
collection instrument of qualitative research. Observation allows the
researcher to document and reflect systematically upon classroom
interactions and events, as they actually occur (Burns, 2003, p. 80).
Observation is characterized by the fact that it takes place in the natural
field. In this study, the observations were undertaken in the pre-school
classroom, which is the real environment where Iconography is used.
This instrument gives the opportunity to have a first-hand experience
with the participants, which is an important aspect for a qualitative study.
Besides, another advantage is that the researcher can record information
as it is revealed (Creswell, 2003, p. 214). This is something that makes
this instrument special, because it reveals the data from the very moment
they are gathered. Nevertheless, the main disadvantage it has is the lack
of good attending and observing skills the researcher may have. In this
research, this disadvantage was overcome by observation training before
starting to collect data through field notes. This observation training
consisted of visiting and observing the classes and recording with a
camera and later through, field notes, recording what the researcher was
observing. The second weakness it has is that the researcher may be seen
as someone intrusive in the class environment. This difficulty was solved
during the observation training and piloting because the students and the
teacher were accustomed to the researchers presence in their classroom
during this process.
As Merriam (1998) asserts, field notes based on observation need to
be in a format (p. 105). For the field notes the format was created in
order to help the researcher, to write down the information relevant for
the study. This format is divided into three parts (see appendix 5); the
first part includes general characteristics such as date, the name of the
school, the setting, grade, activity, and the page number. The second
part has the research questions, which are included as a guide for the
54
researcher during the observational process. The last part is distributed

into two columns, the observation itself and the comments or reflections.
Additionally, video recording of sessions were used as a support for
the observation because it can make a permanent record of contextual
and paralinguistic data, such as chalkboard work, the layout of the
classroom, movement, gestures, facial expressions and so on (Wallace,
2006, p. 107). This strategy was chosen because some data from the
observation could get lost, so in a review of the recording any missing
piece could be identified. As Burns (2003) asserts, a useful approach
could be to review short segments of the recordings, particularly those
which represent critical points in relation to the research issues (p. 96).
This was done even if this was not the main instrument but a support to
the field notes in order to obtain reliable data.
Interviews: The interview is defined by Merriam (1998) as a dialogue
with the purpose to gather singular kind of information. This instrument
helps to obtain data the researcher cannot observe. This instrument
involves respondents reporting on themselves, their views, their beliefs,
their interactions, and so on (Wallace, 2006, p. 13).
In the case of this study, the semi-structured interview was used. In
this type of interview, there is an interview agenda already prepared
by the interviewer but it may change during the interviewing process
(Wallace, 2006). With this prepared plan, the main purpose was to
guide the conversation to explore the research topic. This instrument was
useful in this study because the perspectives and perceptions of the other
participants (the teacher and the principal) were taken into account.
Moreover, with this instrument the opinions of these participants were
gathered and became a very important source in the understanding of
Iconography.
The main advantage of this type of interviews is its flexibility because,
as a researcher, one can guide the interview towards the purpose of the
study. As Merriam (1998) asserts, the researcher can face the situation
in the moment it is happening by changing the questions when he/she
considers it necessary or just reformulating them. Another advantage is
the non-verbal answers one can obtain which are excluded in a written
document.
55
However, it has as its main disadvantage that it is a time-consuming

instrument (Merriam, 1998). This shortcoming was solved by making the
interviews at different moments during the research process so that there
was time to transcribe them.
The first semi-structured interview was designed for the principal
(see appendix 6). It was written in Spanish because she does not speak
English. The questions aim at obtaining her opinion and perceptions of
Iconography as the main and legal head of the institution. The second was
planned for the EFL teacher, but for her four semi-structured interviews
were designed (see appendix 7). The interview protocols were written
in English but the teacher asked to have the interviews in Spanish, so
the interview questions were translated into Spanish. The questions of
these interviews aimed at gathering information about the beginnings of
Iconography, the way she understands the EFL teaching practice with it,
and her position towards it.
Questionnaires: Questionnaires are self-report data collection
instruments that each participant fills out as part of a research study
(Johnson & Christensen, 2004, p. 164). According to Johnson &
Christensen (2004), there are different types of data one can collect
with this instrument such as behavior, experiences, attitudes, knowledge
and background. In this study, this instrument was important because
it helped to obtain two types of information. The first one was about
the profile of the participants; this implies demographic information and
their background. The second type was the one related to the research
itself; it means their experience, attitude, knowledge, and opinion about
Iconography.
The main characteristic of this instrument is that it contains multiple
questions and statements (Johnson & Christensen, 2004). There are some
aspects mentioned by Bell (2005) which must be taken into account
when the researcher is preparing the questionnaire. They are question
wording, appearance and layout, drawing a sample, and piloting it. Those
aspects were considered during the elaboration of the questionnaires
because we were careful with the layout due to the fact that it was
designed for little children. Besides, the piloting process was essential
56
because we could realize the mistakes in terms of wording so children

could comprehend its content.
The great advantage of questionnaires is that they help to save time
(Wallace, 2006). This instrument has some disadvantages according to
Merriam (1998). The first one is the ambiguity that questions can have;
in this research, this was handled with a previous check of the wording
of each item stem as well as seeing the students reactions during the
piloting process. Another disadvantage is intrusiveness. This was dealt
with in this research by the use of the consent form as a way to present
the research; secondly, by using a familiar and kind language in the
presentation of the instrument; and finally, by applying it after some
observations in the classroom.
In this study, questionnaires were applied to two groups of participants:
parents and students. The difference between those questionnaires was
that the one prepared for parents (see appendix 8) aimed at gathering
information about the family context the students were involved in
and the perceptions, opinions and experiences of the parents with
Iconography. In this questionnaire the terms method and approach
were used indistinctively to refer to Iconography because when the
questionnaires were applied, it was not clear what Iconography was. In
addition, the questionnaires designed for students (see appendix 9) were
more focused on Iconography itself except for some personal questions
such as age, gender, and people who live with them.
Documents: According to Merriam, (1998) documents are an umbrella
term which refers to written materials, visual, and physical material
relevant to the study. This instrument is characterized by documents
being ready-made; then, the researcher has to look for them and analyze
them. There are different types of documents: public, personal, and
physical material. For this study, two types of documents were used:
public school documents and artifacts. Public school documents include
the EFL syllabus, curriculum, lesson plans, and class material used when
Iconography was utilized in pre-school grades. Artifacts were the exams,
the visual material used in the classroom and the activities made by the
students.
57
These types of documents were useful for the present study because
they revealed things that cannot be observed as goals and decisions about
using Iconography (Merriam, 1998). This issue is relevant because it is
one part of Iconography that could not be evidenced in class observation
but that could be found in different written documents.
Moreover, documents not only provide valuable information about
the program itself, but they can also stimulate thinking about important
questions (Merriam, 1998, p. 114). It implies that during the research
process the use of those documents can make the research questions
change or be reformulated.
In regards to artifact, it consists of physical objects found within the
study setting (Merriam, 1998, p. 117). In the present study the artifacts
were those materials used or created in class. The ones used in class refer
to the exams and workshops that the teacher generated with a specific
teaching purpose. The materials created in class are those artifacts
that students made on their own following specific instructions in class
sessions such as handicrafts, drawings, and objects molded with clay.
With documents it is difficult to determine their authenticity and
accuracy; this is a disadvantage they have. In this study, it was dealt with
by taking the original documents from the school. However, the use of
documents has some advantages; the first one is that they are readymade saving time in the collection process. Secondly, documents are
free, and contain information that would take an investigator enormous
time and effort to gather otherwise (Merriam, 1998, p. 125). This
was important for this study because it helped to save time which was
valuable in the collection of data from other sources.
Data Collection Procedures

The data collection in pre-school grades began on February 4th, 2013,
with the reading of the documents, and finished on June 11th, 2013. This
period comprehends two academic terms when the students did not
change and were working with the same teacher. The class observations
were carried out weekly, twice a week during five months including the
58
four grades, one session per grade was observed each week. The class
observation started on March 12th and finished on June 11th. Each class
was observed and recorded, and then the observations were written
down in the field notes. Four different grades were observed: pre-kinder,
kinder, transition A, and transition B.
The interview for the principal was made during the second month
of the observational process (March 21st) because from observations,
questions for the principal arose. The interview was recorded and
then transcribed. The four interviews for the teacher were conducted
at the beginning, during, and after the observation (March 13th, April
7th, May 13th, and June 18th). As well as the interview for the principal,
these interviews were recorded and then transcribed using specific
transcription conventions taken and adapted from Chapetn (2007), (see
appendix 10).
With respect to the questionnaires, two were applied: one for students
and one for parents. For students, the questionnaire was applied on April
17th; it was simultaneous with the class observation. Questionnaires for
parents were conducted in the middle of the process on April 23rd. It was
done in that moment because some information about Iconography could
be forgotten by parents during vacation time. After both questionnaires
were applied, they were analyzed by grouping the data collected.
Finally, two types of documents were collected: public documents
from the institution and artifacts. The public documents were revised since
the first day because it was necessary in order to compare the classroom
practices with what was written in the official school documents. Artifacts
were gathered as they were produced by students or by the EFL teacher.
Table 5 presents the data collection plan including the month when
data was collected, the instrument that was used each month, and the
participants involved in the process.
59
Table 5. Data collection plan

MONTH
February
March
April
May
June
INSTRUMENT
Documents check
Observation (Pre-kinder, kinder, transition)
Interview
Interview 1
Documents check
Interview 2
Questionnaires
Questionnaires
Documents check
Observation(Pre-kinder, kinder, transition)
Interview 3
Documents check
Observation(Pre-kinder, kinder, transition)
Interview 4
Documents check
PARTICIPANT
Teacher and Students
Principal
Teacher
Teacher
Students
Parents
Teacher
Teacher
Having collected the data in a systematic way, the process for data
analysis and coding started. The next section of this chapter provides an
account of the way this process was carried out.
Procedures for Data Analysis

During the analysis process the grounded approach was used (Merriam,
1998); thus, all the categories and theory that emerged from this study
came from the very data. The process of analysis started by reading the
data gathered with the field notes, questionnaires, interviews and artifacts.
Bearing in mind that data analysis is an ongoing process (Merriam, 1998);
the data was read several times. Simultaneously, units of analysis started
to be identified, understanding them as the smallest but significant pieces
of data that lead to find patterns (Merriam, 1998). At the same time, the
microanalysis was done, which, according to Corbin and Strauss (2008) is
the detailed line-by-line analysis necessary at the beginning of the study
to generate categories (p. 57). The purpose of this microanalysis was to
60
establish a connection with the data and finding the hidden information
provided.
After that, the search for patterns and themes which were repeated
began; different questions were asked in order to find the relationships
among them (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). These patterns were underlined
in the different instruments with different colors; then the coding process
was done by giving a name to each color bearing in mind the theme they
shared.
Later on, concepts were identified and grouped into categories,
recognizing their properties and dimensions; this was done by making
diagrams. According to Corbin and Strauss (2008), the first ones are those
aspects that characterize the category; and the dimensions are variations
of the characteristics within a category. During this process, having in
mind the research questions, data were reassembled as many times as it
was necessary in the diagrams until a clear understanding of them was
reached.
Bearing in mind that theorizing is the process by which a theory is
developed to explain some aspects of educational practice and allows
one to draw inferences about future activities (Merriam, 1998, p. 141),
the process of building theory started by looking for the connections
among categories and explaining the way Iconography works; afterwards,
the links were made with the theoretical framework.
To ensure validity and reliability, the findings were examined to
find consistency with the data collected (Creswell, 2003). Additionally,
triangulation was confirmed by considering all the data collected and
organizing them in different ways to comprehend them (Freeman, 1988).
In order to process and manage the data, the artifacts were organized
taking into account three aspects: First, the grade were the artifact was
collected; second, the type of artifact collected; and third, the participant
who worked on the artifact. A code was given to each aspect, and thus,
different codes were assigned to the different artifacts. This coding
procedure is presented in table 6:
61
Table 6. Coding process

ASPECT OF THE ARTIFACT
Grade
Type
Participant
CODE
PK
K
T
W
E
A
S1, S2, S3
T
MEANING
Pre-kinder
Kinder
Transition
Workshop
Exam
Activity
Student
Teacher
These codes were used to identify the data that illustrate each one
of the emergent categories and subcategories. Thus, an excerpt taken
from grade Kinder, from an exam, produced by the teacher, would be
identified as K.E.T.
As stated in the first chapter of this book, this study attempted to
characterize Iconography as used in pre-school, not only focusing
on Iconography as an isolated aspect but as a part of the whole EFL
teaching process held at that level. Table 7 shows the categories and the
subcategories that emerged from the analysis and their relation to each
one of the research questions guiding this study.
Table 7. Categories resulting from the analysis
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
CATEGORIES
SUBCATEGORIES
Icons and symbols as meaningful images
for EFL
How does Iconography

work in the EFL preschool classroom?
The combination of icons and symbols as

Iconography as a semiota communicative system in EFL
ic literacy practice where
Iconography as a socially situated semiotic
icons and symbols are
used to convey meaning practice
The uses of iconography in the EFL classroom: a socially situated semiotic practice
62
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
What are the pedagogical underpinnings of the
EFL teaching practice
held in this particular
school context when
Iconography is used?
CATEGORIES
SUBCATEGORIES
Pre-school as a particular context
The post-method as the

pedagogical underpinning that guides the EFL
teaching practice
Iconography as a fusion of personal and

professional theories.
Experiences that shape the teaching
practice
Teaching techniques used in the classroom
How is the EFL teaching

practice developed in
pre-school when using
Iconography?
Unveiling the EFL teach- Principles involved in the teaching pracing practice in pre-school tice
What are the perceptions that the educational

community has of the
use of Iconography?
Participants perceptions
about the use of Iconography in pre-school
classrooms
Procedures that encompass the whole

practice
Challenges of Iconography
Opportunities of Iconography
As seen in Table 7, the emergent categories are presented taking into

account the order in which the research questions are posed. The first
category is Iconography as a semiotic literacy practice where icons and
symbols are used to convey meaning. This category is related to the first
research question and explains the way Iconography works from the
semiotic point of view, in the specific context where it takes place. The
subcategories that emerged in regards to this category are: Icons and
symbols as meaningful images for EFL, the combination of icons and
symbols as a communicative system in EFL, Iconography as a socially
situated semiotic practice, and the uses of iconography in the EFL
classroom: a socially situated semiotic practice.
The post-method as the pedagogical underpinning that guides the EFL
teaching practice is the second category that emerged from the analysis.
It deals with the second research question related to the pedagogical
underpinnings of the EFL teaching practice in the context studied. It
63
shows the post-method as the answer for this inquiry. The subcategories
are: Pre-school as a particular context, Iconography as a fusion of theory
and practice, and experiences that shape the teaching practice.
The third research question deals with the way the EFL teaching
practice is developed in pre-school. The emergent category regarding to
this question describes how the teaching practice is carried out: Unveiling
the EFL teaching practice in pre-school. Three subcategories arose:
Teaching techniques used in the classroom, principles involved in the
teaching practice, and procedures that encompass the whole practice.
The last question is focused on the perceptions of the community
involved in Iconography; thus, the category that emerged is: Participants
perceptions about the use of Iconography in pre-school classrooms. Two
subcategories emerged: Challenges of Iconography, which refers to those
perceptions that are negative. The second subcategory is opportunities of
Iconography, which is related to those positive perceptions.
After having made a general description of the categories and
subcategories that emerged from the analysis, a detailed description and
discussion of each category is now presented in separate chapters.
64
Iconography as a semiotic literacy practice

where icons and symbols are used to convey
meaning
This chapter describes the way Iconography works in the pre-school
EFL classroom. It relies on semiotics as Iconography includes two kinds
of signs: icons and symbols, and they are used in the classroom as a
means to teach English and convey meaning through their use. Although
all of the instruments were taken into consideration, artifacts were
fundamental in order to figure out how Iconography works, to distinguish
the icons from symbols, and to identify their role in meaning making and
communication.
Iconography is a semiotic practice for four main reasons. Firstly, taking
into account that semiotics is the discipline that studies the signs and
how they work (Saussure, 1916 cited in Eco, 1995), Iconography is a
semiotic practice because in order to comprehend it icons and symbols
must be studied and described. Secondly, icons are used in order to
represent an entity, which is the main characteristic of a sign. As Eco
(1998) asserts, a sign is an entity that represents another entity based on
its characteristics. The following image shows how a drawing represents
the concept scissors for students. The drawing was made by a student
who wanted to use the word scissors in a sentence; he used the shape as
the main characteristic in order to represent the object:
65
Figure 1. SCISSORS (T.E. S3)
Thirdly, in the present study, a distinction between the signs used in

Iconography is necessary. This is another aspect worked on by semiotics:
the classification of signs, which in the case of the present study are icons
and symbols. It is necessary because Iconography uses several images;
some of them have an explicit meaning, which is the case of icons; and
the others, which is the case of symbols, carry implicit meaning. In the
following two images used in class, the two types of signs are shown
(see Table 8). In the first one a pencil is represented explicitly since it
has the same shape of it. The second image represents the preposition
in. It has an implicit meaning since there is no evident relation with the
prepositional meaning.
Table 8. Icon and symbol comparison
ICON
SYMBOL
Figure 2.
PENCIL (T.E1. S13)
Figure 3.
IN (T.W3. S10)
In order to achieve a better understanding of the way Iconography

works, four subcategories were established. These are: Icons and symbols
as meaningful images for EFL, the combination of icons and symbols as a
communicative system in EFL, Iconography as a socially situated semiotic
practice, and the use of Iconography in the EFL classroom: a socially
situated semiotic practice.
66
Icons and symbols as EFL meaningful images

