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MODELS
COMPOSITIONAL
IN XENAKIS'S
ELECTROACOUSTIC
MUSIC
AGOSTINO
DI SCIPIO
quantitatively marginal but quite meaningful in its content. In the following observations, my aim is to demonstrate that highly relevant
aspects of Xenakis's contribution to today's musical thinking are found in
electroacoustic works like Concret PH (1958), Analogique A-B (195859), and Bohor (1962), up to La Legend d'Eer (1977), Mycenae-Alpha
(1978), and Voyageabsolu des Unari versAndromede (1989), and most
recently Gendy301 (1991) and S709(1994).
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
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204
Sound design for Concret PH followed three steps. As a first step, the
sounds of hot coals and burning material were recorded on tape. As a
second step, very short chunks were extracted from the recording and
isolated from their original context. Each chunk here corresponds to a
single crackle, to a single creak of the coal in consumption-noise bursts
lasting no more than a few hundredths (sometimes even a few thousandths) of a second. As is expected, such sounds have a very large spectrum (see Example 1). Indeed, at this level the determination of
frequency becomes dependent on the duration: the shorter the sound
impulse, the wider the frequency band. (In other words, following
Heisenberg's "uncertainty principle," a precise localization in the time
domain causes indeterminacy in the frequency domain.) As a consequence, frequency and its perceptual attribute, pitch, are hardly controllable here, as it is impossible for human ears to integrate differences of
pitch and amplitude in such brief moments.5
As a third step, the short noise bursts were assembled to create a
longer texture, by piecing together innumerable scraps of tape. A series
of such textures was obtained, each having a particular temporal density
dn = kn/At. Textures were then submitted to two distinct strategies of
densification:
1. layering of m copies of the same texture: D = mdn (density of
microevents controlled by means of a geometric series)
2. layering of different textures each with its own density:
D = 2ndn.
In both cases, the result of layering is a qualitative enrichment of the
sound texture, heard as the fluctuating timbre of a rough dust of sound,
with rare periodic patterns.
In Example 2 readers can see a sonogram of the entire recording of
Concret PH.6 Two types of texture can be distinguished, one made of
very short noise bursts (wide frequency bands, with peaks at around
6000-9000 Hz), the other made of slightly longer bursts (narrower frequency bands, with peaks at 4000-5000 Hz). Often the two types overlap, e.g., in fragments 40"-50" (Example 3a) and 110"-120" (Example
3b). Occasionally, one of the two is more in evidence-the first in fragment 30"-40" (Example 3c) and the second in the brief excerpt 80.9"86.6" (Example 3d) and later in fragment 100"-110" (Example 3e).7
Features found in large-scale spectral analysis are also found at smaller
scales. For instance, Example 3c (fragment 30"-40") shows a sonographic snapshot which is quite similarnot only to that of the entire piece
(Example 2) but also to that of a very short detail only 0.3" long
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205
1S4.467
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CONCRET
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PH IS ENTIRELY
MADE OF EXTREMELY
SHORT
SPECTRUM
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...
206
0'-80"
REPRESENTATION
OF CONCRET PH00"--80"
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208
PH-FIRST
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PH-SECOND
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FRAGMENT 80.9"-86.6"
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So"-Ioo'
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. ..
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Xenakis's ElectroacousticMusic
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EXAMPLE
7A: DETAILOF THE SONOGRAMOF CONCRETPH-THE FIRSTTYPEOF
TEXTURE IS PREDOMINANT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE PIECE,
AS IN FRAGMENT15"-20"
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213
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214
time scales in the structure of music. Incidentally, this is mirroredthough hidden from the ear-by the self-similarityof the time-frequency
representation of the piece as a whole.
...
TO ANALOGIQUE
The elementary signal is represented by g(t). It has a real and an imaginary part-i.e., in Gabor's own description:
enQt =
p-2(-texp-a
i2Tfol
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215
IIms F
Af
I
II
III
->
->
->
iF
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216
[N
t
k)
Ag
hf
At
- I
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Y
0.8
0.2
Y
0.8
0.2
X
X 0.85
Y 0.15
Y
0.4
0.6
The decision as to whether the former or the latter should be used was
made at any given time on the basis of several rules which, for brevity's
sake, are not described here. X and Tare associated with two sets of values selected from among sixteen regions of frequency (each corresponding to an octave), two sets selected from among four regions of
amplitude (in phones),and two sets selected from among seven regions of
density (in logarithmic units). Once the set has been selected, the particular values in that set are chosen on a purely random basis.
