International Review on Modelling and Simulations (I.RE.MO.S.), Vol. xx, n.

x
June 2014

Lifetime Enhancement of Wireless Sensor Networks Using

Energy Efficient AO - Star Algorithm with Link Stability
M. Yuvaraja1, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj2

Abstract Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are used in wide range of applications to gather
sensitive information. The resource limitation is a major consideration in design of WSN
communications. The problem occurs naturally in WSN, due to unbalanced energy consumption
characterized by multi-hop routing and dynamic network models which drastically reduces the
network lifetime. The nodes are spread in remote sensing areas and are motorized by finite or
limited energy batteries which cannot be replaced easily. Energy of nodes gets depleted due to the
variation in network topology or in the network life itself. Enhancing the lifetime of sensor
networks is the primary concern of this work. The proposed research work focuses on a certain
routing method for WSNs to extend the network lifetime using AO-star algorithm with Fuzzy
approach and link stability. The technique determines an optimal routing path from the sensing
point to the receiver node by considering the minimum energy consumption, lesser number of
nodes with minimum delay and lower transmission loads with higher throughput. To reveal the
effectiveness of the proposed approach, it is compared with other approaches in terms of
balancing the energy consumption and maximization of network lifetime. Simulation results show
that the average network lifetime achieved by the proposed method could be increased to nearly
30% more than that obtained by the A-star algorithm.

Keywords: AO-Star Algorithm, Link Stability, Network Lifetime, Optimized Routing, Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSNs).

I.

Introduction

A WSN is a network of resource-constrained sensors

with a central station whose interactions are transported
by means of wireless signals. A sensor node is comprised
of four fundamental elements together with a sensing
unit, a processing unit, a transceiver unit and a power
unit. The sensor network is commonly deployed to sense
the physical parameters i.e., light, pressure, sound etc.
The limitations of WSNs include the energy storage,
computation capability, memory and communication
distances [1]. The sensor nodes are not frequently
deployed in the sensing fields, which make it hard to
change faulty sensor nodes. In addition to that, the sensor
nodes may possibly contain no global data of the entire
network since the topology of a network varies regularly
[2-3]. The energy consumption has been used broadly as
a guide for simulations and the design of low power
consuming communication protocols [4].
The previous methods for prolonging the lifetime of
WSNs focus on the issues of node deployment [5], data
processing [6], routing [7], topology management [8] and
device control [9].The device control approach schedules
the devices for its idle and transmission state activities
[10-11]. The monitoring task of devices provides better
sensing coverage to the nodes. The active nodes collect
and disseminate the information through communication
Manuscript received and revised May 2008, accepted June 2008

channels, rest of the devices can be switched to a sleep

state for energy conservation and to enhance the network
lifetime.
For transmitting data, each sensor node acts as a
routing element for other nodes; therefore the energy has
a supreme importance in power-constrained datagathering sensor networks. To exploit the network
lifetime, the energy consumption should be managed
well [7-8]. Usually in routing algorithm, the best path is
selected for transmission of data from source to
destination. More than a period of time, if the same path
is chosen for all communications, in order to attain the
battery performance in terms of fast transmission time,
then those sensor nodes on this path determination get
exhausted fast [9].
The total consumption of the energy in the network is
reduced with numerous routing algorithms at the costs of
non-uniform energy drainage in the networks. Such
approaches cause network separation because some
nodes are parts of the efficient path that are shattered
from their battery energy quicker. In several cases, the
lifetime of a sensor network reduces, in which the battery
power in critical nodes is depleted [10]. Therefore, the
proposed method seeks to investigate the problems of
balancing energy consumption and maximization of
network lifetime for WSNs. So this paper proposes a new
approach using AO-star algorithm with link stability.
Copyright 2008 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

This approach is used to select the optimal routing path

from the source to the destination by favoring the highest
remaining battery power, minimum number of hops and
minimum transmission loads [11]. In addition to this,
Meta heuristic algorithm such as ant colony optimization
algorithm is used for finding low cost path.

II.

implemented for extending the overall lifetime of the

network.