This subcategory shows how icons and symbols work, their characteristics,
and how they are used in the class to represent a concept or object
instead of using the linguistic sign1. Data revealed that icons and symbols
used in class are presented in two ways: images taken from the web or
books, and drawings made by students and teachers.
First of all, it is necessary to deal with each concept individually, then
to compare them as a part of the Iconography system. As Peirce (1977)
asserts, an icon has the qualities of the object that it represents; thus, it
has a strong connection with it. Most of the images and drawings used
in class are icons since the connection with the object represented is
evident. For example, the icon of house is a drawing that contains most
of the properties a house has. Figure 6, taken from a workshop, shows
a drawing of a house made out of geometrical figures that represent the
parts of the house: the triangle is the roof, the squares are the windows
and the semi-circle is the door:
Figure 4. HOUSE (T.W3. S10)
Another example of the icons used in class is the one used to

represent a table. The image below shows the icon used by the teacher
in a workshop to represent the word table. It is composed by a rectangle
that represents the top, and four vertical lines as the legs of the table:
A linguistic sign is understood as any unit of language used to designate an object, for instance, a word, phrase or sentence. It has two components: a signifier (phonic component) and a signified (concept of object)
(Cobley & Jansz, 2001).
67
Figure 5. TABLE (T.W3. T)
Additionally, the analysis of data showed that there are different

degrees of iconicity in the icons used in the EFL class. According to Eco
(1976), icons may have a high degree of iconicity because they have
more similarities with the objects they represent, while others can have
a low degree when they are created arbitrarily. Table 9 shows some
different degrees of iconicity found in the Iconography used in the EFL
classroom. This classification is done based on the images or drawings
selected, as shown in the table; it means that the classification could
change if other images were taken into account since it depends on the
similarities with the object represented. This variation also relies on the
origin of the icon, that is, whether it is an image taken from any source,
or a drawing made by the teacher or the students.
The few examples, presented in the Table 9 show how Iconography
uses different degrees of iconicity to convey meaning, it goes from a high
degree to a lower degree: from the most concrete to the most abstract.
Besides, it can be observed that some of them have an evident connection
with the object represented, as is the case of apple because it is a concrete
object. On the other hand, icons that represent abstract concepts such as
the prepositions in and on have the connection established by a relation
that is not evident and seems to be implicit.
68
Table 9. Degrees of Iconicity2

HIGH
DEGREE
ICON
MEANING
EXPLANATION
apple
The icon used to designate an apple

has a high degree of iconicity because
it has a lot of qualities of an apple,
such as the shape and the leave.
Figure 6.
(T.W3. S5)
house
Figure 7.
(T.W3. S3)
LOW DEGREE
hospital
Figure 8.
(T. W3. S5)
in
Figure 9.
(T.W. S10)
on
Figure 10.
(K.A.T.)
The icon of a house has the shape of

a common house with a roof, a door,
and windows. However, it is not clear
since someone could associate the
geometrical figures with something
else.
The icon of hospital has a lower
degree than a house, because it has
the same characteristics of the house,
except that e it is bigger and has a
cross on the roof. The cross could
represent a hospital or a church2.
The icon of in has a relation of
position represented by the arrow;
however the icon just represents
one part of the characteristics that is
not completely evident, since is an
abstract notion.
The icon of on shows the relation
of position between two objects;
however if the person does not know
that it is representing that relation, it
is difficult to recognize its meaning.
The other type of sign used is symbols. Symbols are created arbitrarily
(Eco, 1986) and do not have a clear connection with the concept they
represent. For instance, the symbol that represents the word is, is a spiral;
2
This ambiguity is resolved when the context in which the icon is used is looked into. See discussion on
Iconography as a social situated practice in section 4.3.
69
the image below shows this symbol. This is an arbitrary connection since
a spiral does not have any of the conditions that is conveys such as quality
or position.
Figure 11. IS (T.E1. S4)
Another example of a symbol used in the class is an arrow that

represents the word the. It is a symbol since there is not an evident
connection between the definite article and the drawing used.
Figure 12. THE (T.E1. S4)
After presenting a general view of icons and symbols as signs used

to convey meaning in English, it is necessary to compare them in order
to gain a clear understanding of them and their work in Iconography
as a semiotic practice. They are different because of the connection
they establish with the objects they represent; in the case of icons
this connection is explicit, while with symbols this connection is not
manifested and is rather arbitrary. However, in Iconography both work
as a whole system in order to teach English as a foreign language to
this group of preschoolers, a communicative system that replaces the
linguistic signs (see next section).
The following graph presents a comparison between the two kinds of
signs involved in Iconography.
70
ICON
Clear connection
with the represented
object
SIGN
Image
that
conveys
meaning
in EFL
SYMBOL
No evident
relation with the
objects
represented
Graph 3. Icon and symbol comparison
The images presented above show how each drawing or picture

conveys the meaning of a word in English. Some of them are easy for
students to recognize because of the strong connection they have with
the object represented, that is the case of icons, making the vocabulary
learning easier and faster since students associate the object with the
meaning in English; symbols, instead, are created arbitrarily and do not
have a strong connection with the concept they represent.
The combination of icons and symbols as a

communicative system
Bearing in mind that each icon and symbol convey meaning, the
combination of them creates sentences which have a clear message that
is understandable by the students and the teacher. This combination
allows students to convey meaningful messages that are understood in
the foreign language. The following excerpt, taken from an activity the
teacher prepared to work on school materials, shows how a sentence is
drawn and how it conveys a message in English that is: The pencil is on
the table.
71
Figure 13. The pencil is on the table. (K.A. T)
As was explained in the previous section, this sentence contains six

different meaningful drawings that together create a communicative
system. The arrow is used as a symbol that represents the word the; the
pencil is an icon that represents a pencil; the spiral is the symbol that
represents the verb is; the fourth drawing that is a semi-circle with a line
on it, is an icon that represents the preposition on; the arrow again as the
article the; and a drawing of a square with legs is an icon that represents
a table. The combination of three symbols and three icons creates a
meaningful sentence in English that conveys the message related to the
location of a pencil.
Another example of how Iconography works as a communicative
system is presented below. In this case, in a workshop, students drew the
sentences based on an image, which in this case was a house; they used
the icons they considered appropriate to refer to the house. The sentence
means: the cat is in the house. In this case, the student chose the icons
of the cat, imagining that the cat was in the house; hence, the other
icons chosen by her are strongly linked to the communicative purpose
the student had. This sentence includes six signs: an arrow which is the
symbol of the word the, the icon of the word cat, the symbol of the word
is, the icon of the word in, the symbol of the word the, and the icon of
the word house:
Figure 14. The cat is in the house. (T.W3. S6)
72
Taking into account the examples presented above, it can be said that
Iconography is a communicative system in the foreign language used by
students and teacher in order to learn and to teach English by using icons
and symbols instead of the conventional written system.
Data revealed that different skills can be worked through Iconography.
These include reading, writing, listening and speaking. The following
excerpt is an example where students read and write a sentence
presented in a workshop for them. The workshop included two items;
in the first one, they had to write a sentence based on an image; in the
second they had to draw the image based on the sentence, which is the
case of the present excerpt. Students read the sentence created by the
teacher, and then they drew the meaning of the message as part of a
workshop in the EFL class.
Figure 15. The apple is on the table. (T.W3. S11)
The sentence says the apple is on the table. The six signs used in
the sentence convey a clear meaning for the student, who in this case
drew the situation presented in the sentence which is represented below
with an apple on a table. This example shows how Iconography helps
students to communicate and to convey meaning.
Besides, as the following excerpt shows, Iconography is used by
students not only in the written form, but also orally. It means that it is a
communicative system in the foreign language since students read them
using the words in English and show understanding:
73
The teacher writes 2 sentences in icons on the whiteboard. The teacher starts giving the instructions in English, she reads the rst sentence
this is a house then she says they must mold a house. She reads the
other sentence The bathroom is in the house. One student says El
bao est dentro de la casa, the teacher says very good.
(Field notes, Transition, April 8, p. 1, lines 15-18)
In the situation presented above, students had to use their listening

skills in order to comprehend the instructions the teacher was giving.
Besides students read the sentences written on the board, practicing two
language skills at the same time (listening and reading). Another example
is presented below; in this case the students practice the listening and
writing skills because they have to listen to a sentence in English, and
then they have to write the sentence in icons on the board:
The teacher draws 2 squares in the whiteboard, and asks one student
to pass to the front and write the sentence that she will say. Then, the
teacher shows a pencil and says this is a pencil, the student writes the
sentence in icons on the whiteboard.
The excerpt above illustrates the use of two language skills in the class
through the use of Iconography, which means that Iconography is not
only a written system but a whole communicative system. The skills are
not only practiced in activities in the class, but they are also evaluated in
the exams:
74
Figure 16. Item from an exam (T.E. S15)
As presented in the excerpt above, in the exams the listening skill is

evaluated by listening to a command and drawing the corresponding
icon or symbol. As was presented in this section, Iconography is a
communicative system that encompasses the use of two kinds of signs to
communicate. Moreover, it allows students to practice the four language
skills used to communicate.
Iconography as a socially situated semiotic practice

The use of different icons reveals that Iconography is a socially situated
practice because the students and the teacher recognize the icons they
create and use; as Barton (2007) claims, it is understood in the context
where it takes place. One example of this situation is evidenced with
the demonstrative this, which is represented with a pointing hand; the
icon below is the image used in the class to represent that word (figure
13). This icon could mean hand or finger because of the image that is
used, but for the students and the teacher it conveys a different meaning:
referring, indicating, or pointing at an object, person or idea. The same
happens with the plural demonstrative these which is represented by two
hands (figure 14):
75
Figure 17. THIS (T.W3. T)
Figure 18. THESE (T.E1. S13)
Another aspect to take into account related to the socially situated

facet of Iconography is the creation of the icons. Sometimes this creation
process is done by the students and the teacher together, which implies
that they are established through a social practice. The following sample
shows how the creation of an icon is carried out. Also, it reveals how the
imagery students have about one entity guides them to create an icon.
Teacher draws squares on the white board, then she draws some icons
that make the sentence: Can I ___ you?, but it is missing the word
help. Teacher asks students to help her to create the icon for the missing
word. Students do not understand the instruction. Teacher says that
Sammy is going to be the waiter and he is going to say: Can I help you?
Students understand the question and they suggest her to draw a policeman or a reman. Then teacher draws a person helping another.
(Field notes, Transition, March 19, p. 1, lines 17-21)
In the situation above students are asked to create the icon of the word
help and they suggest a policeman or a fireman because for them they
76
are people who help others. This means that when students are asked
to create a sign, they start making connections with the concept they
are trying to represent creating icons using their background knowledge.
Thus, when the students and the teacher see the icon they created (the
image of two people, one on the floor and the other giving a hand)
they recognize it, but probably external people to this context will not.
In this situation, one aspect mentioned by Grossi (1990) related to the
social literacy process is evident: interaction allows people to establish
the criteria of creation, use, and meaning of signs, and the exclusion of
others.
Another example of this social situation is presented in the image
below where a sentence is written in icons. The sentence is the doctor
is in the hospital. Each icon could communicate a different idea or
concept; however, as it is a socially situated construction, this sentence is
meaningful for the preschoolers and for the teacher:
Figure 19. The doctor is in the hospital. (T.W3. S5)
All in all, Iconography is a socially situated semiotic practice because

it takes place in a specific context with particular characteristics shared
by the group of preschoolers and the teacher at this particular school
context. Besides, all of them understand the way Iconography works, the
meaning of the icons, and all of them are able to communicate in English
using it.
77
The uses of Iconography in the EFL classroom: a

socially situated semiotic practice
Iconography is a practice that encompasses two aspects: semiotics and
literacy. As was presented in one of the previous sections, Iconography
is a semiotic practice because of the use of signs. Therefore, the use of
these signs encompasses a communicative system for the students and
the teacher to communicate in the foreign language classroom. Then,
taking into account that literacy is the process in which people engage
in communication (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000), Iconography becomes the
socially situated semiotic practice in the class.
In spite of the fact that Iconography is a type of literacy, different
from the conventional one3, there is a socially situated semiotic literacy
practice in the class that is present when Iconography is used. In the
following excerpt it is shown how Iconography works in the moment
that the teacher needs students to use literacy; this use means she needs
to write a sentence to guide the students in a class activity, and so they
read it:
The teacher gives each student another piece of paper; she says they are
going to write some sentences about the bathroom there. The teacher
writes 3 sentences in icons on the board. The sentences are: This is a
toilet paper, this is a toilet, and this is a mirror. Students copy from the
board the sentences on the piece of paper.
In the excerpt above, the need of writing descriptive sentences that

students can read is illustrated. This situation implies that literacy is seen
as a part of the process to be developed in pre-school. In addition, this
socially situated semiotic practice is carried out by using icons. During
the second interview, the teacher said that she uses icons so students can
work on their reading and writing skills in the class, while learning a song:
3
Conventional literacy: It is understood as the use of formal English spelling in reading and writing.
78
T: En este momento por ejemplo, en knder, eh se est, hice toda una

cancin en forma iconogrca, toda la cancin, ellos no saben leer ni
escribir en espaol ni obviamente en ingls, entonces se coloca toda la
cancin con iconos y excelentes resultados.
(Second Teachers semi-structured interview, May 7, 2013. p. 4.)
This affirmation supports the claim that Iconography is used as a

socially situated semiotic literacy practice since the teacher recognizes
the fact that students do not have command of conventional literacy but
they understand icons and the messages conveyed with them. As Gillen
and Hall (2003) claim, all the activities carried out during early childhood
in order to convey messages are understood as literacy.
Moreover, data revealed that sentences written in icons were used in
class when it was necessary to involve students in the literacy process; this
is conceived by Holme (2004), as encoding and decoding visual signs,
which in this case are the icons. As is shown in the following excerpt,
students were asked to read the commands of school which were written
in icons for them:
The Teacher asks one student to be her assistant helping her to present
a poster where the school commands are written in icons. The Teacher
holds the poster with her assistant in front of the class so they read the
sentences; students look at the icons and say what it means.
(Field notes, Transition, March 19, p.1, lines 1-3)
Reading commands is a normal activity in an EFL classroom but the

variation in this case is the use of icons as the communicative system to
communicate and convey meaning. In some other cases, Iconography
is used because it is necessary to clarify an oral message; the following
piece of data shows a situation where there was that need:
Then the Teacher says they have to say I am. One student says he
does not remember how it is; the teacher says she would help him and
79
then she starts writing a sentence in icons on the whiteboard and reads
it aloud, the sentence is I am.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, April 8, p.1, lines 8-9)
Iconography was shown to be the moment where students have

the opportunity to practice reading and writing, to work on the other
activities carried out in class such as songs, and the chance to comprehend
messages that were not clear for them in an oral way.
To sum up, Iconography is a socially situated semiotic literacy practice
used to teach English to a group of pre-school students. In order to achieve
this goal, two kinds of signs are used: icons and symbols. The role of
them is to replace the conventional written linguistic sign; thus, they are
meaningful in the context where they are used; and they communicate
students and teachers ideas when they feel the need to write/read them.
80
The post-method as the pedagogical

underpinning that guides the EFL teaching
practice based on Iconography
The present chapter of this book discusses an emergent category evidenced
in the data analysis which revealed that the teaching practice developed
in pre-school at this particular school context is supported on the postmethods principles. The subcategories emerged from the very theory
proposed by Kumaravadivelu (2008) who asserts that the post-method
consists of three pedagogical parameters: particularity, practicality, and
possibility. Based on them, the subcategories that this chapter develops are:
Pre-school as a particular context, Iconography as a fusion of personal and
professional theories, and Experiences that shape the teaching practice.
Bearing in mind Kumaravadivelus position towards method, and
how it is necessary to change the perspective of method, the analysis
of data evidenced that Iconography is shaped and developed within
the post-method condition. As Kumaravadivelu asserts, A product of
the post method condition, () is shaped by three operating principles:
particularity, practicality, and possibility (p. 69). These pedagogical
parameters were found in the teaching practice at pre-school. Graph
4 presents our visual understanding of the pedagogic parameters of
the post-method, evidenced in the practice. Then, each subcategory is
presented and discussed.
81
Pre-school as a
particular
context
Particularity
Post-method
(Pedagogic
parameters )
Personal
theories
Iconography
Professional
theories
Techniques and
principles taken
from theorists
Practicality
Participant's
experiences
Possibility
Graph 4. Visual understanding of the pedagogic parameters of the post-method
Pre-school as a particular context