To successfully predict the evolution of the parameters, it is necessary
to answer this question: what is the system's general tendency during a
certain number of transitions?In the case of our first example matrix, we
have the following relationships:
X' = 0.2X+0.8T
T = 0.8X+0.2r
Thus, after only eight transitions, a stationary state is reached. Probability
levels in the stationary state are X = 0.5 and Y = 0.5; for the second
matrix, X = 0.73 and T = 0.27. It is possible to calculate the mean
entropy of each TPM in a stationary state as
H = (HX)
+ (Hr)
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218
in which Hx represents entropy for X states of the TPM and Xy represents entropy for the Ystates, calculated as
H = --pilogpi
(pi are the transition probabilities established by the matrix).
A further macroscopic control utilized by Xenakis is called the
exchangeprotocol between perturbation states and stationary states. It is
employed to determine TPM internal parameter values for each section
of the piece-eight in all, for a total of only 2'35". The exchange protocol thus establishes the alternation between sound behaviors of growing
entropy, or perturbations P, and more static behaviors, or equilibrium
points E.14
These details give us a pretty clear picture of the various levels in the
compositional process: (1) the granularrepresentation of sound provides
the composer with minimum discrete elements; (2) manipulating these
elements (microcomposition) results in the actual sound material for the
entire work; (3) the concept of "screen" represents the control device
connecting microcomposition with criteria of short-term (TPM) and
long-term musical design (exchange protocol P and E).
As in ConcretPH, here we see again a continuity of micro- and macrolevels. However, this time such continuity is caught in a rather formalized
system, whose states in time finally shape the resultant sound object. As
with later examples of algorithmic composition, the compositional
approach here seems to consolidate in a "mechanism" that the composer
lets manifest itself.'5 The perturbations that temporarily disrupt the system's stability actually prove to be anything but an ulterior means for
manifesting the mechanism's functionality and consistency.
In short, the composition of Analogique B reflects the quantistic
approach that Xenakis borrowed from Gabor16 as well as the statistical
methods that Xenakis utilized in instrumental works during the late fifties.
*
In the composition of Analogique B, the quantization of the sound continuum down to the finest time scale enables the composer to instantiate
programmable, formalizable compositional processes within the sound
itself. More recently, this has become typical of granular approaches to
digital sound synthesis. In general, while sound synthesis based on
Fourier's paradigm-a summation of perfectly harmonic sine functions,
which are impossible to locate in time-leads us to thinking of and
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219
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220
the most famous supporter of temporal and structural unity in electroacoustic music.22
MYCENAE -ALPHA
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221
C.,-_
5.
C,.
.,
A'\
a'
11
12
I
EXAMPLE
11:
THE
13
SCORE
OF MYCENAE-ALPHA
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222
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223
Introducing the UPIC system,27Xenakis insists on the impact of computer graphics on musical didactics, and on the potential of compositional design laid out graphically. Using the UPIC, composition takes
place first of all within the flat world of the time-o plane; auditory experience takes place only after this drawing of lines. Although it has raised the
interest of many,28I find this approach a debatable one in that it implies
an a posteriori association of a sound pattern with a visual pattern. In a
sense, the sound is conceived almost as if it were the by-product of gestures removed from the flow of time-which, instead, is the essential
dimension in the experience of all acoustic phenomena, including music.
(Notice in section 8 of the Mycenae-Alphascore that some pitch profiles
move back in time!)
In this sense, Xenakis's work with the UPIC seems to conform literally
to his well known statement that "time could be considered as a blank
blackboard, on which symbols and relationships, architectures and
abstract organisms are inscribed."29 I shall return later to the issue of
time in Xenakis's music, as I do not believe it can be reduced to such a
thoroughly reductionist position.
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224
sounds, most synthetic sounds in the piece are quite noisy. In my observations below, I focus on the stochastic synthesis methods through which
these sounds were achieved. I will then discuss the detail of the musical
application of these methods in Gendy301.
*
= P[Xsx]
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225
* Cauchy: f(x)
/ (a2+ +x2)
/ (2a2)
l/2keXli-i
These can rather easily be simulated on the computer using simple Algo-
rithms.33
flxi
-a
ix
x
'tI
f(xj
f([XI
.-O.
EXAMPLE
DENSITY
12:
AN APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS
BOTTOM
GRAPHICAL
RENDITION
TOP RIGHT:
RIGHT:
OF PROBABILITY
EXPONENTIAL;
UNIFORM)
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226
k))
...
TO GENDT301
In 1991, twenty years after his first experiments with direct synthesis,
Xenakis took up this research line once again. He marked his return by
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227
The method can be described by saying that the end coordinates of segment i in the j-th waveform are stochastic variations applied to the end
coordinates of the segment i in waveform j- 1. That is,
Xi,j+
= Xi,i+fx(z)
Yij,
= Yi,j+fy(z)
where fx(z) and fy(z) return positive or negative values, given an argument z (itself a random number with uniform distribution, i.e., white
noise). Samples are computed by linear interpolation between the initial
and end points in each segment:
s(t) = s(t) + [i + ,j-Yi, /ni,j]
where nij is the number of samples in the i-th segment. The segment
duration is
dij
(nij-
1)/Sampling rate.