Experiment

The Researchers and practitioners have addressed

various technical challenges that are due to WSN system
limitations such as limited battery capacity and primitive
computing capabilities. Among all design goals for
WSNs, network lifetime is considered to be the most
important. Several solutions to maximize network
lifetime are available and each approach provides
different magnitudes of energy savings and levels of
efficiency [12]. Among the network lifetime optimization
research works, the clustering of sensors into groups is a
popular strategy to save energy and bandwidth, whereby
Cluster Head [CH] acts as routers relaying all packets
from sensors to the base station [13].
The famous clustering algorithm is LEACH [4]. The
operation of LEACH is divided into rounds and each
round is separated into two phases, the set-up phase and
the steady-state phase. In the set-up phase, each node
decides whether or not to become a CH for the current
round. This decision is based on the threshold T(n) given
as

Where P is the predetermined percentage of CH (e.g.,

P = 0.05), r is the current round and G is the set of nodes
which have not been CH in the last 1/P rounds. CH
advertisement is transmitted to the rest of the nodes.
Depending on the signal strength of the messages, each
node selects the CH it will fit in to. The CH assigns each
node in a time slot like a Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) system. In steady-state, the CHs collect sensed
data from sensor nodes, then combine the data and send
it to the base station. Because the decision to change the
CH is probabilistic, hence there is a good chance for a
node with very low energy gets selected as a CH. When
certain nodes die, the whole cell will not function
properly. Fig.1 shows the network partition due to the
death of certain node. Also that, the CH is unspecified to
have a long communication range so that the data can
reach the base station from the CH directly. Always this
is not a sensible supposition because the CHs are regular
sensors and the base-station is not frequently reachable to
all nodes directly due to signal propagation problems
[14].
AlShawi et al. proposed an algorithm [15] by using a
combination of both Fuzzy approach and A-star
algorithm in which an efficient routing of data from side
to side transmission path from node to node had been

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Fig. 1. Network partition due to the death of certain node.

This method is able to select the optimal routing path

from the source node to destination by favoring the
minimum energy consumption, minimum number of
hops and lowest transmission load. The performance of
the proposed method is evaluated under the same criteria
in two different topographical areas.

Fig. 2. Routing options in a small WSN using different metrics.

The numbers inside the nodes in fig. 2 represent the

residual energy and the numbers in parentheses represent
the transmission load. From the above mentioned
literatures, note that a number of different metrics have
been used to prolong the lifetime of the sensor networks
[15]. These metrics are as follows:
1) The Minimum Energy Consumption (CE):
Certainly the most vital feature of routing in WSNs is the
energy efficiency. Under this condition, the focus is on
the energy capacity of the nodes. A routing protocol uses
this metric to support the routes that have the major total
energy power from source to destination [16].
Fig. 2 shows an example of a small sensor network,
where a source node transmits a packet to a destination
node. The numbers present in the nodes point out the
residual energy capacity of consequent nodes. In this
example, a routing protocol could select path AEH
since it has the largest total capacity.
2) Minimum Hop Cost (HC): The most common
criterion used in routing protocols is minimum hop. It is
a shortest hop hence, the routing protocol attempts to
find the path from the sender to the destination that
requires the smallest number of relay nodes. Under this
criterion, the path B-H is selected which has the
minimum hop (i.e. 3) which is shown in the Fig. 2.
3) Transmission Load (TL): The transmission load of
a node is defined as the pending amount of traffic in a
nodes queue. This includes the application traffic and
International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

also the traffic that a node has already committed to

forwarding. In the case that concentration of events in
some particular sub-areas is more than that of other
areas, the shortest path will cause implosion along the
path. The high transmission load causes a data queue
overflow in the sensor nodes, resulting in loss of
important information. In addition, since the battery
energy of the sensor nodes is quickly exhausted, the
entire lifetime of wireless sensor networks would be
shortened. Therefore, the traffic load in the nodes will
affect the lifetime of the networks. In Fig. 2, the numbers
in parentheses below the nodes indicate the traffic load of
the corresponding nodes. A routing protocol under this
criterion could select the path A-E-I which has the lowest
total transmission load (i.e. 4).