This first subcategory refers to the particularity that the EFL teaching
practice represents. It implies that this pedagogical practice must be seen
in the light of this particular context and the characteristics it has as an
educational institution with a particular PEI and curriculum.
Bearing in mind that particularity refers to the local conditions of a
teaching practice (Kumaravadivelu, 2008), it was found that pre-school
is a particular context where there is a situational understanding of
the students needs. As argued by the principal, Iconography came up
because of some specific characteristics of the students and the school
context:
Como nos dimos cuenta que uno de los grandes retos era ensearle
ingls a nios que no vivan en un entorno que les facilitara eso, que sus
padres poco saban de ingls, que no haba libros de ingls, no haban,
no haba pelculas en ingls, entonces decidimos marcar la diferencia
pero indudablemente no podamos ser bilinges por los costos
(Principals interview, March 21, 2013. p.2)
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The principal assured they had to face the challenge to teach English to
students in a context where English is not spoken beyond the classroom
bounds and the foreign language may not be seen as an important tool in
life. Thus, Iconography was created towards the need of teaching English
in a different way to students and because of the specific socio-cultural
background they live in. Also, because the school noticed that there were
some lacks in terms of resources (e.g. teaching materials) and also in the
students context referring to the scarce use of English at home. Another
reason of the implementation of Iconography was highlighted by the EFL
teacher who said that it was because students had problems when they
had to read in conventional English spelling:
Cuando nosotros empezamos en [el colegio] pues, se empez a nivel
convencional, escribiendo, y se vea la dicultad que [se] tena con los
nios con esta metodologa del ingls tradicional o grafa estndar; entonces se busc que los estudiantes solamente practicaran su pronunciacin, todo su conocimiento solamente oral, pero tambin se not
que haban dicultades porque cmo hacamos para que ellos pudieran
recordar lo visto en clase en sus casas, entonces por esa razn empez
a surgir la iconografa.
(First Teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p.1-2)
As the teacher assured during the interview, the school started to

teach conventional literacy in English, but they realized that students
presented difficulties with this way of teaching the foreign language;
thus, they decided to transform the practice. It was a process where
several factors were taken into account: the need of teaching English
differently, the limited access to EFL teaching materials (books, movies),
the lack of a bilingual environment in the students context, the difficulty
faced by students when they had to use conventional English literacy,
and the need of taking notes in English without using the conventional
literacy. As the teacher expressed, Iconography was the result of facing
the difficulties experienced in the particular EFL pre-school classroom
and the opportunity to see language learning from a different perspective.
83
As Kumaravadivelu (2008) asserts, any actual post-method pedagogy

has to be constructed by teachers themselves by taking into consideration
linguistic, social, cultural and political particularities (p. 69). Iconography
appeared from those very particularities of the context that the school
identified and face, and the idea came up from the EFL teachers at the
school.
Moreover, in the decision made by the teachers and the institution,
there is an evidence of critical awareness towards the local conditions of
the students at the school, which is part of the particularity of the postmethod condition (Kumaravadivelu, 2008). This particularity involves
observing the teaching practice, detecting the problems and finding
a solution. In the case of this particular school, teachers evidenced
different problems but they saw them as the opportunity to improve
their practice; then, they started implementing Iconography as the new
teaching perspective in the EFL pre-school classroom.
Iconography as a fusion of personal and

professional theories
This subcategory emerged from the principle of practicality that
refers to the relationship between professional and personal theories
(Kumaravadivelu, 2008). According to Kumaravadivelu (2008), there
are professional theories generated by experts and personal theories
developed by the teachers while they are carrying out their teaching
practice.
The EFL teaching practice carried out in pre-school at this particular
school context has a fusion of the teachers theory with professional theory.
The teachers theory is present in the principles that support the practice
and Iconography itself. On the other hand, the professional theory is
displayed by the use of different teaching theories and techniques in the
class proposed by different language learning authors.
Kumaravadivelu (2008) claims that personal theories come from the
research teachers carry out. As the following excerpt shows, the teacher
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in this study started investigating about the use of images in class in order
to propose Iconography as a project for the school:
Empezamos a volverlo proyecto, empezamos a investigar que era iconografa y comunicacin oral, y desde ah se empez a implementar a
nivel institucional.
(First Teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p.2)
The academic and teaching struggle led teachers to reflect and

read about the ideas they had in order to improve their EFL teaching
practice. Iconography has those inner ideas from teachers but these
were supported on an academic inquiry. The inner ideas the teacher
had came from the pedagogical reflection the teacher did about her
practice, as Kumaravadivelu (2008) asserts the parameter of practicality,
then, focuses on teachers reflection and action, which are also based on
their insights and intuition (p. 173). This is also evidenced in the fact
that Iconography is an empirical practice where the teacher was more
concerned about developing and improving her teaching practice in the
classroom than writing a theoretical document to support her practice.
With regards to the professional theories, several theories were
found to be part of the teaching practice: teaching for comprehension,
communicative approach, total physical response, suggestopedia, audiolingual, and contemporary music approach. The use of this sort of theories
in the teaching practices makes the principle of practicality evident.
Teaching for understanding is one of the theories that support
Iconography. Teaching for understanding is an approach that aims at
making students transform their knowledge into information useful
for their daily lives (Blumenfeld, 1997). The teacher said that for the
implementation of Iconography in class, teaching for understanding is a
key concept:
Pensara que la enseanza para la comprensin es la base, es el estndar
de dnde puedo aplicar la iconografa. La enseanza para la comprensin hace que el docente tenga un objetivo y que tenga preparados unos
85
pasos para llegar a esa meta. Uso la iconografa para la enseanza de

ingls, pero uso la enseanza para la comprensin para tener el mtodo
y el enfoque para llegar a eso.
(Fourth Teachers semi-structured interview, June 18, 2013. p.3)
Teaching for comprehension provides the teaching standards

the teacher follows in the preparation of the lessons, such as the
comprehension goal, the objectives, and the generative topic; with these
elements the teacher prepares her classes where Iconography is used.
It is widely acknowledged that in the ELT field there is a variety of
theories that aim at providing background and explanation to the teaching
process. Within these, there are also different teaching techniques1,
evidenced in practice and taken from different language methods and
approaches. One example of these is the communicative approach. It
is understood by the school as the approach that has communication
as its basis, so the teachers need to create an environment where
students get involved in communicative situations. The techniques
taken from this approach are role-plays and games. They are considered
a tool in the communicative approach since they create authentic
communicative performances. Guevara and Ordoez (2012) state that
through role-plays the teachers can create a learning environment close
to the communicative situations students face out of the school. They
also highlight games as another technique used in the communicative
approach as a fun way to approach the language, since they make the
learning of the foreign language enjoyable for students.
Another professional theory is the Total Physical Response TPR
proposed by James J. Asher (1969). This method claims that students
learn the language by internalizing it and showing its understanding
through physical movements (English School Project, 2013, p. 9). As is
mentioned in the English project of the school, Total Physical Response
is a method used in two grades of pre-school (Pre-kinder and kinder):
The teaching techniques used in the EFL classroom will be discussed thoughtfully in section 6.1.
86
De pre-kinder a kinder se usar el TPR, ya que este permitir a los estudiantes el acercamiento a la lengua extranjera desde el seguimiento de
comandos que son familiares para los estudiantes.
(English School Project, Proyecto de Ingls 2013, p. 12)
Total Physical Response is incorporated in the class not only as the

method used to teach commands but also as a complement of the other
techniques and theories that the teacher and the institution have decided
to implement. The technique that displays the use of this method is the
use of songs that in some cases are sung and complemented by some
movements which are related to the vocabulary of the song.
Connected with the use of songs there is another method evidenced,
which is suggestopedia. This method is defined by Richards and Rodgers
(2001) as a set of learning suggestions for improving the learning, including
the use of music, furniture, decoration, among others. As will be discussed
in chapter 6, songs are used to create an English learning environment as
it is the purpose of using music presented in suggestopedia.
The last theory is evidenced in the use of handicrafts. As Bass (2008)
claims, they are extremely useful as learners can develop their listening
and reading skills while following the written or oral instructions (p. 3).
The use of handicrafts in the EFL class will be discussed later in section
6.1.
The theories and techniques used in the teaching practice in preschool have been used in EFL teaching before, the difference in this
practice, and as the post-method predicament asserts, is the use, purpose,
and combinations with other practices based on the particularity of the
context and the experiences of the participants involved in the process.
So, the teaching practice conducted in pre-school at this school context
is particular because of the way the teaching theories are implemented.
To sum up, data revealed that the teaching practice held in preschool in this setting is a fusion of the personal theories the teacher has
built with her experience and reflections on her practice, and different
teaching theories that have been applied taking into account the context
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where the practice is carried out and the purposes the institution and the
teacher have.
Experiences that shape the teaching practice

This subcategory is related to the principle of possibility, which, according
to Kumaravadivelu (2008), refers to the importance of the participants
experiences in the construction of the pedagogical practice and how
those experiences shape the classroom. Besides, Kumaravadivelu (2008)
argues that the social experiences students and the teacher bring into the
pedagogical practice affect the teaching practice in different ways.
The teaching practice carried out in pre-school at this school involves
four participants: the students, the teacher, the institution, and the
parents. This means that experiences from four different participants
influence the teaching practice.
The first experience that shapes the practice comes from students, who
in spite of their short age, express their ideas, opinions, and suggestions
about different aspects of the class. The following excerpt shows how
students can shape aspects of the practice in the EFL class:
A los nios en pre-kinder, para ver el video [of the song] en determinada situacin o en determinados sitios, ellos dicen, no hagmoslo en
crculo, bueno es aceptada su sugerencia y se hacen en crculo. O ellos
mismos cogen su mesita y se ubican como quieren, entonces no se les
dice que no.
(Third Teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p.8)
As the piece of data above shows, the students reflect about the
dynamics of the class when watching a video and propose ways to
develop the activity. This suggestion implies that the students take active
part in the teaching practice in pre-school, showing that they are active
learners.
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In regards to the teacher, the experience she has had as part of her
pedagogical training shapes the teaching practice since she brings into
her practice ideas that were shared in a seminar she took during her
teaching training. The following excerpt illustrates this point:
T: El ao pasado estuve haciendo un curso de pedagoga, en el cual una
psicloga utiliza un mueco, pero ella lo utiliza es con el objeto de que
los nios de segundo de primaria aprendan a leer, entonces se enfocaba
en toda la parte emocional que involucra esta actividad con los estudiantes para que ellos empezaran a leer. De ah me surge la idea de que
tambin se podra implementar en el colegio esta misma metodologa,
pero enfocndolo en el departamento de ingls.
(Second Teachers semi-structured interview, May 7, 2013. p.2)
The teacher is constantly thinking about her practice, and as is

shown in the piece of data above, she takes elements from her teaching
development and brings them to the class. For instance, Sammy2, a pet,
which is an important element in the class, came up from one of the
experiences the teacher had in her professional development.
The school has been shaping its experience from the process of
growing as an educational institution. In one of the schools documents,
the concern about the use of conventional English literacy is evidenced:
Se cuestiona la pertinencia de exponer a los estudiantes de niveles primarios de escolaridad al proceso de lecto-escritura de la lengua extranjera cuando este mismo proceso apenas est tomado lugar en su lengua
materna
(School Document, Proyecto de ingls 2013, p. 6)
In the document of the institution, the ideas the institution has towards
the use of conventional literacy are displayed providing a background
2
Sammy, the EFL class pet, will be presented thoughtfully in section 6.1.
89
and need to the creation and development of Iconography in the EFL

class in pre-school. Besides, it is evidenced that the institution is thinking
about the students and their language learning processes in the classroom
context.
With regards to the parents, they also have an impact in the practice
since their comments and suggestions concerning the teaching practice
are taken into account by the teacher and the institution:
Se implement un diccionario con los iconos, el cual se coloca en un
blog, en el blog de ingls, para que los padres tengan acceso a ese blog y
a la misma metodologa, para que ellos puedan entender.
In this case, the practice is shaped because the experience of the

parents with Iconography led the institution to implement a technological
tool which is used to involve the parents in the EFL teaching practice
carried out at the school.
All in all, different experiences from the different academic community
members shape the pedagogical practice in pre-school showing the postmethod condition where this practice, that involves iconography, is in
constant transformation.
90
Unveiling the EFL Teaching Practice

in Pre-school
This category refers to the way the teaching practice is carried out in preschool at this particular school setting, where Iconography includes the
specific group of participants, the teaching purpose, and the set of elements
that compound the practice found to be pedagogically underpinned on
the post-method pedagogy. Findings show that the teaching practice in
this specific context is made up of three components: techniques, as the
actions carried out (Larsen-Freeman, 2000); principles, understood as
the theories that support the practice (Brown, 2001); and procedures,
which refer to the actual moment-to-moment techniques (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001, p. 34). For this reason three subcategories emerged
which explain how the teaching practice is carried out. The subcategories
are: techniques used in the classroom, principles involved in the teaching
practice, and procedures that encompass the whole practice.
Teaching techniques used in the classroom

A technique, as defined by Stern (1992, cited in Kumaravadivelu, 2006)
refers to the specific practical action (p. 68) carried out in class. Data
revealed that the teaching practice held in pre-school included different
91
techniques. As Garton, Copland, and Burns (2011) claim, in teaching

English to preschoolers teachers include different techniques such as
games, songs, role-plays, and the use of flashcards, among others. In this
study it was observed that those techniques have as their main purpose
to support Iconography; it means, that Iconography is not an approach or
method and not even the central practice of the class, but it is the socially
situated semiotic literacy practice of the class which is accompanied by
a set of teaching techniques. The following table shows the techniques
used in the teaching practice, their purpose and their percentage of use
in each one of the observed grades.
Table 10. Teaching techniques used in pre-school
TECHNIQUE
Sammy
A pet used as an affective and motivational

factor
Used to create an English language learning
environment
Songs
Handicrafts
Role-plays
Games
PERCENTAGE OF USE
PURPOSE
Used as previous knowledge activators

Conceived as the opportunity to practice
the language learnt
Used to make English language learning
enjoyable
Pre-kinder
Kinder
Transition
75%
78%
50%
100%
100%
100%
38%
22%
69%
0%
11%
25%
25%
45%
31%
Table 10 shows the five techniques evidenced in the practice, the

purpose each technique has, and how frequently they are used in the
different grades. The following excerpt, taken from one of the teachers
interviews, shows how the teacher incorporates different techniques in
her teaching practice. As Brown (1994) asserts, teaching children involves
the use of different activities in the class, and this is basically what the
teacher does in her teaching practice:
T:Utilizo canciones, utilizo actividades manuales, ehh juegos, juegos
donde ellos tengan que expresarse oralmente; ehh utilizo tambin, hay
una parte de la clase que es formal, como escriba, sobre todo en este ao
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en transicin: escribamos la oracin ehh (..) Qu ms? Ehh rondas en

este momento se est utilizando una mascota en los Arrayanes a partir
del 2013 (.) la cual se llama Sammy.
(First Teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p. 4)
Thus, different teaching techniques were evidenced in the practice

and each one with a specific purpose as presented in table 10. The first
technique is Sammy. Sammy is a teddy monkey (Figure 16) used by
the teacher in the class as an affective factor. He is part of the classes
because he is considered by students as another student and their friend.
As can be seen in figure 16, Sammy wears the schools uniform as any
other student. Besides, he has an active role since the teacher uses him
to catch students attention and to give instructions to the students.
Figure 20. Sammy: the EFL class pet
Sammy was created to approach students emotions and feelings, so

the English class becomes an affective space and a beneficial learning
environment for them. In the following piece of data, the reason of
creating Sammy is shown:
Sammy entonces ella [la mascota] ha sido creada para que haya un mayor acercamiento a la lengua, () para que el docente o en este caso
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personalmente, llegue ms a la parte afectiva del estudiante, entonces si

llego ms a la parte afectiva, si yo toco sus sentimientos y afectos hacia
m, tambin hay un mayor entendimiento de la lengua.
(First Teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p. 4)
As the teacher asserts, Sammy was created by her, because she

considered that the emotions of students play an important role in the
learning process. She succeeded with the implementation of Sammy
because students feel Sammy as part of the class and their lives. When
students were asked in a questionnaire if they liked the class, they assured
they like it because of Sammy; it implies that they consider him a friend
to play with. The fact that they can take him home seems to strengthen
the affective relation students have with Sammy and consequently their
likeness of the EFL class.
According to Brown (1994), motivation plays an important role in
learning a language. Then, Sammy is used as this motivational factor that
urges students to participate in class. The following excerpts show the use
of Sammy in the class to motivate students to take active participation in
the learning process:
Then she holds Sammy and says: Sammy says immediately she translates it into Spanish Sammy dice, she continues speaking in Spanish
Cuando Sammy diga pencil ustedes hacen pencil
The teacher says Sammy dice que primero hay que cantar
The teacher says that Sammy is going to teach them a game.
(Field notes, Kinder, March 12, p. 1, line 18)
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In the first excerpt, Sammy is used in a game to motivate students to

participate in it. Sammy has an active role because he is the one who
gives the instructions to play the game. In the second one, the teacher
gives voice to Sammy to say something that is part of the class but she
wants that students feel it not like mandatory but as something else that
Sammy suggested. In the last one, the teacher assigns Sammy the role of
the teacher to make the game they are about to play more attractive for
students.
Therefore, Sammy is an active agent in the class because for students
he is real and they do what he says. For the teacher, he is an important
factor in her class because he helps her motivate students to participate.
She realized that during the second interview, where she affirmed that
Sammy is a support in the class when she notices that students do not
understand.
T: Cuando veo que los estudiantes no estn entendiendo entonces hago
que Sammy les explique o que Sammy atienda para que l sea como un
apoyo en la misma clase.
(Second Teachers semi-structured interview, May 7, 2013. p. 2)
As is displayed in the excerpt above, Sammy is not only used to