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228
(which means alterations of Dj, which cause changes of fundamental frequency of the sound, and, therefore, of pitch; eventually
this also causes audio rate frequency modulation, with related
spectral enrichment);
* transformation of both coordinates
Xi,j+
Xi,j+fx(z)
Yi,j+l = Yi,j+fY(z)
(which means alterations of both spectrum and pitch; Example
13a and Example 13b show a transformation of this type).
As the width of the signal is represented by sixteen-bit integers, the
values of yij must be kept within the interval [+-32767] to avoid saturation. Moreover, too-extreme aleatoric variations of xij can lead to wild
frequency modulations; so they, too, must be kept within a given range.
To deal with these problems, Xenakis resorts to the notion of an elastic
barrier, a control process with three arguments
fx(z)
fy(z)
MIR[fc(z),
fXmin, fXmax]
- MIR[fy( z),fYmin,fYmax]
nij+
MIR[n ,j+ 1,
Yij+ 1
MIR[yi,
Nmin, Nmax]
+ 1, Ymin, max]
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229
whereinAfrin
and N,,, determine t-he range of samples per segment (the duration
range for dij), and lastly Yminand Ymax are equal to -32767 and +32767
(or lower amplitude values) respectively. This causes a mirror-like reflection of excess values within allowable limits.
2.j
O.j 1.1
2,j
5.
3.j 4,j
X8.j 9.j
FDj
5,j
13A: POLYGONAL
EXAMPLE
WITH DYNAMIC
y6,
WAVEFORM
STOCHASTIC
GENERATED
SYNTHESIS
j+V'%OJ
O .j+1
y
5Si
Y7,j+l
V6j+
EXAMPLE
13B: POLYGONAL
STOCHASTIC
SYNTHESIS;
CALCULATED
WAVEFORM
SEGMENT
AS STOCHASTIC
END POINTS
GENERATED
WITH DYNAMIC
END POINTS
HAVE BEEN
VARIATIONS
IN THE PREVIOUS
OF SEGMENT
WAVEFORM
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230
The PARAG3 program supplies the GENDY program with the following parameters:
* number of I segments per waveform;
* duration of the synthesis process;
* type of stochastic function fx;
* type of stochastic function fvy;
* arguments of the elastic barriers;
For fx and f, one can select among stochastic functions of the type
alreadyillustrated (uniform, exponential, normal, Cauchy). In Gendy301,
these functions are also used at the level of the macro-structure. The
PARAG3 program assigns a "time-field" to sixteen different voices-or
simultaneous synthesis processes; a field may be passive (silence) or active
(synthesis triggered) and its duration is calculated by exponential law,
based on a mean value D:
d = (-1/D)log(l
- z)
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23
2:13;tot,Hin:Sec 2:13
7;psi7;8;Pge:3;,ur.iin:Sec:
SOt:S352;ysp/197
149 , 159
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233
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EXAMPLE
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235
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236
In a similar vein, Hugues Dufort writes: "Si tout le concret percu par
l'oreille est sous-tendu par des relations abstraites, on ne voit plus la raison de maintenir une distinction entre une composition musicale qui
porterait les sons et une composition musicale qui porterait sur le
formes."40 In Xenakis's electroacoustic music, composing means letting
the form of sound and music emerge from lower-level processes-be it
the level of sound grains (Analogique B) or the digital samples themselves
(Gendy301).
*
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237
of information and transformation, but rather favors a levelling-off tendency reflecting the relentless increase of entropic disorder (this is coherent with the world view proper to the classical interpretation of the
Second Principle of thermodynamics). Being memoryless, Xenakis's
mechanism does not learn from the history of its previous states; it cannot interact with the external, nor can it interact with its own history. As
stated above, it is not an eco-system-it has no context.
Paradoxical as it may appear, this state of affairs represents a deficit in
"technological efficiency," a problem brought in by the theoreticalcognitive limitations of stochastic laws-which in fact the composer
adopted in order to deliberately break down causality,i.e., the symmetry
of beforeand after. Hence there derives the need for very simple overall
formal shapes, with separate sections for each of which the mechanism is
resetwith new input data. We might say that in this utterly formalized
music the event isforced by the external: all changes having some relevance
for the shaping of the musical form are fed in by an intention that ultimately transcends formalization and stems, therefore, from intuitions left
out of formalized processes.
For Xenakis's mechanism cannot avoid being uprooted from its context. Particular occurrences in the sonic matter leave no promises and
open no temporal horizons; they leave no traces of themselves in time.
