Grammar Script 8 - Relative Clauses

1. Relative clauses: a special type of subordinate clause.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1
Distinctive characteristics of relative clauses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Types of relative clauses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Wh-relatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Non-wh-relatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Syntactic restrictions with respect to the choice of relative construction.. . . . .

1
1
3
4
4
7

2. Integrated vs. supplementary relatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1
Semantic and phonological differences between integrated and supplementary
relatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2
Syntactic differences between supplementary and integrated relative clauses
.............................................................. 7
EXERCISE 1: Consider the following sentence: He bought me the book which I need... . . . . . 1
EXERCISE 2: In the noun phrases below, (i.) put the relative clauses in brackets, (ii.) identify the
gap corresponding to the R-element and name the function of the R-element. Then,
(iii.), underline the antecedent and (iv.) rewrite the relative clause as a main clause.
.................................................................... 2
EXERCISE 3: How do you distinguish between the declarative content clause in a) and the thatrelative clause in b)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
EXERCISE 4: The underlined constituents in the following examples are all finite subordinate
clauses.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
EXERCISE 5: Decide whether the following sentences contain an integrated or a supplementary
relative clause and supply punctuation where necessary. If either interpretation is
possible, comment on the meaning difference.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Linguistic Practice: Grammar

Buchbender, Klages-Kubitzki, Lenz

Script 8 - Relative clauses (H&P 2005:183-194)

1. Relative clauses: a special type of subordinate clause

Relative clauses are prototypically finite subordinate clauses, but non-finite relative clauses are
possible (e.g. Ann is the best person in whom to confide.). In this script and in our course we
will focus on finite relative clauses (for an illustration of non-finite relative clauses see H&P
2005:212; for information on the fused relative construction see H&P 2005:191-192).
EXERCISE 1: Consider the following sentence: He bought me the book which I need.
a) What category does the underlined part of the example sentence belong to?
________________________________________________________________________
b) What function does it have?
________________________________________________________________________
c) What category does the bold part belong to?
________________________________________________________________________
d) What function does it have?
________________________________________________________________________

1.1

Distinctive characteristics of relative clauses

Function:
In the vast majority of cases, relative clauses function as modifiers of a noun or nominal, i.e.
they are dependents on the level of a noun phrase (NP). In the example in Exercise 1, the
relative clause modifies the N book.
Internal structure:
Relative clauses always have a gap in their internal structure. That is, in a relative clause there
is an element missing from its canonical position in a corresponding main clause. Reconsider
the relative clause in:
(1) He bought me the book [which I need].
In this example relative clause, the object which is licensed by the predicator need is missing
from the place where objects are found in main declarative clauses:
[which I need ______ object] vs.
I need __________object.

The missing element - the relativised element or R-element - in the relative clause is
anaphorically related to an antecedent, i.e. the head noun or nominal modified by the relative
clause (book in example sentence (1)). The antecedent determines the interpretation of the gap.
As a consequence, relative clauses differ in structure from declarative main clauses in two
respects. In order to convert the relative clause into a corresponding main clause, two
adjustments are required:
1) if there is a relative word (relative pronoun), it has to be deleted. This gives us:
[which I need] -> [I need...] (still an incomplete main clause)
As can be seen, the relative clause contains a gap. We need something after the verb need.
2) an element has to be supplied to fill this gap. It would have to be filled by the antecedent of
the relative element (together with an appropriate determiner), as in
[I need ___] -> [I need the book]
Summary: The gap left by the relativised element and its anaphoric relationship to the
antecedent are the defining characteristics of relative clauses. These characteristics distinguish
relative clauses from content clauses.
The relativised element may be overtly realised within the relative clause as a wh-relative word.
In example sentence (1), it is represented by the relative word which. Under certain conditions
(which will be discussed below) the relativised element may, however, also be covert, as in
(1a) He bought me the book [I need].
EXERCISE 2: In the noun phrases below, (i.) put the relative clauses in brackets, (ii.) identify the
gap corresponding to the R-element and name the function of the R-element. Then,
(iii.), underline the antecedent and (iv.) rewrite the relative clause as a main clause.
Example:
the book [which I need

^ ]
gap

function of R-element: direct object

iv. I need the book.

a) the

people

who

met

him

function of R-element:___________________

iv. ____________ __________________________________________________________

b) the

people

who

she

knows

function of R-element:___________________

iv. _______________________________________________________________________

c) the

day

when

you

came

to

visit function of R-element:___________________

iv. _______________________________________________________________________

d) the

book

which

you

spoke

about

function of R-element:___________________

iv. _______________________________________________________________________

e) a

place

where

you

can

relax

function of R-element:___________________

iv. _______________________________________________________________________

f) the

dog whose bone the

man stole function of R-element:___________________

iv. _______________________________________________________________________
These exercises reveal three further characteristics of relative clauses:
1) The relativised element can have a number of different functions within the relative clause.
2) Especially where the relativised element is an adjunct, it may not be possible to use the
antecedent itself to fill in the gap. This is the case in (e), where a place has to be rephrased to
a greater extent in rewriting the relative clause as a main clause.
3) In (f) we have a more complex type of relative clause. Here, the relative word is part of a
relative phrase. In this case, the full relative phrase is fronted in the relative clause, and the full
phrase is used to fill the gap in the corresponding main clause. Note, however, that here as
elsewhere, a relative word merely makes the R-element visible.