ambiguity, geometrical segmentation of the image and

the uncertain interpretation of a scene [2]. This exploits
the learning capabilities and the evocative or disrepute
power of systems, thus providing results characterized by
a high interpretability and good degree of accuracy [17].
Fig.4. shows the fuzzy approach used in AO star
algorithm. The Fuzzy model consists of three main parts:
fuzzification, rules evaluation and defuzzification.
Fuzzification is the process of changing a real scalar
value into a fuzzy value. The inference engine process
maps fuzzified inputs to the rule base to produce a fuzzy
output. A consequent of the rule and its membership to
the output sets are determined. The defuzzification
process converts the output of a fuzzy rule into crisp
output by any one of defuzzification strategies [18].

III. IMPLEMENTATION OF AO-STAR

ALGORITHM USING FUZZY
TECHNIQUE
To avoid separation of the network and to expand the
network lifetime, this paper proposes a new routing
method using Fuzzy approach with AO-star algorithm.
The proposed routing method is used to select the
optimal routing path from source to destination by
considering the above conditions like the minimum
energy consumption, minimum hop, minimum
transmission load and balancing between them to prolong
the lifetime of the sensor network as much as possible.
III.1. Fuzzy Approach
Fuzzy logic analyzes the information using fuzzy sets,
each of which is represented by a linguistic term such as
small, medium, or large. Fuzzy sets allow an object to be
a fractional member of a set [ ]. If X suggests a collection
of objects denoted by x, usually X is referred to as the
universe of discourse, and then a fuzzy set A in X is
defined by a set of ordered pairs:

Fig. 3. Membership functions from the pair (x,

Fig. 4. Fuzzy Approach in AO star algorithm

III.2. AO Star Algorithm

A* is a system algorithm used to find the path and
graph traversal. The difference between the A*(A star)
and AO*(AO star) algorithms is that A* algorithm is an
OR graph algorithm and AO* algorithm is an AND-OR
graph algorithm. The OR graph algorithm is used to find
only one solution. But the AND-OR graph algorithm
finds more than one solutions by ANDing two or more
branches.
A problem can be divided into a set of sub problems,
where each sub problem can be solved independently and
a combination of these will be a solution. AND-OR
graphs or AND - OR trees are used for representing the
solution. The decomposition of the problem or problem
reduction generates AND arcs. One AND arc may point
to any number of successor nodes. All these must be
solved so that the arc will rise to many arcs, indicating
several possible solutions. Hence the graph is known as
AND - OR instead of AND. Fig. 5. shows an AND - OR
graph.
An algorithm to find a solution in an AND - OR graph
must handle AND area appropriately. A* algorithm
cannot search AND - OR graphs efficiently.

(x)).

The main thing of fuzzy systems is that they are

universal approximations with the ability to solicit
interpretable IF-THEN rules. The ultimate goal of
applying such a system is to get rid of imprecise
information present in an image such as pixel grayness
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Fig. 5. AND-OR Graph

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

The algorithm for performing a heuristic search of an

AND - OR graph is given in Fig. 5. Unlike A* algorithm
which used two lists OPEN and CLOSED, the AO*
algorithm uses a single structure G. G represents the part
of the search graph generated so far. Each node in G
points down to its immediate successors and up to its
immediate predecessors and also has with it the value of
cost of the path ( h) from itself to a set of solution nodes.
The cost of getting from the start nodes to the current
node (g) is not stored as in the A* algorithm. This is
because it is not possible to compute a single such value
since there may be many paths to the same state. AO*
algorithm serves as the estimate of goodness of a node.

IV.