motivate students but also as a support in the explanatory moments.
Another technique used in the classroom is songs. They are always
used at the beginning of the class to break the ice and create a foreign
language environment where students feel involved. Moreover, they are
used to introduce or practice new vocabulary. Data evidenced that songs
are used in the classes to get students involved in the English learning
environment. The following sample shows the way students get involved
in the class while singing a song:
The teacher arrives and asks students to sit on their seats, she says:
sit down. She counts and students sing, while they sing the greeting
song they perform some movements. Then one student says El de los
95
indios, so they sing the song ten little Indians. Another student says El
de one, two, three, they sing the song of the number sequence and at
the end of the song the teacher says: sleep and students perform it.
(Field notes, Kinder, May 28, p. 1, lines1-4)
As the previous excerpt shows, students get involved in the class by

singing the songs and they ask to sing them at the beginning of the class.
Additionally, it was evidenced that singing a song motivates students to
learn the language and take it beyond the class. They not only sing the
songs in the class as a requirement, but they learn and like to sing them
in the class. The following excerpt shows how a student took the song
beyond the class and enjoyed singing it in a different context.
One student tells the teacher that she had looked for the song Five little
monkeys on the Internet at home and had sang it. Then students sing the
song Five little monkeys, the teacher takes Sammy around the classroom,
students sing aloud the part no more monkeys jumping on the bed,
the teacher says very good.
(Field notes, Transition, April 1, p. 1, lines1-5)
As is shown in the excerpt above, songs motivate students to

approach the English language in a context different from school without
being considered as mandatory homework. According to Ashwoth
and Wakefield (1994), children learn best when they sing songs. Data
showed that songs are used to generate connections between the topics
learnt in class and the activities students perform there. This connection
allows the learning of English by associating their actions in class with the
songs they sing, which include the new vocabulary they are learning. The
following excerpt from a class observation shows how movements and
songs are connected to learn English:
96
Students sing the song This is the way I wash my hands, while they sing they
perform the movements the song is talking about. While they sing, they
scrub their hands, their faces, and the other parts of the body the song
mentions.
As is shown in the excerpt, the students connected the vocabulary

with the song with some specific movements and parts of the body.
Moreover, data gathered from interviews showed that the teacher used
the songs in order to make students feel involved in the foreign language
learning process. The following excerpt is the answer of the teacher when
she was asked about the reason of using songs in the class:
T: Siempre las utilizo [las canciones] al principio de la clase como para
llamarle la atencin a los estudiantes para que ellos reconozcan que empezamos, empezamos nuestras actividades en ingls. Mmmm a los estudiantes les encanta cantar, es una forma fcil de ensear vocabulario, es
una forma de que ellos empiecen a interiorizar el idioma y a disfrutarlo.
(Second Teachers semi-structured interview, May 7, 2013. p. 2)
The excerpt above supports the claims argued before. Firstly, that
they are used in order to get students involved in the English class
environment; secondly, that students like singing the songs; thirdly the
use of songs in order to teach vocabulary, and finally, a way to make
students interiorize and enjoy the language.
Another teaching technique evidenced in the pre-school classroom is
the use of handicrafts. This teaching technique is used in order to activate
students previous knowledge. Handicrafts used in the class include
figures made of paper, objects molded with clay, drawings decorated
with colors and wool, and figures made by folding paper.
As was stated in chapter 2, learning is an active process in which the
learner constructs new ideas based on knowledge he/she has already
97
acquired (Ausubel, 1963). The use of craft activities was evidenced as

a means to activate students previous knowledge because they were
asked to do different handicrafts which are related to the vocabulary they
are learning. So, handicrafts are used to create connections between the
vocabulary learnt in class and its meaning. For instance, in the following
excerpt it is shown how handicrafts are used to create a link with food,
its meaning, and the situation of a role-play:
The teacher gives students color papers to draw food, the idea is that
they draw food and then they will have the role-play of the restaurant.
Students start drawing and saying in Spanish the name of the object
they are drawing, the teacher corrects them saying the word in English.
When they nish drawing, the teacher asks them to color arguing that it
must look delicious to eat.
The piece of data above shows how a connection is established

between the new vocabulary (food) and the drawing they do. Besides,
the handicraft is going to be used in another class activity, the role-play.
The activation of previous knowledge through the use of handicrafts
has as purpose to generate connections between the object that is
represented and the meaning. Thus, the handicrafts done by students in
class represent or symbolize the meaning of the word that is about to be
taught. Figure 17 shows a boys face decorated with colors and wool by
a pre-kinder student. It was done when students were learning the parts
of the face:
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Figure 21. Handicraft of a face
The figure of the face helped students to learn the vocabulary related
to the parts of the face by creating connections between the face they
decorated and the word in English. The following excerpt illustrates how
the connections between the object and the meaning are established in
the class by doing the object itself:
The teacher gives to students one piece of paper where the face of a
boy is drawn. The teacher says they are going to do the hair; she touches her hair and continues explaining. Then she says: lo primero que
vamos a hacer son los eyes, one student says: los pies but the teacher
corrects her saying the eyes and pointing at her eye, then the students
says: los ojos.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, April 22, p.1, lines 13-16)
Moreover, the teacher recognizes that she uses handicrafts in order

to help students to create connections between the vocabulary they are
leaning and the crafts they do. In the second interview, she said that the
use of crafts is a useful tool in the class, because it generates a connection
between what they are leaning and the craft they are doing, and it helps
her to work with Iconography:
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I: Por qu usas las manualidades en clase?

T: Tambin se utilizan las manualidades para que ellos tengan una conexin entre lo que se va a ver y lo que ellos pueden hacer con sus manos,
entonces habitualmente hago que ellos lo creen, entonces cuando ya la
crean es algo ms propio hacia ellos, puede ser que ante los ojos de un
adulto no sean bonitos pero es su creacin.
I: Y esas manualidades tienen alguna conexin con la iconografa?
T: Claro en, el objeto que se hace manualmente despus se involucra en
las oraciones y se involucra su tamao, su forma, su color (.) entonces
es como la base para despus empezarlo a describir.
(Second Teachers semi-structured interview, May 7, 2013. p. 3-4)
Handicrafts allow the practice of the language not only because of

the connections mentioned previously but also because, as the teacher
expressed in the interview, the handicraft can be described using English.
The following picture is an example of an artifact made by one student
in Transition. It was done after a class where they started working with
vocabulary related to animals. The purpose of doing this handicraft is to
create a visual representation of a dog; thus, the students can establish
the connections and describe it.
Figure 22. Handicraft of a dog
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The handicraft of the dog was made by folding a yellow paper and
drawing the face of a dog with colors. Then, students painted the eyes,
eye-brows, nose, and ears; this handicraft represented a dog and it was
useful in the class since it was related to animals.
Another technique displayed in the analysis is the use of role plays in
the EFL class as a means to practice the vocabulary learnt, having fun, and
simulating a real life situation. The role-plays used in pre-school at this
school are characterized by being related to the vocabulary students are
learning. Besides, they require clear instructions, given by the teacher, of
how role-plays should be carried out:
The teacher tells students that they are going to work in a hospital, and
she tells them that they have to speak in English if they want to work
there. She tells them that she is going to write on the board the sentences they will use at the hospital. She writes in icons the sentences: I am
doctor; my name is Then she tells them that after the second sentence
they have to say their names; one student says: mi nombre es, the
teacher tells him that he must tell the sentence in English. On the other
half of the board, the teacher writes two more sentences in icons: My
name is, I am a nurse. She explains that those are the sentences, and
that they could use both depending on the job they want to have at the
hospital. She explains that the activity consists of being a doctor or a
nurse working at the hospital.
(Field notes, Transition, May 20, p. 1, lines 3-10)
As is evidenced in the excerpt above, the role play includes the

vocabulary they are learning: doctor and nurse, and some other sentences
they have already learnt: I am a doctor, My name is. Moreover, the
instructions for participating in the role-play are clear as well as the
sentences they have to use, which are written in icons on the board.
Therefore, role-plays allow students to practice the language in the
context where it is used.
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According to Genesee (1994) people are engaged in an efficient

language learning process because they are involved in real
communicative situations. Consequently, role plays allow students to feel
like in a communicative situation making the English language learning
process more connected with reality. The following is another illustrative
example:
The teacher explains the activity. It consists of having a table in the
middle of the classroom. Then, students are going to go to the restaurant, Sammy is going to be the waiter and will ask them how many
people and they have to say the number. Then, Sammy asks for the
order and students say what they want, and then Sammy will bring the
paper with the drawn food. One student says that there are some missing objects in the table such as the dishes, the forks, and spoons. The
teacher answers to the student that by the moment they have to imagine
that this is a restaurant.
The situation presented in the excerpt above is in a restaurant where

students have to use the vocabulary related to numbers, food, and
the expression Can I help you? The teacher creates a communicative
situation where all these aspects of the language can be used. Then, roleplays are a technique which has as purpose to practice the language in
communication.
Games are another teaching technique used in the EFL class in
preschool at this school. The games evidenced in the practice are
competitive. Students participate in competitions related to what they
are learning. In the following piece of data taken from field notes, it
is displayed how listening skills and the vocabulary of the session are
practiced through a game, and how it is competitive:
The teacher tells them that they are going to play following a song,
the game consists of performing the movement that the teacher says
as soon as they nish singing the sequence of numbers until Ten, for
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example if she says sleep they have to sleep. The teacher starts singing
the number sequence, when she said sleep, students put their heads over
the table as if they were sleeping; one student did not do the activity so
the teacher writes his name on the board and says he has lost and draws
a sad face in front of his name.
(Field notes, Kinder, April 30, p. 1, lines 9-13)
Games allow the practice of the language by engaging students

in competitions. Field notes revealed that games help students to
comprehend and assign meaning to the vocabulary they are learning in a
pleasant way, because they laugh and participate actively when they are
involved in those activities. Brown (1994) points out the importance of
the intrinsic motivation since students may feel motivated by the activities
because they are fun. Basically, this is the main purpose of using this
technique, to show students English learning as a fun, enjoyable process
where they can actively participate:
The teacher continues giving instructions of the game, she says La
primera persona que termine, raise the hand, she performs the movement at the same time she says the sentence; one student says levantar
la mano. She explains that they do not have to write the sentences but
draw the situation she is going to say. She provides one example on
the board which is the ball is on the table, she draws the situation.
The teacher gives general instructions, related to their behavior that they
should not start yelling or standing up from their seats, and that they
must not cheat from their partners. The teacher says the book is on the
table, one student says libro, the teacher replies do not say, draw.
One student draws the situation, she shows the drawing to her classmates; the teacher writes her name on the board and draws a happy face in
front of her written name and tells her that she had won.
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The excerpt above shows how games are used in the class to practice
the language in a way different from role-plays or written activities. As
Porras (2010) found out in his research, games are an enjoyable way to
teach English to children. Besides, as was mentioned previously, games
involve competition, which in this case is represented by the happy or sad
face drawn on the board. Another characteristic is the clear instructions
the game has, which means that in spite of the fact that it is an enjoyable
activity, there are established rules of behavior which should be taken
into account by students so that the game works.
To sum up, there are five techniques used in pre-school to teach
English to children at the school setting this study was carried out. Those
techniques complement the socially situated semiotic literacy practice
(Iconography) providing more opportunities for children to practice the
foreign language. As stated by Scott (1990), children learn by doing, which
in those classes is applied by drawing, singing songs, doing handicrafts,
acting, and playing games. Besides, as is mentioned in the post-method
condition, teachers must be autonomous in their teaching practice by
including the pedagogical issues, in this case the techniques she/he
considers appropriate for the context where the practice is developed.
Principles involved in the teaching practice

This subcategory is related to the principles that were evidenced in the
teaching practice. Being principles the theories and thoughts behind a
teaching practice (Brown, 2001; Larsen-Freeman, 2000), this category
deals with those thoughts evidenced in the teaching practice in pre-school
at this school. Data was analyzed taking into account Larsen-Freemans
(2000) principles (see chapter 2) since she presents the aspects and poses
questions to figure out the principles that underline a teaching practice.
Table 11 shows the principles that emerged from the data analysis.
However, it is important to clarify that not all the principles presented by
Freeman (2000) were found in the observed teaching practice. As it was
explained in category 2, in the teaching practice the teacher includes
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the theoretical concepts she considers relevant taking into account the
particularities of the context (Kumaravadivelu, 2006).
Table 11. Principles evidenced in the teaching practice
ASPECTS
PRINCIPLE EVIDENCED
- To teach English avoiding the use of EFL conventional literacy
Goal of the teacher
- To focus on oral practice and production
Role of the teacher
Active and reflective role towards her practice
Language learning process Relies on memory and repetition
Role of the students
Active and passive depending on the moment of the class
- Spanish as the basis in the explanatory moment
Role of the language
- Spanish used to tell off students
- English as the target language
Students feelings
Motivation as an essential issue in the learning process
- Students present written exams as an institutional requirement
The evaluation
- The evaluation is a continuous process
The first principle presented in Table 11 is the goal of the teacher.

It refers to the purpose the teacher has in her teaching practice. Data
revealed that the goal the teacher has is to avoid the use of conventional
English literacy in the class. In the first interview she mentioned that
Iconography appeared because the institution wanted to focus on oral
production and at the same time elude the use of conventional literacy:
T: Ok (.) ehh cuando nosotros empezamos en el colegio pues ehh se
empez a nivel convencional escribiendo (..) ehh y se vea la dicultad
que se tena con los nios con esta metodologa del ingls tradicional o
grafa estndar, (..) entonces eh se busca que los estudiantes solamente
eh practicaran su (..) pronunciacin toda su conocimiento solamente
oral (..).
(First Teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p.1-2)
Iconography emerged because of the need to replace conventional

English literacy and focus on oral practice and production. Therefore,
it was observed that in most of the activities the teacher emphasizes on
using the language orally and practicing it in an oral way. Activities like a
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role play in a hospital and the presentation of the homework show how
the teacher makes students practice the language orally. The following
excerpt shows how the teacher uses the different teaching techniques
explained in the previous section to make students use the target
language orally:
The teacher tells students that they are going to work in a hospital, and
she tells them that they have to speak in English if they want to work
there [role-play].
The teacher takes out some booklets [handicrafts] students did as homework (). The teacher organizes them in pairs and tells them that
they have to read their booklet in English to their partners. One student
shows the booklet she did to her partner and she says the name of the
parts of the body that appear in the booklet.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, May 20, p. 1, lines 7-12)
Activities like the ones presented above show that the teacher
generates situations where the speaking skill is practiced. However, the
emphasis on the oral skills is not only related to the students production,
but the teacher creates an environment where the language is orally
used. For instance, the teacher uses the language constantly in class to
generate an English-speaking environment and to involve students in the
oral practice. The following excerpt shows how the teacher integrates
the language providing oral input to students while they are performing
another activity:
Students work in silence on their places. The teacher speaks in English
to students while she draws the leaf on the board.
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The oral use of the language is perceived in the input and the output.
It implies that the input provided is only oral since there is not written
input in the class, except from the use of Iconography to write or read
sentences or follow the song lyrics. This is basically because Iconography
aims at working on the oral skills instead of on conventional literacy. In
regards to the written input, it is not present in conventional literacy but
it is displayed in icons (see chapter 4).
The second principle is the role that the teacher assumes during the
teaching practice. The teacher has an active and reflexive role towards
her practice. As Kumaravadivelu (2006) asserts, the post-method teacher
is autonomous in the teaching practice when deciding how to teach. In
the interview, she mentioned the fact that she is an active teacher since
she prepares her classes; she tries to be connected emotionally with the
students and to make them feel part of a group:
T: Mi rol como docente es activo, trato de que siempre, el hecho de
preparar las clases, de estar pendiente que hara falta de estar pensando
continuamente, que no est resultando y porque no est resultando, en
que se est fallando es un rol activo, es una actitud activa. Ehhh tambin
el rol de acercarme a ()
I: ah ok, bueno
T: Reexivo tambin
I: Reexivo?
T: Si, siempre siempre estoy pensando que est pasando para que no se
llegue a perder el tiempo.
(Third Teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p.8-9)
She also said that she has a reflective role because she keeps thinking
on her practice and how to improve it. There is an active and reflective
role since the teacher is not only concerned about the contents she is
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teaching but the teaching-learning process in the class. She is evaluating

her practice and trying to innovate all the time in order to help her
students.
Also, the teacher said that she controls everything in the class including
the activities. This control means that most of the times it is a teachercentered class; however, as presented in section 5.3 and later discussed
in the students role this section, sometimes students make decisions in
the class, too. In the same interview she also mentions that she respects
students decisions:
T: Yo soy la que manejo, la que controlo todas las actividades que se
realizan.
T: () la aceptacin de no quiero participar. En pre-kinder hice unas
orejitas y una nariz y una boca para que ellos se fueran disfrazando poco
a poco y un estudiante dice yo no me voy a colocar esas ears, est bien se
acepta tu posicin, no lo tienes que hacer; entonces tambin me parece
importante ese rol de respeto.
The excerpts above show a contrast in the teachers role. In the first
excerpt she sees herself as a controller. In the second, she refers to the
respect of students decisions, which means that in spite of the fact that
she controls all the activities, she takes students into account when she
is developing the activities. The teacher also highlights the importance
of respecting the others thoughts and ideas, which means that students
also have the opportunity to make decisions about the class based on
their personal choices.
In regards to the principle of the language learning process, it was
found that it relies on memory and repetition. It was evidenced in the
class because students were asked to repeat the sentences pronounced
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by the teacher several times. The following excerpts show how repetition
is part of the class and involved in the learning process:
Teacher says hello, students repeat what the teacher says.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, March 18, p. 1, lines 1)
The teacher says sad and happy and the students repeat.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, March 18, p. 1, line 13)
Two students pass. The teacher explains one student how to ask the
questions. The teacher asks the students to repeat the question she just
posed, then the student asks the question and the student secretary answers it.
In the first excerpt, repetition is related to greetings where students