1.2

Types of relative clauses (H&P 2005:184-185)

Consider the following sentences:

(2) This is one of the girls who we met at the party.
(3a) This is one of the girls that we met at the party.
(3b) This is one of the girls we met at the party.
All three examples contain relative clauses (marked in bold), but there are structural differences
between them:
- the relative clause in (2) is introduced by a relative word/pronoun. This type of relative clause
is called a wh-relative.
- the relative clause in (3a) is introduced by the subordinator that. This type of relative clause is
called a that relative. It is one of the two types of non-wh relative clause.
- the relative clause in (3b) is not introduced by any special element. This type of relative clause
is called a bare relative. It is the second of the two types of non-wh relative clause.
3

1.2.1 Wh-relatives
Wh-relative clauses are clauses in which the R-element is overt. This means that the relative
clause is marked by the presence of a relative word, e.g. who, whom, whose, which, where, why
etc., as in example (2). This relative word makes the R-element visible. In wh-relatives, the
relative word (the overt R element) always appears in clause-initial position.
The choice of relative word depends on the antecedent of the R-element:
- A relative pronoun, e.g. who, which, is chosen if the R-element corresponds to an NP in a
main clause. The choice of who is mainly restricted to animate, typically human, antecedents.
- Another relative word (not called pronoun, because it does not substitute for a noun or NP)
is chosen when the R-element corresponds to a category other than an NP. For example in:
(4) the town where I live ___
where is chosen because here the gap in the relative clause cannot be filled by an NP but, for
example, by a PP:
(5) I live [PP (e.g. in London)]
not
*I live [NP (e.g. London).
Note that in these cases the antecedent has to be rephrased to retrieve the R-element when
rewriting the relative clause as a main clause: in (4), town is the antecedent (filler) for the gap
in the relative clause. However, in (5), where we have turned the relative clause into a main
clause, we cannot simply use town to fill the gap, but have to state the town where the subject
lives.
Sometimes even more complex adjustments are necessary to fill the gap left by the relativised
element:
(6a) the reason why I came to see you ____
(6b) I came to see you to ask you a favour.
In (6b) the to-infinitival VP to ask you a favour (function: adjunct of reason) is one possible
filler of the gap in (6a).
1.2.2 Non-wh-relatives
Reconsider the sentences:
(3a) This is one of the girls that we met at the party.
(3b) This is one of the girls we met at the party.
They show that the R-element need not be overtly represented (made visible) by a relative
word: it may also be covert. These cases are referred to as non-wh relative clauses:
There are two types of non-wh relative clause:
- that relatives: the relative clause is introduced by the subordinator that (3a). Note that there
are syntactic reasons for treating that as a subordinator. These are, however, beyond the
scope of our course (see H&P 2005:186 on relative phrases for more information).
- bare relatives: there is no relative word and no subordinator that (3b).
Regardless of whether or not there is an overt R-element, all types of relative clauses share the
following characteristics:
4

- there is always a gap left by an R-element

- there is always an antecedent to which the overt or covert R-element relates. In other words,
there is always an anaphoric link to the head noun the relative clause modifies.
Thus, we can analyse the above examples as follows:
(2) This is one of the girls

who

we met

at the party.

(3a) This is one of the girls

that

we met

at the party.

(3b) This is one of the girls

we met

at the party.

This diagram shows that the position in which we find the relative word may also be filled by
the subordinator that. Since this position is then filled, we cannot have an overt relative word as
well as the subordinator that. Alternatively, the position in which a relative word can occur may
be left empty.
Furthermore, the diagram shows that even though the relativised element is made visible
(overt) by the relative word, the relative word is not the R-element itself, because the gap is
still there.