Singularity does not become catastrophe,in the sense that it does not
cause a change of behavior by altering, even without annulling, the laws
governing the functioning of the mechanism. A state of suspension
ensues, moment by moment, in the flow of time as experienced by the
listener.
If time, here, really were dynamic evolution, the mechanism's laws
would then require that the occurrence of unforeseen (unforeheard)
events cause the activation of self-organizational dynamics. In reality, the
occurrence of particularpatterns and textures of sound is not capable, in
Xenakis's mechanism, of reorienting the flow of time. The occurrence is
soon forgotten: the composer's mechanism denies time the power of
endowing the elements of the musical flow with a coefficientof creativity.
Xenakis's radical gestures reflect an epistemological need to combine
algorithmic and stochastic,determinism and indeterminism,42 and finally
lead to an essential nonlinearity and fragmentation in the experience of
time. His work reflects a world no longer describable in terms of the
order-from-orderprinciple-with which Schrodinger had identified a
purely deterministic rationalism of Laplacean stamp-but a world animated by the order-from-disorderprinciple, a world where things are
incessantly put in order, warding off the ever-deeper abyss of entropic
disorder. Yet, Xenakis does not manage to take a further step, toward the
order-from-noiseprinciple, i.e., toward a world neither strictly coherent
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238
(algorithmic order) nor strictly incoherent (statistic order) but, if anything, in a dynamic condition of chaos.43 There things would find their
(unstable) order, and the world would take form through the event,
through singularity.As is proposed by a positive interpretation of the Second Principle: in self-organizing systems, an increase in entropy is a creative force, the bearer of isles of temporary order in the incessant flow of
transformation.
Xenakis's compositional models leave the sound matter in a condition
of statistic order, lacking any theoryof the event capable of describing the
constructive and destructive dynamics of the experienced musical form.
CONCLUSION
From Concret PH to Gendy301, Xenakis is approaching an aestheticcognitive paradigm that pushes his art right into the sphere of noise, as
the reflection of the violent Nature that is free will-not unlike Lucretius's description in his De Rerum Natura. The technology of the stochastic laws constrains him within the margins of disorder and statistic
order, before any chance for true evolution can arise from the sound. The
events and discontinuities that nourish the musical form remain largely at
the mercy of a demiurge, not comprised by the criteriaof the mechanism
itself.
This music incarnates the utopia of an art which aims at resolving the
dialectic between material and form-between Nature and Culture-by
means of an integrally constructivist disposition. This I call an instance of
integral subjectivity,resulting in works of art which are thoroughly artifacts: nothing in the work exists prior to the artist's action. Constructivism, here, takes the form of the objective, "natural"manifestation of the
mechanism; but the latter is designed and built up by the subject itself.
The S6val.;t (dynamis)-the living force-which in principle could let
the mechanism reveal itself remains largely left to the incursion, from the
external, of the subject. The techno-logy(knowledge in use) behind this
music testifies to the intelligence of an art in which chance and necessity
are perfectly integrated.
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239
NOTES
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241
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243
31. See Richard Toop's liner notes for the CD MO 782058; see also
Formalized Music, 293.
32. Formalized Music, 246.
33. See code examples in Dodge and Jerse, 266-78.
34. Iannis Xenakis, "More Thorough Stochastic Music," Proceedingsof
the International Computer Music Conference (Montreal, 1991),
517-18; Marie-Helene Serra, "Stochastic Composition and Stochastic Timbre," Perspectivesof New Music 31, no. 1 (Winter 1993):
236-57; Peter Hoffman, "Implementing the Dynamic Stochastic
Synthesis," offprint from Les Cahiers Groupe de Rechercheen Informatique Image et Instrumentation 4 (Caen, 1996).
35. Formalized Music, 134.
36. These sonograms have been realized analyzing a monophonic copy
of the tape, so as to provide an image of the total spectral structure.
37. Gerard Grisey, "Tempus ex machina: A Composer's Reflections on
Musical Time," ContemporaryMusic Review 2, no. 1 (1987): 269.
38. Hugues Dufourt, Musique,pouvoir, ecriture (Paris: Bourgois, 1991),
335.
39. Agostino Di Scipio, "InseparableModels of Material and of Musical
Design in Electroacoustic and Computer Music," Journal of New
Music Research24, no. 1 (1995): 34-50.
40. Dufourt, Musique,pouvoir, ecriture, 195.
41. Edgar Morin (ed.), Teorie dell'evento (Milan: Bompiani, 1972), 31
(translation mine).
42. Morin, Teoriedell'evento,297.
43. H. von Foerster, "On Self-organizing Systems and Their Environment," in Self-organizing Systems,ed. C. Yovits (New York: Pergamon Press, 1960), 31-50.
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