Proposed Routing Method

The network topology of a WSN is designed as a

directed graph G (N, A), where N is the set of nodes and
A is the set of direct links between the nodes. For
collecting the data from all other nodes, a sink node is
responsible within its transmission range [19]. The
proposed method assumes that firstly, all sensor nodes
are randomly distributed in the area and every sensor
node is assumed to know its own position as well as that
of its neighbors and the sink; secondly, all sensor nodes
have the same maximum transmission range and the
same amount of initial energy; thirdly, each node has a
certain amount of traffic pending in nodes queue. The
nodes queue includes the application traffic and also the
traffic that a node has already committed to forward.
The primary goal of this paper is to design a protocol
that will prolong the lifetime of the WSNs through
limiting energy cost as well as equal distribution of
energy consumption. To achieve this, the fuzzy approach
and AO-star algorithm is used. The new method uses all
three routing criteria, mentioned in section II (i.e. the
minimum energy consumption, minimum number of
hops and lowest transmission load) to select the optimal
next hop to this node. The process consists of two parts.
IV.1.

5.

solution tree; Remove all nodes from open with

a solved ancestor.
If n is not solvable node, label n as unsolvable.
If the start node is labeled as unsolvable, exit
with failure. Remove all nodes from open, with
unsolvable ancestors.
Otherwise, expand node n generating all of its
successors, compute the cost of each newly
generated node and place all such nodes on
open.
Go back to step (2).
These steps are illustrated in Fig.8.

6.

7.

IV.2.

Implementation of Fuzzy Approach in AO Star

Algorithm

The goal of the fuzzy part of the proposed protocol is

to decide the optimal value of the hop cost HC (n) of node
n that depends on the minimum energy consumption CE
(n) and the transmission load TL (n) of node n. The fuzzy
approach uses five membership functions for each input
and an output variable as shown in Fig. 7. For the fuzzy
approach, the fuzzified values are processed by the
inference engine, which consists of a rule base and
various methods to inference the rules. The rule base is
simply a series of IF-THEN rules that relates the input
fuzzy variables and the output variables using linguistic
variables each of which is described by fuzzy set and
fuzzy implication operator AND. IF-THEN rules are
used in the proposed method, with a total number of 5 2
=25 for the fuzzy rule base. As an example, IF CE (n) is
very high and TL(n) is very low THEN HC(n) is very
high. All these rules are processed in a parallel manner
by a fuzzy inference engine. Any rule that fires can
contribute to the final fuzzy solution space. At the end,
the defuzzification finds a single crisp output value from
the solution fuzzy space. This value represents the node
cost. In practice, defuzzification is done using centre-ofgravity method [20] and the hop cost is given by

Implementation of AO Star Algorithm

In this routing method the base station

prepares the routing schedule and transmits
the routing schedule to each node. AO-star
algorithm is used to find the optimal route
from the node to the base station which is
applied to each node. AO-star algorithm
creates a tree structure in order to search
optimal routing path from a given node to the
base station. The AO* Search Procedure includes:
1. Place the start node on open.
2. Using the search tree, compute the most
promising solution tree- TP.
3. Select node n that is both on open and a part of
TP, remove n from open and place it closed.
4. If n is a goal node, label n as solved. If the start
node is solved, exit with success where TP is the
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Hop Cost
(3)

Where ui is the output of rule base i and Ci is the centre

of the output membership function.

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

Fig. 6. Membership graph for the inputs (the minimum energy

consumption and transmission load) and the output
(Hop cost).

IV.3.

AO Star with Stable Routing

In Fig.8, assume that the node with index 1 is the

source while destination is the node with index 4. Note
that the route discovered using new scheme routing
protocol may not necessarily be the shortest route
between a source destination pair. If the node with index
3 is having power status in critical or danger zone and
though the shortest path is 1- 2-3- 4, the more stable path
1- 2-5- 8-9-10- 4 in terms of active power status is only
chosen. This may lead to slight delay but improves
overall efficiency of the protocol by sending more
packets without link break than the state when some node
is unable to process route due to inadequate battery
power.
The process also helps when some intermediate node
moves out of the range and link break occurs. In that case
backbone nodes take care of the process and the route is
established again without much overhead. If the node
with index 8 moves out, the new established route will be
1- 2- 5- 11- 9- 10-4. Here the node with index 11 is
acting as backbone node (BN) for the node with index 5
and the node with index 8 [21].
Similarly the node with index 12 can be BN for the
nodes with indices 7, 10 and 4. Backbone node is
selected at one hop distance from the said node.