memorize the way to greet by repeating during the greeting moment.
In the second one, repetition is presented in the interaction where the
teacher says the sentences to be used in the interaction, and students
have to repeat them. Moreover, when the teacher was asked about the
importance of repetition in class, she assured it was important because
children tend to have short-term memory; then it is necessary to repeat
the key vocabulary or even the lesson content:
T: porque ellos eh ellos tienen periodos de olvido muy fcil () entonces ehh ellos son por ejem[plo] se evidencia ahorita a mitad de ao,
por ejemplo cuando ellos regresen se ha olvidado, entonces toca estar
siempre siempre siempre repitiendo, ehh los colores hay que repetir, en
grado prekinder volvemos a repetir los colores, volvemos a repetir.
(Third Teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p. 3)
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The teacher has a view of a learning process relying on memory, for

this reason repetition is evident in most of the classes. It implies that
learning with the use of Iconography is conceived as a process based on
students memory.
Another principle evidenced in the data is the role of students. It was
found that it is active and passive at the same time. The students have an
active role in the class in terms of reminding the teacher to sing a song.
Also, as the following piece of data shows, students can express their
ideas to the teacher; thus, they feel that they are part of the class and can
suggest or remind aspects to the teacher:
One student says they have forgotten to sing a song, then they start
singing: I am the best, I am happy today.
(Field notes, Kinder, March 12, p. 1, lines 16-17)
Students suggest draw a policeman or a reman. Then the teacher draws
a person helping another as a policeman or a reman does.
On the other hand, a passive role was also seen. First, students were
receiving the input provided by the teacher all the time, and also, because
the interaction they have in the class is controlled by the teacher. The
following excerpt displays how the teacher controls the oral production
of students and how they just follow what the teacher says:
The teacher tells them that she is going to write on the board the sentences they will use at the hospital. She writes in icons the sentences:
I am doctor; my name is The teacher tells them that after the second
sentence they have to say their names; one student says: mi nombre
es, Teacher tells him that he must tell the sentence in English.
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The students are not generating their own interaction as active

agents in their learning process but they are following a conversation
given by the teacher. In the third semi-structured interview, the teacher
recognizes that students have both roles, the passive one because of the
control she has over the class; and the active one because students have
the opportunity to propose or suggest changes related to the activities, in
spite of their short ages:
I: Cul es el rol que los estudiantes tienen en la clase?
T: Activo en el momento en () el que ellos propongan y sea aceptado
por m. Por qu no hacemos tal cosa? Entonces bueno, entonces proponlo y hagmoslo como lo dicen ellos, cosas tan simple como tengo
distribuidos a los nios en pre-kinder para ver el video [of the song] en
determinada situacin o en determinados sitios () O ellos mismos cogen su mesita y se ubican como quieren, entonces no se les dice que no.
Students have an active role in the class because they can propose
activities or make suggestions about different aspects of the class. As
Kumaravadivelu (2006) claims, the post-method learner is characterized
by being autonomous and a decision-maker; which can be seen in these
students who in spite of their short ager are able to give their opinions,
make suggestions and propose.
Bearing in mind that English is seen as a foreign language, there
are two language roles to take into account and that were evident in the
data. First of all the role of the mother tongue, Spanish, is presented; and
secondly, the role of English as the foreign language. Spanish is used as
a pivot in the class in order to clarify instructions and tell off students. As
the teacher affirms, Spanish is necessary in the class since students do not
have enough vocabulary in English to comprehend the whole message
that is conveyed:
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T: En determinados momentos () se usa el espaol cuando hay que

dar unas explicaciones muy largas o cuando, cuando se hace necesario,
porque ellos no tienen toda todo el vocabulario para para entender.
The teacher affirms that Spanish is used when she gives a long
explanation to students so that they can understand her. Additionally, as
the excerpt taken from the field notes below shows, Spanish is used to
maintain discipline in class and tell off students:
The teacher scolds students in Spanish telling them that they have to
be organized.
(Field notes, Pre-kinder, April 1, p. 1, lines 19)
In some cases, the teacher translates into Spanish the instructions she
gives, to make the message understandable to students. The following
excerpt shows how Spanish is used simultaneously in the class to convey
the message to students. The tool used to integrate both languages is
translation:
Then, the teacher holds Sammy and says: Sammy says immediately
she translates it into Spanish Sammy dice, she continues speaking in
Spanish Cuando Sammy diga pencil ustedes hacen pencil She continues explaining the game in Spanish.
Secondly, in most of the cases, English is seen as the language that is

taught; it means that it is not seen as the language used to communicate
but the language that students must learn. This conception implies that
the teaching activities are focused on using the language, but when
students are doing other activities they use Spanish in order to express
themselves.
112
One student says to the teacher: mira my bathroom, showing her his
drawing. The teacher asks him to repeat the names of the parts of the
bathroom in English.
(Field notes, Kinder, March 19, p. 2, lines 37-39)
As is seen in the piece of data above, the teacher focuses on teaching

vocabulary which in this case is the parts of the bathroom, and then the
use of English is on behalf the vocabulary she is teaching. This use of
English means that the teacher uses the language to introduce students
in the use of specific vocabulary.
Students feelings is another principle presented by Larsen-Freeman
(2000), which refers to the way students feelings are seen and managed
in the class. In the EFL class hold in pre-school, great attention is given to
students feelings; this is connected with students motivation towards the
class and the English learning process. The teacher uses Sammy in order
to motivate students to learn English. The data from the first interview
showed that the teacher started to use Sammy as a tool to stimulate
students in their learning process:
Sammy () ha sido creada () para que el docente o en este caso
personalmente llegue ms a la parte afectiva del estudiante, entonces si
llego ms a la parte afectiva si yo toco sus sentimientos y afectos hacia
m, tambin hay un mayor entendimiento de la lengua porque ellos asocian docente y lengua.
In the previous excerpt it is evidenced how the teacher considers

the students feelings an important aspect in the learning process. The
following piece of data shows how Sammy is used in the class to motivate
students to participate in a class activity. This situation means that
students feelings are taken into account when the teaching technique
is implemented:
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The teacher explains a game in Spanish that consist of imagining it was

a real bathroom so they have to make Sammy perform some activities
in this bathroom. The teacher says Go to the bathroom and take a
shower; she moves Sammy and makes him to perform the movements.
She also makes him to perform the movements of taking a shower and
washing hands.
(Field notes, Transition, March19, p. 1, lines 15-19)
In that situation, Sammy was involved in the activity; thus, the students
felt confident to go to the front of the class and make Sammy perform the
movements. This implies that the teacher deals with students feelings
and emotions by providing them confidence through Sammy.
In regards to the evaluation process, data showed that in spite of
the fact that there is an emphasis on the oral production students are
evaluated through written tests. Besides, the test relies on memory of
the icons; it means that students have to memorize the icons in order
to solve the test. This fact backs up the principle related to the language
learning process, too. The following excerpt taken from a test of Transition
presents the first item where students are asked to answer a question
written in icons based on a picture which is presented in the upper part
of the test:
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Figure 23. First period monthly achievement test Transition Item 1.
The piece of data presented above was taken form an achievement

test. Students were asked to answer a question by drawing sentences in
icons based on a picture. This item evaluates vocabulary and sentence
construction, but it does not evaluate communicative skills. The teacher
recognizes that the use of written tests is due to the institution criteria. In
her answer she shows that the exams rely on memory since they need a
previous workshop where they are trained and prepared to answer the
exam:
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T: Segn la institucin se tiene que hacer un examen escrito con todo

el contenido que se ha visto hasta este bimestre, entonces se realiza, se
hace la evaluacin escrita utilizando obviamente Iconografa y se trata
de hacer un taller previo a, y explicacin previa en la clase para que ellos
puedan responder el examen.
(Third Teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p.10)
However, the teacher affirms that she implements another type of

evaluation that consists of assessing the students as individuals and not
as a group as in the written exams. This evaluation involves following the
process the student has in his/her own learning process:
I: El proceso de evaluacin slo se da al nal del bimestre?
T: () lo que se busca es eso, que desde el comienzo, qu dicultades
tienes? Por qu no lo has logrado? Qu te falta?, pero no es ahorita al
nal, este del nal es solamente el reejo de todo un bimestre, y s sigue
ah teniendo fallas pues se sigue manejando para que sigan mejorando.
Nunca se va a acabar esa evaluacin siempre va a seguir constante.
As presented in the excerpt above, evaluation is conceived by the

teacher as a holistic, constant process where the whole learning process
is important, including the final test that is applied at the end of the term.
To sum up, different principles support the teaching practice held in preschool at this particular school setting. Those principles are associated
because of Iconography and its use as a socially situated literacy semiotic
practice there.
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Procedures that encompass the whole practice

As defined in chapter 2 by Richards and Rodgers (2001), a procedure is
the way in which techniques are applied in the teaching practice. The
three courses observed presented the same procedures in the use of
techniques, evidencing a clear procedure in the class. In spite of the fact
that in this category the general procedure of the class is presented, it
might undergo changes if the teacher considers them necessary, because
as a post-method teacher she evaluates her practices constantly and she
receives suggestions from her students. In the third interview, the teacher
explained that the classes were divided into five moments:
T: Llegamos, cantamos la cancin, despus explico entonces voy a explicar la actividad: ehh vamos a entregar los materiales, despus de entregar los materiales se va a realizar eso, tienen que ser varios momentos
I: y cules son esos momentos?
T: Mmm segn la actividad que que vaya a hacer: introduccin con una
cancin habitualmente lo hago, explicacin de la actividad, ehh distribucin de cmo lo voy a hacer ()
I: Ok
T: Despus la realizacin de la misma actividad, y termino con la cancin de despedida.
As was stated by the teacher, she recognizes important moments in

the class; however, she does not mention specifically the techniques to
be used in each moment. This sequence was also evidenced in the class
observation. Graph 5 shows the procedures the teacher follows in the
EFL teaching practice where Iconography is used:
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1. Arrival and greeting

All classes start by having a greeting moment: a short greeting or a greeting song
2. Singing a song
The class sings one of the songs they have learnt during the academic year.
3. Teacher's explanation
The teacher explains what they are going to do in the class. This includes explaining new
vocabulary, giving instructions or distributing materials.
4. Students doing an activity
In this moment of the class students perform any of the techniques explained in the previous
section (handicrafts, games, role -plays, etc)
5. Singing a farewell song
At the end of the class, a farewell song is sung.
Graph 5. Procedures evidenced in the teaching practice.
As is displayed in the previous graph, the class is divided into five

moments. In the first arrival moment there is an informal greeting which
includes singing a greeting song. This moment has as its main purpose
to create the language environment for students, as was explained in a
previous section. The following excerpts taken from field notes show
how all classes have the same moment at the beginning of the class:
The teacher says hello, students repeat what she says. () students sing
a greeting song following Sammy who is singing (The teacher performs
the voice and movements of Sammy).
(Field notes, Kinder, May 12, p. 1, lines 1-3)
The teacher asks are you ready? and says hello, how are you? She
says one and students continue counting, at three they start singing
the greeting song and performing different movements, Teacher says
excellent.
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Besides, this moment implies code switching from Spanish into English
for students. As the teacher affirmed in the second interview, songs are
used at the beginning of the class in order to make students comprehend
that they are in a class where a foreign language is used:
Las canciones siempre las utilizo al principio de la clase como para llamarle la atencin a los estudiantes para que ellos reconozcan que empezamos, empezamos nuestras actividades en ingls.
The second moment is when they sing a song they have learnt in the
English class during the year. By singing these songs the students feel
motivated to participate in the class not only singing but also giving their
suggestions about what they are doing. The following excerpt shows this
moment:
Then the teacher sings the song ten little Indians while she sings some the
students try to follow her and all of them perform some movements.
One student asks to sing the monkeys song. Then the teacher starts
singing 5 little monkeys and the students sing with her, they perform some
movements, too; especially in the part of the doctor. The teacher asks
them if they want to sing another song, one student answers that she
wants to sing Bingo. Then they sing it and perform some movements
related to the song. One student says Ahora la de baarnos, then they
sing a song that says This is the way a wash my hand and mentions
other parts of the body, while they sing they perform the movements as
if they were in the shower.
(Field notes, Kinder, April 16, p. 1, lines 3-10)
As the piece of data above shows, the singing moment is more than
just singing a song, it includes movements where the students connect
the song they are singing with its meaning. Also, it is a moment where
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students suggest the songs they want to sing, and the teacher listens to
their voices and follows them.
The third moment is the explanation time. This moment is the time
to introduce new vocabulary to students, as is shown in the following
excerpt where the teacher uses a song to teach new vocabulary to
students:
The teacher stands in front of the class and says that Sammy is going
to teach a song, the teacher performs Sammys voice. The teacher draws
a bed on the board; one student says cama. The teacher writes the
numbers from 1 to 5 on the board. She says little, and asks for its meaning, meanwhile, she indicates in Sammys hand a size. One student says
pequeo. She continues saying monkeys, students say monos.
(Field notes, Kinder, May 12, p. 1, lines 9-12)
Also, sometimes in this third moment, the teacher gives the instruction
of the activity they are going to do during the class. During the explanation
the teacher uses English as well as Spanish, and the purpose of this
moment is to make students comprehend the activity they are going to
perform during the class. In the following excerpt the moment in which
the teacher distributes materials and gives instructions to the students as
a part of the class is displayed:
The teacher says they are going to play. The teacher handles some pieces
of paper, one student says enthusiastically that they are going to do a
dictation, and that it was so nice in the other school he studied. The
teacher gives the instruction to student to handle one piece of paper to
each student. The teacher asks the students to take out the pencil and
colors; she gives the instruction twice, one in English and the other in
Spanish.
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The fourth moment is the practice. As was previously mentioned,

there is a variety of techniques used by the teacher in the classroom in
this class moment. Therefore, during this stage of the class any of them
is used depending on the needs the teacher has. It could be a practice
through role-plays, or to generate connection with the handicrafts, or
play a game, among others. The activities are performed by the students
under the supervision of the teacher, who is praising the work done by
them all the time. The following excerpts illustrate this situation:
The students show the teacher their drawings. She says excellent, very
good
(Field notes, Transition, March 19, p. 1, lines 12)
The teacher continues asking student to read the sentences when a student answers correctly, she says excellent or very good.
As the excerpts above show, the teacher praises students work all the
time, she always has a positive comment towards students performance.
This is connected with two themes: motivation and students feelings.
Motivation is implied because through positive reinforcement she
motivates students to continue working. And students feelings, because
the teacher make students feel good with the work they have done.
The last moment is the closing time. As the class was started with a
greeting and a song, the closure is done by singing a farewell song. The
song is the same in all the classes and as soon as they sing the song,
students understand that the class is over. For instance, in the following
excerpt is shown how this closing time is relevant for the students and the
teacher and how it signals the end of the class:
Another teacher knocks at the door, then, the teacher says that they
have to stop the game because they have to go to the restaurant. Then
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students start singing: Good bye teacher, good bye teacher, good bye
teacher, see you soon and students get out.
In short, procedures used in the EFL class in pre-school at this particular

school context involve five moments in which a set of techniques are
used as well as Iconography. However, these techniques are not used
all the times with an established order, they are part of what we call the
practice moment but the teacher varies their use according to the need
of the class.
122
Participants perceptions about the use of

Iconography in pre-school
Keeping in mind that in a teaching practice there are different participants
involved, it is important to take into account the perception and opinions
they have about it. Thus, this chapter refers to the perceptions the school
community involved in the use Iconography in the EFL teaching practice
in pre-school have about the use of Iconography.
Two themes emerged from the data analysis. The first theme evidenced
aims at analyzing Iconography by giving feedback to it in order to
improve the practice. These are considered the challenges Iconography
faces (or the weaknesses perceived by the school community). The
second theme evidenced refers to those perceptions the participants
have towards Iconography that aim at recognizing the achievements and
the strengths of Iconography. Those are considered as the opportunities
for Iconography (or the positive perceptions).
Challenges faced by Iconography