Preliminary summary of the characteristics of relative clauses:

- A relative clause is formally marked by a gap in its syntactic structure.
- The element which would be needed to fill this gap in a corresponding main clause is called
the R-element.
- The R-element is related to an antecedent.
- The R-element has the syntactic function of the element that would fill the gap in a
corresponding main clause.
- In wh-relatives, the relative word (the overt R-element) appears in clause-initial position,
and not in the position of the gap.
- Relative clauses typically function as post-head modifiers to nouns.
EXERCISE 3: How do you distinguish between the declarative content clause in a) and the
that-relative clause in b)?
a) the fact [that he was ill]
b) the fact [that worried us most]
__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
5

EXERCISE 4: The underlined constituents in the following examples are all finite subordinate
clauses. (i) Identify those which are relative clauses, and for each of them identify the
antecedent and state what type of relative clause they are (wh-relative, that-relative,
bare relative). (ii) State which clause type(s) the non-relative subordinate clauses are.
What evidence do you base your judgement on?
a) I wonder who they have in mind for that job.
(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

b) I made a mistake I will never forget.

(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

c) The prize was awarded to the girl who spoke most clearly.
(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

d) Sue recommended a film that you will like.

(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

e) How does Sue know which film I like best?

(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

f) He is living proof that greed is good.

(i)________________________________________________________________________
(ii)________________________________________________________________________

1.3
Syntactic restrictions with respect to the choice of relative construction.
Consider the following sentences:
(7a) This is the girl who went to the party.
(7b) This is the girl that went to the party.
(7c) *This is the girl went to the party.
In written Standard English, we have to use either a relative word (a wh-relative clause) or
the subordinator that when the relativised element functions as subject of the relative clause.
The use of a bare relative clause (*7c) is ungrammatical in this case.

2. Integrated vs. supplementary relatives (H&P 2005:187-189)

2.1
Semantic and phonological differences between integrated and supplementary
relatives
Consider the following two sentences:
(8a) Politicians who make too many promises arent trusted.
= integrated relative clause
(8b) Politicians, who make too many promises, arent trusted.
= supplementary relative clause
Differences regarding the interpretation of the clauses in (8a) and (8b):
- The integrated relative clause in (8a) is used to restrict the denotation of the head noun in
the matrix clause (politicians) to those who make too many promises. This SUBSET of
politicians is the group that isnt trusted. This is why this type of relative clause is sometimes
also called defining relative clause.
- The supplementary relative clause in (8b), in contrast, states that politicians in general
arent trusted. The relative clause adds that, on top of that, politicians make too many
promises.
Differences on the level of intonation:
- The relative clause in (8a) is intonationally integrated (said without a pause before and after
the relative clause) into the larger construction. Commas are not used here in writing. =>
integrated relative clause
The relative clause in (8b) is spoken as a separate intonation unit. In writing, this is indicated
by commas. => supplementary relative clause

2.2
Syntactic differences between supplementary and integrated relative clauses
a) Selection of clause types:
Both wh-relatives and non-wh relatives can be used as integrated relative clauses:
(9a) The soap operas which the kids watch all the time are incredibly stupid.
(9b) The soap operas that the kids watch all the time are incredibly stupid.
(9c) The soap operas the kids watch all the time are incredibly stupid.
7

Supplementary relative clauses, in contrast, are almost always of the wh type, and bare
relatives are ungrammatical as supplementary relative clauses:
(10a) These soap operas, which the kids watch all the time, are incredibly stupid.
(10b) ?These soap operas, that the kids watch all the time, are incredibly stupid.
(10c) *These soap operas, the kids watch all the time, are incredibly stupid.
b) Antecedents which only allow supplementary relative clauses:
Supplementary relative clauses may take clauses (not only nouns) as their antecedent.
(11) Max arrived late, which caused some delay.
In this case, the supplementary relative clause is attached more loosely, i.e. it is not embedded
in a noun phrase or any other constituent and thus functions as supplement (= adjunct) on
clause level.
With proper nouns (proper names) as antecedents, only supplementary relative clauses are
grammatical.
(12) Max, who is usually very punctual, was twenty minutes late.
These two types of antecedents are ungrammatical with integrated relatives.
Note, however, that a proper noun used with a determiner is grammatically (and semantically)
treated like a common noun. It therefore can occur with an integrated relative clause, e.g.
(13) This isnt the Max (that) I know.
c) Antecedents which only allow integrated relative clauses:
Integrated relatives accept nouns determined by no, any or every as well as fused determinerheads (see Script 6) , i.e. expressions consisting of no, any or every compounded with one,
body or thing, as antecedent (14). Supplementary relatives do not (15).
(14) Nobody / No candidate who scored 50% or more has ever failed.
(15) *Nobody / No candidate, who scored 50% or more, has ever failed.

EXERCISE 5: Decide whether the following sentences contain an integrated or a

supplementary relative clause and supply punctuation where necessary. If either interpretation
is possible, comment on the meaning difference.
a. Do you have a pen I could borrow?
b. My brother who is a farmer lives in New Zealand.
c. We'll celebrate Susan's birthday which is on July 7th with a surprise party.
d. The necklace which Elvis gave her is in the safe.
e. Paying tuition fees is an issue that many people feel strongly about.