The proposed scheme takes care of on demand routing

along with a new concept of backbone nodes with power
factor. Many protocols have been discussed using
concept of power in many existing schemes.

Fig 7. Routing with link stability

In all the schemes discussed under concept of power

routing, no concern has been taken for stable routing or
better packet delivery. All emphasis is on concept of
battery power or energy requirement for routing process.
In this paper two different concepts are joined together to
make an efficient protocol.
Major concentration is on the routing problem. Here
the backbone nodes help in reconstruction phase in fast
selection of new routes. Selection of backbone nodes is
made upon availability of nodes and battery status. Each
route table has an entry for number of backbone nodes
attached to it and their battery status. The protocol is
divided into three phases. Route Request (REQ), Route
Repair (REP) and Error Phase (ERR).

Copyright 2008 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Fig 8. The flow chart of the proposed method that is AO-star algorithm
using fuzzy approach to find optimal routing path from start node to the
base station (sink).

V.

Performance Evaluation

To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed

method in terms of balancing energy consumption and
maximizing network lifetime, simulation results of the
proposed method are compared with those of A-star
search algorithm and with those of fuzzy approach for
different topographical areas. The three methods use the

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

same routing criteria namely, the minimum energy

consumption, the minimum hop and the minimum
transmission load in selecting the optimal path from the
source node to the sink node. The A-star algorithm is
shown to outperform existing maximum lifetime routing
algorithms in literatures with Genetic Algorithm,
Warshall algorithm and AODV algorithm [18]. The fuzzy
approach is also shown to exhibit better performance
over existing maximum lifetime routing algorithms in
literatures such as Online-Maximum- Lifetime-heuristic
(OML) and Minimum Transmit Energy (MTE).
Experimental results obtained under various network
scenarios indicate that the proposed approaches give
optimal performance in terms of the network lifetime as
well as the average energy consumption.
V.1.

Simulation Setup

The simulations are carried out in Network Simulator2. There are 20 sensor nodes randomly deployed in a
topographical area of dimension 1000 m 1000 m. The
topographical area is designed to sense the data
transmission limit of 90 m. The performance of the
proposed method is tested in the specified topographical
area. There is only one data sink which is located at
(90 m, 90 m) for area. All sensor nodes have the same
initial energy 0.5J. The proposed method uses the first
order radio model that is largely used in the area of
routing protocol evaluation in WSNs. According to this
model, transmission and receiving costs are characterized
by the expressions EnT (k) = Eeleck + Eampk.d2 and En R
(k) = Eeleck, respectively, where k is the number of bits
per packet, d is the distance from the sender node to the
receiver node, Eelec and Eamp are per bit energy dissipation
in transmitting or receiving circuitry and energy required
per bit per meter square for the amplifier to achieve
acceptable signal to noise ratio (SNR) respectively.
Simulations are done using the values 50 nJ/bit and 100
pJ/bit/m2 for Eelec and Eamp, respectively. The transmission
load in each node is assumed to be generated randomly
between [0...10]. The system parameters which are set
during the simulation are presented in Table I.

The number of alive nodes as a function of

rounds by using the three different
approaches is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen
that the proposed AO-star integrated with
fuzzy method outperforms the approaches
such as A-star algorithm with fuzzy approach,
A-star approach and Fuzzy approach.
Moreover in Fig. 9, it can be seen that the number of
alive nodes of the proposed method is always higher than
that of the methods taken for consideration. The different
duration of time corresponding to the first dead node
computed using the AO star and A-star approach is listed
in Table II. Clearly, the time for the first node to die in
the proposed method is much longer than the times for
the first node to die in both A-star algorithm and Fuzzy
approach.
From Fig. 9 and Table II, it is clear that, the proposed
method outperforms both A-star algorithm and Fuzzy
approach in terms of balancing energy consumption and
maximization of network lifetime.

Table I. The system parameters in detail

Table II. Number of rounds with the first dead node in both areas
a and b.

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International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

more of the sensors in the critical pathway

become intermittent in the ability to function
normally.
Such
behavior
may
add
performance noise (fluctuations) into the
WSN. As there are too many parameters to
be considered, future investigations about
such topics may be quite interesting and
challenging.