Participants expressed that there are two aspects which should be
considered carefully since they think those aspects need to be evaluated
and improved to achieve the EFL teaching-learning process with the
123
use of Iconography. Those are: activities that should be included in

the teaching practice and the possibility that a student has to move to
another school to continue his/her learning process.
In spite of the fact that in the teaching practice a variety of techniques
was evidenced, participants stated that there is a need of including more
activities into the class. When students were asked what they would like
to do in class, they answered they want to work more on activities such as
games, reading, painting, physical activities such as dancing and jumping,
activities that include the use of numbers, and letters. The following table
shows a summary of the answers given by pre-school students:
Table 12. Analysis of students questionnaire, Question #9
50%
Class activities such as numbers, letters, songs, drawing, molding with clay, reading, and
painting
29,2%
Playing more in the class
12,5%
With a lower percentage, they would like to perform physical activities such as dancing,
jumping, or walking around
8,3%
Speak in English
As was expressed by students, there are some activities they would

like to be included into the teaching practice like the ones mentioned
before. These perceptions are considered a challenge for Iconography
because the practice should be seen from the participants points of
view, in this case the students, in order to be improved.
As well as students, parent 27 considers that there should be the
inclusion of writing activities in the class: Iconografa s, pero no como
nico mtodo ya que la parte escrita tambin debe desarrollarse en
paralelo con la del idioma natal (Parents questionnaire, parent 27,
April 23rd, Question #16). As was expressed by this parent, it seems that
the writing skill should be developed in the class.
On the other hand, the teacher thinks that in her teaching practice
the listening skill is not worked on properly, so she suggests including
more activities that develop the abilities in her students. The following
excerpt shows the teachers ideas in this regard:
124
Hace falta ejercicios ms de listening, se me hace a m, no solo que sea

conmigo sino traer actividades que ellos escuchen de otra persona, que
vaya pronunciando () eso s creo que hace falta.
(Third teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p.7)
The teacher expressed that she notices a lack in activities to develop

the listening skills in the class. For this reason, she considers it necessary
to include more activities whose main purpose is to work on the ability
to understand conversations or other people speaking. This is an issue to
consider since the learning of a language includes the understanding of
the spoken language produced by different speakers.
The second challenge Iconography faces is to consider the possibility
that a student who started his/her English language learning process in
this particular school has to move to another school. This situation is
considered an important issue for the school, because if any student
has to move to another school, he/she will face a new teaching practice
where probably conventional English literacy is used. This is one concern
presented by the principal who expressed it during the interview:
Cuando los nios cambian de colegio, entonces ellos van a enfrentarse
a que en tercero, cuarto de primaria, quinto de primaria se estn ya utilizando estructuras gramaticales.
(Principals semi-structured interview, May 21, 2013. p.5)
The principal, who represents the institution, stated the possible

struggle students will face if they change school. This is something that
should be thought about by the institution since it is a real possibility
in students academic lives. Not only the principal considers it as a
problematic situation but two parents also expressed this concern in their
answers to the questionnaire:
125
ms que desventaja mi duda es si el nio se retrasar en el proceso de

aprendizaje del idioma ya que vena manejando como apoyo un texto
gua.
(Parents questionnaire, parent 27, April 23, Question #19)
Es un mtodo excelente para el aprendizaje del ingls, pero puede traer
desventajas si en nio cambia de colegio
(Parents questionnaire, parent 43, April 23, Question #20)
When parent 27 was asked if she/he considers that Iconography has

had any negative aspect in the learning process of his child, he answered
negatively, but he still expressed a concern related to the fact that her
child came from another school, where a different teaching practice was
carried out, and that it could affect the language learning process of her
child. In the case of parent 43, when she/he was asked what he thought
about Iconography, she/he expressed a concern related to the fact that
a child could have difficulties if he/she had to move to another school.
As well as the principal and these two parents, the teacher considers
that one challenge Iconography faces is related to the possibility that a
student has to be moved to another school:
Cuando los nios se van a otro colegio, entonces, si presentan un examen escrito, s que no estn en capacidad de contestar.
(First teachers semi-structured interview, March 13, 2013. p.5)
In this case, her concern is more related to the selection process the
new school could have, because she considers that the students are
not able to answer the written exam. It could be because the students
are not able to read instructions written in conventional English literacy
and because they cannot answer the questions they will be asked using
English conventional literacy.
126
Thus, two challenges for Iconography were identified: the inclusion

of more varied activities and the possibility that a student has to move to
another school where Iconography is not used. In the next section the
opportunities evidenced through the data analysis are presented.
Opportunities for Iconography

This section refers to those perceptions that point out the positive aspects
that the school community consider as an opportunity that Iconography
as a teaching practice has to offer. In this category two themes emerged:
the motivational factor involved in the use of Iconography and the way
Iconography has helped students to learn English.
As was presented in the previous chapters, motivation is a factor that
is involved in the EFL practice; then, participants think Iconography
motivates the students to learn English. The parents who are familiar with
Iconography state (in their questionnaires answers) in different ways,
that Iconography motivates their children to learn the foreign language:
Parent 14: Me parece que es un mtodo muy atractivo para los
nios, as absorben ms sobre la lengua extranjera y no es aburrido.
Parent 22: Es una manera didctica y fcil para que los nios se motiven a aprender ingls.
Parent 25: Con esta nueva forma de aprendizaje, los nios se sentirn
ms motivados a aprender.
(Parents questionnaire, April 23)
As the pieces of data above show, parents think that Iconography is a

new way of learning that motivates their children to learn the language;
it facilitates the language learning process perhaps because it is easier
than other methods parents may know. Through the data analysis it was
identified that there are two facts that generate this motivation in the
students. First of all, it is thought by the parents that the use of images
127
motivates children to learn the language due to the fact that at their
age they are attracted to pictures, images, and enjoyable activities. The
following answers, provided by the parents in the questionnaire, show
how parents connect motivation with the use of images in the class:
Parent 7: Me parece bueno porque por medio de imgenes y smbolos
el nio tendr un mejor conocimiento y desarrollo del tema
Parent 12: El aprendizaje de los nios se basa en juegos, cosas nuevas
y llamativas como imgenes
Parent 38: Una imagen vale ms que mil palabras
Parent 44: Los nios son muy visuales y se les facilita ms el aprendizaje
Parent 47: Me parece un excelente mtodo ya que por medio de varias
imgenes y smbolos representamos palabras. En mi concepto es muy
bueno el aprendizaje, es mucho ms fcil
Parents express in different ways that the use of images in order to

teach English is motivational, because their children learn, they have fun,
and they have easy access to the language. Besides, in spite of the fact
that there was no document that explains Iconography, parents recognize
that Iconography uses symbols and they represent words and meanings.
Secondly, parents affirm that Iconography motivates students to
learn the language by generating enthusiasm through creativity, and
because students feel confident of their process. In their answers to the
questionnaire they pointed out that Iconography makes the language
learning process attractive for their children:
Parent 14: Es algo bueno, ya que por medio de esto les transmite atraccin a la segunda lengua, y as adquieren ms conocimiento en una forma divertida
128
Parent 16: Dice varias palabras en ingls y hay seguridad en l al decirlas y pronunciarlas
Parent 35: Es una forma didctica y ldica que hace que el estudiante
muestre inters por la lengua extranjera
Parent 43: Favorece la creatividad y la participacin en la construccin
de su conocimiento
As presented above, parents think that with the use of Iconography

in the EFL class children are motivated to learn the language, because
as parents consider, the class is catchy for students, helping them to
improve their creativity and their confidence because students feel selfassured when they say and pronounce words and messages in English.
The students also asserted they like the English class with Iconography
because they enjoy it; it means that they feel that the class is fun, they
laugh, and they feel they are happy during the class time (Students
questionnaire analysis). Most of the students (84, 9%) like learning English
with icons. However, 5, 7% like it a little and 7, 5% do not like it at all.
When students were asked about why they liked the EFL class, they
gave different reasons. The most important reasons students mentioned
are summarized in the following table:
Table 13. Analysis of students questionnaire, Question #5
48,9%
Because they enjoy the class, they feel they have fun when they are using the icons.
22,2%
Because they like drawing different objects and they like the icons.
17,8%
Because with the icons they can learn English.
As was expressed by the students, they like the class. This implies they
feel motivated towards it. On the other hand, some students (7,5%) do
not like to learn with icons, because of two reasons: they do not know
the icons (8,9%); or because it is difficult for them (2,2%).
129
Even though the present study is not focused on the learning process,
there are some perceptions related to this aspect. Participants agree that
Iconography has helped students to learn English. Firstly, parents said that
they liked that the school includes in its teaching practice Iconography
because with the icons their children learn English, they have seen that
their children have learnt English easily; it includes vocabulary, interaction
in English, pronunciation, and the understanding of specific concepts:
Parent 3: (Hablo por la experiencia de mi hijo mayor) l adquiri mucho vocabulario con este mtodo y pues l entenda, que era lo ms
importante.
Parent 14: Ha venido con nuevas palabras y lo hace presente en lo cotidiano, como llamando a su abuela en ingls, colores, cosas, etc.
Parent 15: Ya identica los colores, los saludos y los nombres de pap
y mam en ingls
Parent 16: Hasta el momento l ha aprendido, en lo poco que lleva
todo lo que le han enseado no se le ha olvidado
Parent 36: Ha aprendido muchas cosas nuevas y se interesa por aprender ms
Parents consider that their children have learnt English through

Iconography. Their children show this learning at home and use it in
everyday situations. Also, some parents consider that Iconography is
an innovative pedagogical practice that facilitates the language learning
process. They consider it innovative because it uses images to teach a
new language.
As well as parents, students asserted that they like to learn with icons
because they learn English using them. Both parents and children perceive
130
students are learning English with the icons and the whole practice that is
carried out in pre-school.
The teacher also expressed that Iconography helps students to learn
English because they make connections between the new vocabulary
they are learning and the previous knowledge they already have. The
following excerpt shows the teachers perception related to the use of
Iconography:
Cuando se usa la iconografa, el hecho de que la entiendan fcilmente,
que la comprendan, es porque la estn relacionando con lo que ellos ya
tiene en su mente; esto hace que ellos mismos empiecen a utilizarlo,
empiecen a hablar, lo entiendan () tanto as que en pequeas edades
les arman a sus padres yo ya se ingls, entonces eso hace que sea ms
fcil.
(Third teachers semi-structured interview, June 13, 2013. p.1)
The teacher perceives that with Iconography students understand

easily, because of the connections they can do with their background
knowledge. Also, she sees that her students learn the language since they
use it in contexts different from school such as home, even at their short
age.
All in all, participants have different perceptions towards the teaching
practice carried out in pre-school at this school. There were two types of
perceptions, first those that aim at viewing the weaknesses of the practice,
specifically Iconography. For the present study, these are seen as the
challenges the teaching practice faces. The second are those that point
out the strengths it has, which for this study are seen as the opportunities;
it means those aspects that characterize Iconography in a positive way.
131
Synthesis and future directions

The preceding chapters have documented the main features of the use
of Iconography in the teaching of English as a foreign language in the
pre-school classroom. The data analysis revealed that Iconography is a
semiotic literacy practice where icons and symbols are used to convey
meaning. It has also been shown that the post-method is the pedagogical
underpinning that guides the EFL teaching practice based on Iconography
which includes different features particular to the school setting and
the pre-school classrooms were this study was conducted. Different
perspectives from the school community were also investigated that
point to the challenges and the opportunities of the use of Iconography.
This chapter deals with the main conclusions of the study based on
the emergent findings. It also discusses the implications of the research
for the ELT community in Colombia and the field of teaching to young
learners; for the institution where the project was developed, and for the
participants in the research. An account of the limitations of the study
and some suggestions for further research are also presented. The chapter
closes with some recommendations in regards to the use of Iconography.
133
Conclusions
As stated earlier, this qualitative case study aimed at characterizing
Iconography, a practice used to teach English as a foreign language to
young learners in pre-school. There are several striking findings that
emerged from this study. In response to the first research question:
How does Iconography work in the EFL pre-school classroom? The data
showed that Iconography works as a socially situated semiotic literacy
practice where two types of signs are involved: icons and symbols. Icons
are the signs that convey their meaning by a concrete relationship with the
object represented; on the other hand, symbols establish the connection
with the object represented arbitrarily. Thus, there is a degree of iconicity
in the use of Iconography since not all of them are connected with the
object they represent in the same degree. The use of these signs turns
Iconography into a semiotic practice.
Besides, Iconography was identified to be an EFL teaching practice
that encompasses three aspects that characterize it: it is socially situated,
semiotic, and a literacy practice. It is a socially situated practice because
it takes place in a specific context, which is the school where this
research was conducted; the participants share certain characteristics
and conditions that are evident in the teaching practice, such as the
lack of access to EFL teaching material, the context at home where there
is no use of English, among others. Moreover, the construction of the
meaning of each icon and symbol is done in the particular context that
the institution and the classroom represent. The second characteristic
is the semiotic issue. Iconography is a semiotic practice because it
involves the use of two signs: icons and symbols which combined are
the communicative system used in EFL classroom in pre-school. They are
considered a communicative system because when they are used in a
sequence they convey the meaning of a sentence. Finally, Iconography is
a literacy practice because it involves the whole EFL teaching process in
that context; it means that the students are developing their early literacy
with the use of it and the use of some EFL teaching techniques (songs,
Sammy, games, role-plays, handicrafts).
134
Considering the second research question of this study: What are

the pedagogical underpinnings of the EFL teaching practice held in this
particular school context when Iconography is used?, the data revealed
that the whole EFL teaching practice carried out in pre-school at this
setting is framed into the post-method condition for three main reasons.
First of all, the EFL teaching practice is held in a particular context where
some local conditions are evidenced in the teaching practice. It implies
the particularity of the teaching practice where the use of Iconography
is the best example of how the needs of this particular group of students
are taken into account in the EFL classroom. Secondly, data showed that
in the teaching practice there is an evident fusion of professional and
personal theory that the teacher integrates into the teaching practice.
This fusion makes the teaching practice particular because it does not
follow a specific method or approach but it combines different teaching
issues the teacher considers relevant and necessary for the EFL teaching
practice. Finally, the EFL teaching practice developed in pre-school has
been shaped by the experiences of the school community involved in
the practice. The teachers experiences are the ones that influence the
teaching practices the most, since she brings all her teaching background
and personal experiences into the classroom. The institution, the
students, and the parents also contribute with their experiences in the
construction of the teaching practice.
In relation to the third research question: How is the EFL teaching
practice developed in pre-school when using Iconography?, it is possible
to conclude that the EFL teaching practice consists of three main
aspects: techniques, principles, and procedures, which combined make
the teaching practice in pre-school a singular practice. The techniques
used are taken from different methods and approaches, but they are
used in the practice with a specific teaching purpose. The techniques
are: Sammy, the teddy monkey who works as the EFL class pet; songs;
handicrafts; games; and role-plays. Different principles were evidenced
in the teaching practice; each one is related to a relevant aspect of the
class: the goal of the teacher, the role of the students, the role of the
teacher, and the languages, the language learning process, students
feelings, the evaluation, and the teacher-students interaction. The
135
combination of all those principles makes the EFL teaching practice in

pre-school at this school setting different from other teaching practices.
Lastly, the procedures seen in the class involve the techniques mentioned
above but with the particular intention expressed in the principles.
Finally, regarding the last research question: What are the perceptions
that the educational community has of the use of Iconography? It is
possible to conclude that there are two types of participants perceptions.
The first type that emerged is related to those perceptions that consider
that there are weaknesses in the teaching practice, but they are still
seen as the challenges the teaching practice faces. Those are: activities
that should be included into the teaching practice and to consider the
possibility that one student moves from this particular school to another
one. The second group of perceptions is the one that points out the
opportunities offered by Iconography as part of the EFL teaching practice.
It includes two main aspects: motivation and learning. It was shown by
the school community that Iconography motivates students to learn the
language, which is something that should be strengthened since it helps
students in their learning process. A second aspect is the learning process,
which, according to the participants, has been positive for students since
Iconography was seen as innovative and facilitating.
In sum, it was revealed in this study that Iconography is a socially
situated semiotic literacy practice that is used in the EFL teaching practice
in pre-school at this school context. This teaching practice not only
includes Iconography but it also involves a set of techniques, principles
and procedures that makes it singular and distinctive from other EFL
teaching practices with young learners. Therefore, the post-method
condition was evidenced in the teaching practice due to its particularity,
the way theory is combined, and the way experiences permeate it. Such
a practice may be taken into consideration in the EFL young learners
teaching field because of its innovative and facilitating nature.
136
Implications of the study