Fig.9. Number of alive nodes as a function of rounds

based on different approaches (A-star, Fuzzy and
Proposed).

Fig. 10 illustrates the average energy

consumption of a WSN as a function of
transmission rounds for AO star approach and
A-star approach. As the round number
increases, the proposed method performs
better than A-star algorithm. This indicates
that, better energy balance in a WSN is
achieved by the proposed method. The delay
incurred in transmission of data packets is
also a key parameter for certain applications.

Fig.11. Average Delay: A-Star Vs AO-Star.

Fig.12. shows the throughput comparison

of the proposed AO-star approach with the Astar approach. It is observed that the
proposed AO-star with fuzzy approach
provides higher throughput when compared
with the existing A-star algorithm and fuzzy
approach.

Fig.10. Average network energy consumption as a

function of transmission round.

The delay comparison is shown in Fig. 11. It

can be seen that, the proposed method has
shortest delay compared to both A* algorithm
and fuzzy approach in the two areas. Shorter
delay indicates both energy saving and
efficient information transmission (especially
secure and important ones). In other words,
data packets are routed through different
node-disjoint paths with multipath routing to
avoid network congestion and prolong the
network lifetime. Note that above simulations
are performed assuming that all the nodes
are well maintained (i.e. stable with enough
power) until the node dies. In real world,
there may be certain situations that one even

Copyright 2008 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

Fig.12. Throughput: A-Star Vs AO-Star

Table III. Throughput, Average Delay and Network minimum energy
consumption Comparison of A-Star and AO-Star Algorithms

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

[4]

[5]

[6]
[7]

[8]
[9]

Table III shows that the proposing AO* Algorithm

measures higher throughput percentage, lower packet
transmission delay and low energy consumption in the
network as compared to A* algorithm. When time
elapses, the throughput of the proposed method is
increasing gradually. Also that, the energy consumed by
the sensor nodes and the delay during the transmission
between the nodes is reducing in the proposed method.

VI.

Conclusion

Improving the network lifetime is a basic challenge of

wireless sensor networks. In WSN, where nodes operate
on limited battery power, efficient utilization of the
energy is very important. The main uniqueness of these
networks is that the network lifetime is highly related to
the route selection. Unbalanced energy consumption is a
natural problem in a WSN. To efficiently route data
through transmission path from node to node and to
prolong the overall lifetime of the network, this paper
proposed a new algorithm by using Fuzzy approach with
AO-star algorithm. The new method is capable of
selecting optimal routing path from the source node to
the sink by favoring the minimum energy consumption,
minimum number of hops and lowest transmission load.
The performance of the proposed method is evaluated
and compared with other two methods under the same
criteria in two different topographical areas. Simulation
results demonstrate the effectiveness of the new approach
with regards to enhancement of the lifetime of wireless
sensor networks with randomly scattered nodes.

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Authors information
1

M. Yuvaraja received B.E. degree in

Electronics and Communication Engineering
from Bharathiar University Coimbatore, M.E.
degree in Applied Electronics from Anna
University Chennai. Currently he is pursuing
Ph.D. degree in Wireless Sensor Networks
from Anna University Chennai. He is
currently working as Assistant Professor of the

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x

M. Yuvaraja, Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj

Department
of
Electronics
and
Communication Engineering at P. A. College
of Engineering and Technology, Pollachi. His
research interests include Wireless Sensor
Networks and Soft Computing.
2

Dr. M. Sabrigiriraj received B.E. degree

in
Electronics
and
Communication
Engineering from Bharathiar University, M.E.
degree in Optical Communication from Anna
University Chennai and Ph.D. degree in
Information
and
Communication
Engineering from Anna University Chennai,
Tamilnadu. He
is currently working as
Professor and Head of the Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, SVS
College of Engineering, Coimbatore. His
research interests include Optical Networks,
VLSI design, Algorithm Design and Analysis.
He has to his credit a few publications in
Elsevier, Springer, IET and IETE.

Copyright 2008 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

International Review on Modelling and Simulations, Vol. x, N. x