Some implications arose from the development of this project. In the
first part of this section, we present the implications related to the ELT
community in Colombia; then, the implications for the institution where
the project was developed and for the participants of this study are
discussed.
The first implication is related to the ELT policies in Colombia, due
to the fact that most of the policies created in the country conceive
the teaching of a foreign language from first grade, leaving aside preschoolers. For instance, the basic standards in competences in foreign
language (MEN, 2006) start the standards with the contents for first
graders. Thus, it is necessary to include into Colombias educational
policies the teaching of a foreign language in pre-school; thus, schools
and teachers who are in charge of this process could have a common
guide to follow in their teaching practices.
The second implication this study has is related to teacher development.
Taking into account Gonzalez (2007) definition of teacher development,
referring to Johnson (2000), it is a permanent process that initiates
when they are learners in classrooms and schools, and continues ()
when they learn from their experience teaching in their own schools (p.
310). Due to the fact that EFL teaching in pre-school is not included in
Colombias policies, it seems that EFL teachers are not prepared to face
the processes of teaching this particular population. Thus, as Truscott de
Meja (2009) asserted, B.A. programs at universities should include in
their curriculum specific seminars for teaching young learners due to the
fact that teaching young learners is different from teaching populations
of other ages.
There is another implication linked to the theory. As there are few
theories related to teaching English to young learners in pre-school levels,
Iconography as a socially situated semiotic literacy practice has emerged
from this study to contribute to the theoretical understanding of EFL
teaching practices at this level. It can also be seen as a good practice
to be used in the EFL classroom as a tool to introduce foreign language
literacy to young children.
137
In regards to the institution where the research was conducted, there

are some important implications. The first implication is a change of mind
related to Iconography. It should be understood as a practice instead of
a method or an approach; because as the findings show, in real teaching
practice it is neither an approach nor a method. Another implication
is the need of professional development programs for those teachers
who have to teach using Iconography, since it should be taught to other
teachers to expand its use in the EFL classes. Finally, bearing in mind
that Iconography is part of a pedagogical project, it must be evaluated
regularly in order to improve it. Also, institutional documents showing
how it works should be developed and published.
Regarding the participants of the study, the first implication for
students is the view of the learner this teaching practice has, because the
conception of learner that underpins the use of Iconography is the leaner
as an abstract entity. As stated by Norton and Toohey (2001), a good
learner is the one who can engage in communication in different contexts
without having any problem; but this is not evident with Iconography
because all of them are asked to follow the same formula and write
the same sentences, as it was seen in the findings. Therefore, there is a
mismatch regarding the vision of the learner between the vision related
to Iconography in pre-school and the rest of the practice at school. This
implies for the school and teachers to rethink the vision of the learner
they are having in the pedagogical practices. Another implication for
students is connected with the gap between practices at pre-school and
the first grades of elementary school, since students have to adjust to the
change from the use of Iconography to the use of conventional English
literacy in third grade.
Finally, some implications for novice teacher-researchers may arise
from this study. First of all, this study has highlighted the importance of
reflecting upon ones own pedagogical practices all the time not only
to understand them from a theoretical perspective but also to identify
ways in which these practices can be improved. Developing this research
also allowed us to become more aware of the gaps between official
documents and classroom practices, since this research showed that in
spite of the fact that official documents are written, they may not be
138
comprehensive and thus, classroom practices may not be are carried out
in harmony to them.
Limitations
The experience in conducting this study was rewarding and enriching;
however, there were certain limitations with regards to time. The main
limitation was related to the institutional schedule and activities. Some
sessions could not be observed for different factors: students had to be in
a flag raising ceremony, school meetings were schedule at the same time
EFL sessions were programmed, the pre-school teacher had to attend a
meeting, or pre-school students had a different activity from the regular
one. Thus, sessions that were cancelled had to be re-scheduled in order
to fulfil the observation plan.
Further research
After conducting this study, several questions and concerns emerged
regarding Iconography and the ELF field. Due to the fact that this study
aimed at characterizing Iconography in pre-school, further research is
needed in first and second grades since the practice continues in those
grades at this school setting. This could widen the characterization of
Iconography obtaining a general perspective of it, from the very first
grade were it is used until the moment when the process ends.
Another interesting research would be to explore how students face
the transition from Iconography to English conventional literacy in third
grade. It is very connected to the previous idea, since it is important to
see how it is incorporated in the whole language learning process an EFL
student faces at this particular context.
There were two processes that were left aside in the present research
and that are worthy to be studied since they are part of the process. First
of all, the cognitive processes in the use of Iconography. It could give a
different perspective of Iconography since it will be seen from another
139
discipline that would allow us to understand what cognitive processes are

carried out in a student when Iconography is involved in the EFL learning
process. Secondly, a study focused on the learning process would be
enriching for the characterization of Iconography since the present study
only emphasized on the teaching processes.
Another interesting issue to consider for carrying out a research is
related to the use of the first language (Spanish) by the teacher and the
students in the EFL class, since it was evidenced that the role Spanish
has is essential in the development of the teaching practice. Issues
such as code-switching and cross-linguistic influence could usefully be
investigated.
An even more important extension of the present study is to examine
what happens when implementing reading of short stories since there
was no evidence of their use in developing the early literacy process in
this particular classroom context. Short stories have been used with young
learners in learning a foreign language (Loukia, 2006) and good reasons
have been given in support to their use at this level (Ellis & Brewster,
1991): first, they motivate students; second, they allow students to use
their imagination; third, listening to the stories in the class is a social
practice; also, listening to the stories repeated times allows students to
acquire the language, and finally, listening to stories develop students
listening skills and motivation.
140
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146
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Principals Consent Form
Febrero 14 de 2013
Seora
ANONYMOUS NAME
Rectora School Name
Como parte del proceso acadmico e investigativo que se adelanta,
se planea realizar una investigacin en la institucin educativa. sta
investigacin tiene como propsito hacer un proceso analtico del
proyecto de iconografa que el departamento de ingls ha venido
trabajando durante los ltimos siete aos. El objeto de esta investigacin
es hallar las implicaciones que el uso del mtodo iconogrfico tiene en el
proceso de enseanza- aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera.
Los procedimientos a seguir en la investigacin incluyen la recoleccin
de datos con estudiantes, docentes, padres de familia y directivos
docentes. Dicha informacin ser recolectada a travs de diferentes
instrumentos como entrevistas, observacin, recoleccin de trabajos de
los estudiantes y cuestionarios. La informacin obtenida se mantendr
en total confidencialidad, as como los nombres de los participantes.
147
Los resultados de sta investigacin le traer como beneficio el

mejoramiento de la calidad educativa de la institucin en lo relacionado
con el proyecto del departamento de ingls. Razn por la cual, al finalizar
la investigacin usted recibir los resultados obtenidos de ella, aunque
al hacerse participe de la investigacin puede preguntar acerca de sta
en el momento que usted lo disponga. Vale la pena resaltar que esta
investigacin no incluye un costo adicional para la institucin.
Por otra parte, en algunos casos, este tipo de investigaciones son
publicadas en revistas especializadas, por ende es pertinente mencionar
el hecho de una posible publicacin en el futuro.
Consentimiento informado institucional:
Yo
_____________________________________________
rectora
del School Name autorizo el trabajo investigativo sobre el proceso
iconogrfico.
Firma_______________________________ Fecha ___________________
148
Appendix 2. Students Consent Form
149
Appendix 3. Teachers Consent Form

Dear Pre-School EFL Teacher,
You are being asked to take part in a research study of the advantages
and disadvantages of the iconography approach. I am asking you to take
part of it because as you are teaching English as a foreign language with
this approach, thus the information that you can provide to this study is
very relevant.
The purpose of this study is to gather information about the iconography
approach in order to get some conclusions about the implications it has
upon the English learning-teaching process.
This will not have any cost for you. In some cases a study like the one I
am holding can be published in a journal, so it important for you to know
that it can be published at any time in the future.
Do you agree to be in the study? Yes ___ No ____
If you do so:
- I will conduct an interview to you during you time work at school.
- The information I will get from it will be confidential.
- You can ask about the research anytime you want to
- Your real name wont be used in the report
- You can withdraw at any time
Taking part of this study is voluntary. You might skip any questions
that you dont want to answer.
I, ________________________________, agree to be part of the project.
Signature ______________________________________ Date________
150
Appendix 4. Parents Consent Form

Febrero 14 de 2013
Estimado padre de familia
Cordial saludo
Este ao se llevar a cabo una investigacin en la institucin acadmica.
sta investigacin tiene como propsito hacer un proceso evaluativo
del proyecto de iconografa que el departamento de ingls ha venido
trabajando durante los ltimos siete aos. El objeto de esta investigacin
es hallar las ventajas y las desventajas que la aplicacin de este enfoque
tiene en la lengua extranjera, para as mejorar las prcticas educativas.
Por tal razn, es importante usar los trabajos producidos por los
estudiantes y la informacin obtenida de algunas preguntas para esta
investigacin. Por ende su consentimiento como padres de familia es de
vital importancia.
Adems de ello, ustedes como padres de familia pueden ser
participes de la investigacin mediante la respuesta a un cuestionario
que puede arrojar informacin pertinente para el estudio anteriormente
mencionado. La informacin obtenida se mantendr en total
confidencialidad, as como los nombres de ustedes y sus hijos si as lo
desean. En algunos casos, este tipo de investigaciones son publicadas en
revistas especializadas, por ende es pertinente mencionar el hecho de
una posible publicacin en el futuro.
Si decide hacer parte en la investigacin podr preguntar sobre
el proyecto en el momento que usted lo desee, puede retirarse de
la investigacin cuando lo desee y podr ver los resultados de la
investigacin.
Vale la pena resaltar que esta investigacin no incluye un costo
adicional a los servicios educativos prestados por la institucin.
Finalmente, si no est de acuerdo con la participacin de su hijo en
la investigacin se garantiza que se recibir el mismo trato mientras se
realicen trabajos en el aula respecto a la investigacin.
151
Consentimiento informado Padres de Familia:
Yo _____________________________________________ padre del

estudiante ______________________________________________ SI ___
NO ____ autorizo la participacin de mi hijo y la ma en la investigacin.
Firma_______________________________ Fecha ___________________
152
Appendix 5. Field Notes Format

FIELD NOTES N ______
DATE: __________________
SCHOOL: ____________________________________________________________
__
SETTING: _____________________________________________________________
GRADE: ______________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY:
PAGE #:
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- How does Iconography work in the EFL pre-school classroom?
- What are the pedagogical underpinnings of the EFL teaching practice held in this
particular school context when Iconography is used?
- How is the EFL teaching practice developed in pre-school when using Iconography?
- What are the perceptions that the educational community has of the use of Iconography?
OBSERVATIONS
COMMENTS/REFLECTIONS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
153
Appendix 6. Principals semi-structured interview

INTERVIEW FORMAT
PRINCIPALS SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
Date: ________________________________ Place: ___________________________
Interviewer: ___________________________ Interviewee: ______________________
Intended duration__________________
Interview began at (time): ___________ Interview finished at (time) _________________
El propsito de esta entrevista es hablar sobre su opinin como rectora del colegio
sobre el mtodo iconogrfico que el colegio ha venido aplicando en la enseanza
del ingls en pre-escolar: pre-kinder, knder y transicin, y en los grados, primero,
segundo y tercero.
1. De dnde surgi la idea de ensear ingls con este mtodo?
2. Cul es su posicin como directiva de la institucin frente a la aplicacin del
mtodo iconogrfico? (De acuerdo? Desacuerdo?)
3. Desde su perspectiva como directiva cules cree usted han sido las ventajas del
uso del mtodo para la institucin y cules las desventajas? (Aprendizaje de la
lengua, procesos acadmicos)
4. Cules han sido las desventajas?
5. Cuando se habla de la implementacin de un programa a nivel pedaggico se
debe hablar tambin de un seguimiento y una evaluacin constante sobre ste.
Cmo ha sido este proceso con la iconografa?
6. Qu espera del uso de este mtodo en la institucin?
7. Cmo ve usted el enfoque en unos aos?
154
Appendix 7. Sample Teachers Interview

TEACHERS INTERVIEW
FIRST SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
Date: ________________________________ Place: ___________________________
Interviewer: ___________________________ Interviewee: ______________________
Intended duration__________________
Interview began at (time): ___________ Interview finished at (time) _________________
The purpose of this interview is to talk about some specific aspects of the iconography
approach:
1. As I know you were part of the group of teachers who started this project, I
would like to know: Where did the idea of the Project come from?
2. What can you tell me about the features of the iconography approach?
3. You are one of the teachers who have been working with this approach for a long
time: what kind of activities do you develop in class, which make the iconography approach different from other approaches?
4. What is the objective you have when you plan those activities?
5. From the development of the activities what can you tell me about the childrens
performance?
6. Do you think the iconography approach has any advantage? (Which ones?)
7. And what about the disadvantages of using this approach?
8. You have been teaching with this approach for at least 6 years, why do you think
it is still used at the institution?
9. Can you suggest anything that could be done to improve the approach?
155
Appendix 8. Cuestionario Padres De Familia

Estimado Padre de Familia:
Se est llevando a cabo una investigacin sobre el mtodo iconogrfico que se
utiliza en la clase de ingls en el colegio. El presente cuestionario tiene como
objetivo conocer acerca de su entorno familiar y de su opinin frente al mtodo
iconogrfico utilizado en la enseanza del ingls como lengua extranjera con su
hijo/hijaa. Agradezco responda con el mayor grado de sinceridad y objetividad.
La informacin suministrada ser completamente confidencial.
ENTORNO FAMILIAR
1. Nombre del estudiante: ______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Quin diligencia el cuestionario?
Padre__
Madre__
Otro___ Quin? __________________
3. Lugar de residencia: _________________________________________
4. Cuntas personas conforman el hogar? ________
5. Edad
Padre menor de 20___ 21-24___ 25-28__ 29-33__ Mayor de 34__
Madre menor de 20___ 21-24___ 25-28__ 29-33__ Mayor de 34__
6. Nivel educativo
Padre __Primaria __Bachillerato __Tcnico __Universitario ___Otro
Madre __Primaria __Bachillerato __Tcnico __Universitario ___Otro
7. En el entorno familiar Alguien habla ingls?
Si ___ No ____
Si su respuesta es afirmativa Quin? ___________________________
156
8. Cuntos aos lleva su hijo estudiando en el colegio? ______

9. Cunto tiempo comparte diariamente con el estudiante? ____ horas
10. De las siguientes actividades cules realiza con el estudiante?
Marque las opciones necesarias
__ Leer
__ Ver televisin
__ Hacer las tareas
__ Jugar
__ Ir al parque
__ Ir al cine
__ Asistir a actividades culturales (museo, teatro, etc.)
__ Otras Cules? __________________________________________
MTODO ICONOGRFICO
11. Sabe que es el mtodo iconogrfico?
Si___ No___
(Si su respuesta es afirmativa contine respondiendo el cuestionario,
de lo contrario ac termina. Gracias.)
Marque con una (X) frente a las opciones que considere respecto a su
experiencia con la iconografa
Siempre
12. Puedo ayudar a mi hijo
con la tarea de ingls
13. Comprendo los apuntes de
ingls de mi hijo
14.Puedo ayudar a mi hijo a
estudiar para las evaluaciones
de ingls
15. Mi hijo entiende sus
apuntes
157
A veces
Casi nunca
Nunca
16. Est usted de acuerdo con el uso del mtodo iconogrfico en las
clases de ingls?
Si ___ No ___ Por qu? ___________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
17. Considera usted que las actividades que se realizan en la clase de
ingls ayudan al aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera?
Si ___ No ___ Por qu? _____________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
18. Considera usted que el mtodo iconogrfico ha tenido aspectos
positivos en el proceso de aprendizaje de su hijo?
Si ___ No ___ Cules? ______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
19. Considera usted que el mtodo iconogrfico ha tenido aspectos
negativos en el proceso de aprendizaje de su hijo?
Si ___ No ___ Cules? ______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
20. Qu piensa acerca del uso del mtodo iconogrfico en la clase de
ingls?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Gracias por su colaboracin!
158
Appendix 9. Students Questionnaire

CUESTIONARIO
QUERIDO ESTUDIANTE, HOLA!

Como parte de una investigacin sobre la iconografa en tu colegio,
me gustara que t me ayudaras respondiendo las siguientes
preguntas con toda la verdad. Todo lo que digas ser confidencial.
PERFIL DEL ESTUDIANTE
Nombre: ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Fecha: _____________
Curso: _____________
1. Tengo ______ aos de edad
2. Soy
Nio _____
Nia ______
159
3. Vivo con: (Marca las opciones necesarias)

___ Pap
___ Mam
___ Hermanos
___ Abuelos
___ Tos
___ Padrinos
___ Otros
Quines? _______________
ICONOGRAFA
4. Te gusta la clase de ingls?
a. Mucho b. Ms o menos
c. Un poco
d. Nada
Por qu? _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Qu es lo que te gusta de la clase de ingls? ____________________
____________________________________________________________
6. Te gusta aprender ingls con iconos?
a. Mucho b. Ms o menos
c. Un poco
d. Nada
Por qu? _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
7. De los siguientes elementos cules utiliza la profesora en la clase?
Marca con una X los que ella use:
___ Tablero
___ Marcadores
160
___ Grabadora
___ Televisin
___ Lminas
___ Fotocopias
___ Libros
___ Juguetes
___ Otros
Cules? __________________________________________________
8. De las siguientes cosas Que hacen en la clase de ingls? Marca con
una X las que ella haga
___ Saludar
___ Cantar
___ Preguntar sobre la clase anterior
___ Dibujar los iconos en el tablero
161
___Preguntar sobre el significado de los iconos

___ Calificar la tarea
___ Mostrar objetos relacionados con los iconos
___ Leer
___ Dictar
___Otras. Cules? _________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
9. Qu te gustara que se hiciera en la clase de ingls?
_________________________________________________________
10. La profesora habla en ingls
a. Siempre
b. Casi siempre
c. Casi nunca d. Nunca
11. Quin crea los iconos? (Marca las opciones vlidas)

___ La profesora
___ T
___ Tus compaeros
___ Otro Quin? __________________________
12. Entiendes todos los iconos
a. Siempre
b. Casi siempre c. Casi nunca
d. Nunca
13. Si no entiendes un icono qu haces?

Preguntarle a la profesora
Preguntarle a un compaero
No preguntas
Otros Qu? ___________________________________________
162
Appendix 10. Transcription Conventions

SYMBOL
MEANING
The subjects
Student
Teachers intervention
Interviewers intervention
S
T
I
The words Themselves

(???)
(word?)
Unintelligible text
Guess at unclear text
Pausing
Micropause
Pause of indicated length
(.)
(3)
Relevant additional information

Descriptive comment
[laughts]
Taken and adapted from Chapetn (2007).
163
Author index
A
Acero
Adamson
Arikan
Ashworth
36, 39, 141

37, 141
38, 40, 141
96, 141
B
Barton
Baynham
Bell
Beltran
Beuchot
Bliss
Blumenfeld
Brown
Bruner
Burns
31, 75, 141

29, 31, 141
48, 56, 141
33-34, 141
22-25, 141
25-26, 142
85, 142
34, 36-38, 41, 91-92, 94, 103-104, 142
41, 142
13, 43, 54-55, 92, 142, 143
165
C
Cameron
Castro
Chapetn
Christensen
Christie
Copland
Corbin
Creswell
11, 13, 31, 41, 142

36, 141
31, 59, 142, 163
48, 56, 144
29, 142
13, 43, 93, 143
60-61, 142
54, 61, 142
D
Davies
Debes
20, 143
30, 143
E
Eco
Elkins
21-23, 65, 68-69, 143

30, 143
F
Ferreiro
29, 31, 33, 143
G
Garca
Garton
Gee
Genesee
Gillen
Gonzlez
Gray
Grossi
36, 39, 143

13, 42-43, 92, 143
31-32, 143
41-42, 102, 143
29, 30, 143
137, 143
48, 143
32, 77, 143
166
Guevara
Guinan
86, 144
27, 144
H
Hall
Huang
29-30, 79, 142-144

44, 144
J
James
Javier
Johnson
Jones
86, 144
36, 141
48, 56, 137, 144
32, 144
K
Kumaravadivelu
38, 40, 44, 81-82, 84-85, 88, 91, 105, 107,

111, 144
L
Lancaster
Larsen-Freeman
Locke
Loukia
30, 144
9, 37-39, 91, 104, 113, 144
21, 144
140, 144
M
Makin
Marshall
McLachlan
Merriam
Morris
32, 144
52, 144
32, 144
47-48, 52, 54-58, 60-61, 144
21, 145
167
N
Norton
Nunan
138, 145
36-37, 48, 145
O
Ordoez
86, 144
P
Peirce
Pennycook
Porras
Prabhu
Punch
22-25, 67, 145

20, 145
44-45, 104, 145
44, 145
52, 145
R
Richard
Richards
Rodgers
Rodriguez
Roskos
Rossman
145
20, 26, 35-37, 39, 87, 91, 117, 145
36-37, 117, 145
13, 16, 32-33, 146
29, 142
52, 144
S
Sagor
Sarmiento
Schmidt
Scott
Selinger
Shohamy
Strauss
53, 146
26-27, 146
20, 145,
42, 104, 146
53, 146
53, 146
60-61, 142
168
T
Truscott de Meja
45-46, 137, 144
U
Ukrainetz
28, 146
V
Varela
Vitta
13, 16, 146

24, 146
W
Wakefield
Wallace
Wileman
Williams
96, 141
54-55, 57, 146
30, 146
20, 146
Z
Zamora
Zender
24-25, 146
24, 146
169
Subject index
A
affective factor
applied linguistics
approach
42, 93
20
13-14, 20, 35-39, 43-44, 50-51,
55, 57, 85-86, 92-93, 96, 135,
138, 150, 155
arbitrary
23-25, 68-71, 134
artifact (see data collection instruments)
aspects in EFL teaching
37, 39, 43, 45, 61, 88, 102, 111,
131, 134
authenticity
42, 58, 86
B
background
background knowledge
bilingual
bilingualism
Bliss system
24, 56, 83, 86, 90,

77, 131, 135
14, 45-46, 52, 83
45
25-26
171
C
case study
class activity
class observation
class session
classroom context
classroom practice
challenges
children
code-switching
command
communicative approach
communicative performance
communicative process
communicative situations
communicative skills
communicative system
consent
conventional English literacy
conventional literacy
conventional written system
critical thinking
cross-linguistic influence
curriculum
12, 33, 47-49, 134

78, 98, 113, 124
12, 44, 58-59, 96
50, 53
29, 35, 140
138-139
8, 45, 63-64, 123, 127, 131, 133,
136,
11, 13, 16, 28-30, 33-35, 41-45,
51, 56-57, 92, 96, 104, 109, 126130, 137
140
75, 79, 87
13, 50, 85-86
86
26
86, 102
26, 28, 115,
7, 25, 62-63, 66, 70-71, 73-75,
78-79, 134
8, 50-52, 57, 147-152
11, 83, 89, 125-126
14, 34, 78-79, 83, 89, 105, 107,
126, 139
73
26-27, 31
140
37, 57, 82, 137
D
data analysis
7, 11, 17, 60, 81, 104, 123, 127,

133
172
grounded approach
microanalysis
data coding
data collection instruments
artifact(s)
documents (official, public,
institutional)
field notes
interview (semi-structured
interview)
questionnaire
decode
degrees of iconicity
drawings
60
60
9, 32, 47, 61-62
56
57-62, 65, 100
12-13, 22, 43, 46, 53, 57-60, 89,
138
8, 33, 54-55, 59-60, 74, 76, 78,
80, 94, 96-99, 101-103, 106,
109-110, 112-114, 118-122, 153
8, 11-12, 44, 51, 53, 55-56, 5960, 78-79, 82-83, 85-86, 88-90,
92, 95, 97, 99-100, 105, 107-113,
116-117, 119, 125-126, 131, 150,
154-155, 163
9, 12, 33, 53, 56-57, 59-60, 94,
124-130, 159
23, 29, 31-32, 79
9, 68-69
13, 19, 26, 30, 34, 58, 67-68, 72,
97, 121
E
early childhood
early literacy
early literacy as a social
situated practice
early literacy process
early Spanish literacy
emotions 34, 93-94,
English as a Foreign Language
79, 143-144
7, 19, 29-31, 33-34, 46, 134, 140
31
33-34, 140
14
114
10-11, 13, 16, 26, 70, 133-134,
150
173
English class
EFL classroom
EFL literacy practice
EFL pre-school classroom
EFL teacher
EFL teaching practice
English Language Teaching

English literacy
ethical
evaluation
experience
27, 49-50, 93, 97, 119, 129

8, 11, 26-27, 41, 44, 46, 65-66,
78-79, 86, 134-135, 137
27
7, 16, 23, 83-84, 134, 153
11, 13, 51, 56, 59, 84, 137, 150
8, 12, 15-17, 33, 44, 46, 52-53,
56, 63-64, 84, 90-91, 117, 123,
133-136, 153
7, 10, 13, 34, 38, 40
11, 13, 83, 89, 105, 125-126
19, 52, 145
39, 105, 114, 116, 135
8, 12, 22-23, 30, 34, 40, 42, 47,
54, 56-57, 63-64, 81-83, 87-90,
135-137, 139
F
field notes (see data collection instruments)
figures
10, 67, 69, 97
geometrical figures
67, 69
figures made of paper
97
flashcards
43, 92
G
game
41, 43, 45, 86, 92, 94-95, 102104, 112, 114, 118, 121, 124,
134-135
20, 55
43, 49
42
gestures
grammar rules
grammatical explanations
greeting song (see song)
grounded approach (see data analysis)
174
H
handicraft (s)
10, 58, 87, 92, 97-101, 104, 106,

118, 121, 134-135
I
icon
icons and symbols

iconography
iconography is a literacy practice

iconography in pre-school
iconography in the EFL classroom
iconography in the EFL
teaching practice 52,
iconography as a socially situated
semiotic practice
image
images in the EFL classroom

the use of images
interaction
7, 9, 12-14, 20-28, 30-32, 51,

62-63, 65-81, 101, 107, 110,
114-115, 129-131, 133-134, 160,
162
7, 26, 30, 32, 62, 65-67, 70-71,
80, 133-134
7-8, 12-17, 19-21, 25-31, 34-35,
46-59, 61-70, 72-86, 89-92, 99,
104-105, 107, 109-110, 116-117,
122-131, 133-140, 150, 153, 155
134
8, 64, 123, 138-139
8, 66, 78
123, 133
8, 75
7, 9, 14, 19-27, 29-31, 62-63, 6568, 70-73, 75-77, 85, 127-128,
130, 146
19, 26-27, 85, 128
27, 85, 127-128
24, 32, 39, 49, 54-55, 77, 109111, 130, 135
175
K
kinder
kindergarten students
51, 59-60, 62, 86-87, 92, 94, 96,

103, 110, 113, 118-120, 154
33
L
language learning
29, 36, 38, 43, 83-84, 90, 92,

102, 105, 108, 125-127, 130,
135, 139
language literacy
13
language skills
39, 42, 74
language teaching concepts
35
learning environment
86-87
literacy
7, 11, 13-14, 19-20, 26-27, 2934, 42, 62-63, 65, 77-80, 83, 89,
92, 104-105, 107, 116, 125-126,
133-134, 136-140
literacy practice
7, 20, 27, 32, 62-63, 65, 79-80,
92, 104, 133-134, 136-137
literacy as a social situated practice 31
literacy process
13, 26, 29, 31-34, 77, 79, 140
listening
31, 42-43, 73-75, 87, 102, 124125, 140
listening skills
102, 125, 140
M
materials
teaching materials
meaning making
convey meaning
36-37, 44, 57-58, 71, 83, 117118, 120, 134

83, 134
21, 26, 29, 65
7, 26, 30, 62-63, 65, 68, 70-71,
73, 79
176
meaningful images
memory
method
methodology
microanalysis (see data analysis)
moment-to-moment
motivation
motivational factor
7, 62-63, 66-67
27, 105, 108-110, 114-115
13, 26, 35-40, 44, 57, 81, 86-87,
92, 127, 135-136, 138
17, 35, 37, 39, 43
37, 91
27, 94, 103, 105, 113, 121, 127128, 136, 140
94, 127
N
numbers
23, 27, 40, 51, 54, 96, 102-103,

120, 124
O
object representation
observation
19, 22-25, 67-68, 71, 98, 134

12, 44, 53-55, 57-60, 96, 117,
139, 153
P
painting
parents
participants
particular context
pedagogical parameters
particularity
practicality
possibility
124
8, 14, 48, 50-51, 53, 57, 59-60,
88, 90, 124-130, 135, 151
17, 39, 40, 42, 47, 50-52, 137
8, 12, 43, 48, 63-64, 81-82, 134135, 139
50, 81
38, 40, 81-82, 84, 87, 135-136
38, 40, 81-82, 84-85
38, 40, 81-82, 88
177
perception (s)
perspective (s)
pet (sammy, a teddy monkey)

pictograms
picture (s)
piloting
policies
political
post-method
pre-kinder
pre-school
pre-school as a particular context

pre-school classroom
pre-school level
pre-school teacher (s)
preschoolers
principles
8, 11, 15-16, 43, 53, 55-57, 6364, 123-124, 127, 130-131, 136,
153
13, 15, 23, 27, 29-31, 35-36, 39,
41, 46, 48, 53, 55, 81, 83-84,
133, 138-139
10, 76, 89, 92-96, 102, 112-114,
118, 120, 134-135
16, 28
16, 19, 25-26, 30, 34, 44, 71,
100, 114-115, 128
54, 56-57
17, 43, 45-46, 76, 110, 137
40, 84
8, 35, 38-40, 44, 63-64, 81-82,
84, 87, 91, 104, 107, 111, 117,
133, 135-136
51, 59-60, 62, 80, 86-88, 92, 9899, 106, 108-109, 111-112, 154
7-9, 11-17, 19, 21, 23, 29-30, 33,
35, 43, 46-48, 50-54, 57-58, 6265, 78, 80-84, 86-88, 90-92, 97,
101-102, 104, 113, 122-124, 131,
133-139, 141, 146, 150, 153
8, 63-64, 81-82
7, 16-17, 23, 35, 43, 64, 83-84,
97, 133-134, 153
14, 52, 137
51, 139
14, 43, 50, 70, 77, 92
8-9, 35-40, 47, 63-64, 81-82, 8485, 88, 91, 104-105, 107-108,
110, 113-114, 116, 135-136
178
procedure
pronunciation
7-9, 17, 35-40, 46-47, 52-53, 58,

60-61, 63-64, 91, 117-118, 122,
135-136
27-28, 44, 130
Q
qualitative research
47, 48, 52, 54
questionnaires (see data collection instruments)
R
reading
reality
repetition
research approach
research purpose
research questions
role of images
role of the L1
role of the researcher
role of the students
role of the teacher
role-play
20, 26, 29, 31, 34, 45, 58, 60, 7374, 78-80, 87, 124, 140
11, 23, 31, 44-45, 48, 102
105, 108-110
48
12, 15, 35
15-16, 49, 53-54, 58, 61-64, 134136, 154
27, 65, 80
111-112, 140
52
39, 105, 135
36, 39, 105
43, 86, 92, 98, 101, 104, 106,
121, 134-135
S
school
11-17, 19-20, 32-33, 41, 44,

46, 48, 49-54, 57-59, 63, 71, 77,
79, 82-91, 93, 96, 101-102,
104116, 120, 122-127, 130-131,
133-139, 147-148, 150, 153
179
school community
school context
school setting
semiotic components
semiotic literacy practice
12, 123, 127, 133, 135-136

87, 136
20, 104, 133, 136, 139
28
7, 63, 65, 79-80, 92, 104, 133,
136-137
semi-structured interview (see data collection instruments)
sign (s)
9, 21-26, 28-32, 37, 46-47, 52,
56-57, 60-61, 65-67, 69-73, 75,
77-80, 95, 103, 121, 134, 150,
162
linguistic sign
67, 70, 80
sing/singing
43, 95-97, 102-104, 110, 118,
122
socially situated construction
77, 79-80
socially situated semiotic
literacy practice
79-80, 104, 137
society
21, 24, 31-32, 49
songs
33, 41, 43, 78, 80, 87-88, 92, 9597, 102, 104, 107, 110-111, 118121, 124, 134-135
greeting song
118
Spanish
13-14, 45, 56, 94, 98, 105, 111112, 114, 119-120, 140
speaking
31, 73, 94, 106, 112, 15
storytelling
41, 45
strategies
38, 40-41, 44-45
symbols
7, 22, 25-26, 30, 32, 62-63, 6567, 69-73, 80, 128, 133-134
T
teacher
8, 11-14, 16-17, 19, 21, 23, 33,

36, 38-45, 48-56, 58-60, 62,
67-68, 71, 73-80, 83-90, 92-122,
180
teacher development
teaching children
teaching English to young learners
teaching English to young
learners in Colombia
teaching practice
teaching technique
theories
personal
professional
teaching
theoretical background
Transition
triangulation
124-126, 131, 135, 137-140, 150,

155, 163
137
41, 43, 92, 142
11, 13 16, 44-46, 137
45
8-9, 12-13, 16-17, 20-21, 39-40,
44-46, 64, 81-82, 84-85, 87-92,
104-105, 107, 116-118, 123-127,
130-131, 134-138, 140
8-9, 45, 63-64, 86, 91-93, 97,
102, 106, 113, 134
35-36, 38, 40-41, 43, 63, 81-82,
84-87, 91, 104, 137
84, 87
8, 40, 63, 81, 84-85
84, 87
19, 21, 44, 46
10, 51, 59-60, 62, 74, 76, 78-79,
92, 94, 96-98, 100-103, 106,
109-110, 112, 114-115, 118,
120-122, 139
53, 61
V
validity
visual communication
visual experience (s)
visual literacy
visual representation (s)
visual understanding
vocabulary
53, 61
24, 146
22-23, 30
27, 30-31, 143
44, 100
9, 24-25, 81-82
26, 45, 71, 87, 95-103, 109, 111,
113, 115, 118, 120, 130-131
181
W
whiteboard
writing activity
writing process
writing skills
74, 80
28, 124
28, 33, 141
74, 78
Y
young learners
7, 11, 13, 15-16, 19, 34-35, 4146, 134, 136-137
182
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Getting the Picture of

Getting the Picture of

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado, MA

Catalogacin en la fuente - Biblioteca Central de la Universidad Pedaggica Nacional.

ISBN: 978-958-58685-5-7 (rstico)

We dedicate this book to our families for their love and

Iconography as a socially situated semiotic practice................................. 75

Appendix 8. Cuestionario Padres De Familia ........................................ 156

The relation of sign, icon, and symbol ........................................24

Definition of Teaching Concepts ................................................36

SCISSORS (T.E. S3) ...................................................................66

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

As can be seen, in the little information present in the document, there

Statement of the Problem

This issue is addressed deeper in chapter 4.

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Main research question

ever been examined or characterized by the institution. Besides, taking

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

According to Davies (2004), literacy acquisition is one of the domains

Having provided this general overview of the three key constructs, we

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Graphic 1 portrays a visual understanding of the relationship between

Symbol: an arbitrary sign

Graph 1. The relation of sign, icon, and symbol

Image: Beuchot (2004) states that an image is a kind of icon that is

depending on its degrees of abstraction; they are: picture function,

(Consistent relation with the

Graph 2. Visual understanding of sign, icon, symbol and image

One of the most recognized uses of signs in education is the Bliss

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

as an ideographic writing system called Semantography consisting of

role of images in the EFL classroom. Her theoretical perspective was

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Bearing in mind that Iconography involves more than the semiotic

Early Literacy: A Visual Process and a Socially

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

through drawings children construct their world. This characteristic is

Early literacy as a visual process

visual information and compose their own meaningful forms of visual

Early literacy as a social situated practice

This is presented and discussed in chapter 4.

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Early literacy was one of the constructs of the research; it was

English Language Teaching to Young Learners

someone who takes the responsibility of guiding and teaching another

Language Teaching Concepts: an overview

See the discussion presented in the introductory chapter of this book.

Richards & Rodgers,

Acero, Javier, & Castro (2000)

Richards et al, (1985)

Table 1. Denition of Teaching Concepts

Jennifer Alejandra Delgado Claudia Marcela Chapetn

Richards et all, (1985)

Richards & Rodgers,

Adamson, (2004) in Davis & Ellis

Richards & Rodgers,

It is a three-dimensional system consisting of three pedagogic parameters: particularity, practicality, and

The principles are the thoughts (p. 1)

The principles are the theories. (p. 54)