Chapter 8: RESPIRATION

It is the release of energy from food substances in living cells. Energy is released in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Aerobic respiration is the complete oxidation of glucose to release large quantities of

energy (38ATP/glc) with carbon dioxide and water as the end products.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 enzymes 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP

Glucose oxygen Carbon Water Energy
Dioxide

In this type of respiration, most of the energy is lost as heat (55%). The rest (45%) is
conserved in the form of ATP for other biological processes requiring energy.

 Uses of Energy in Humans

 Muscle contraction
 Protein synthesis
 Cell division
 Growth
 Active Transport (e.g. absorption of glucose in the ileum)
 Transmission of nerve impulses
 Maintenance of body temperature

Anaerobic Respiration is the incomplete oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen to

release small amounts of energy (2 ATP) and other energy-rich end products.
This process is different in plants and animals:

Plants = Alcoholic fermentation (e.g. yeast)

Animals = Lactic acid fermentation (e.g. humans)

a. Alcoholic Fermentation

It occurs in yeast (a fungus) and also in parts of flowering plants which are deprived of
oxygen such as the roots. For instance, the roots will be deprived of oxygen when the soil
is flooded with water.
In this process glucose is completely oxidized in the absence of oxygen to release
small quantities of ATP. The end products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. A large
amount of energy is trapped in ethanol.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 enzymes 6CO2 + 2C2H5OH + 38 ATP

Glucose oxygen Carbon Ethanol Energy

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 Dioxide
In alcoholic fermentation only 31% of energy released is incorporated into ATP
molecules, the rest is lost as heat.

b. Lactic Acid Fermentation

During vigorous exercise, the large amount of energy required by the muscles cannot be
produced by aerobic respiration since the oxygen demand exceeds the oxygen supply to
skeletal muscles.

Under such conditions, the muscles carry out anaerobic respiration.

During Lactic acid fermentation, there is incomplete oxidation of glucose in the absence
of oxygen releasing small amounts of energy (2 ATP) with lactic acid as an end product.
44% of the energy released is converted to ATP molecules; the (56%) rest is lost as heat.

Fate of lactic acid

Lactic acid produced accumulates in the muscles and causes muscle fatigue. If too much
lactic acid builds up in the muscles, it results in muscle cramp. This acid is carried to the
liver where it is oxidized to glucose in the presence of oxygen.

This glucose is used for aerobic respiration or simply stored as glycogen.

Oxygen Dept and Exercise

Due to the lack of oxygen, muscles produce lactic acid by anaerobic respiration- they are
said to have taken an oxygen dept which is paid after exercise. This explains the fact as to
why the breathing rate remains above normal for some time. Any extra oxygen available
is used to oxidize lactic acid to glucose in the liver.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Complete oxidation of glucose INCOMPLETE oxidation of glucose
Oxygen Essential Oxygen is NOT essential
Large amount of ATP released (38ATP) SMALL amount of energy released (2ATP)
Products are CO2 & H2O Products are ETHANOL / LACTIC ACID

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 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAN

All living things need to respire in order to break down food to release stored energy. A
continuous supply of oxygen is essential as well as an efficient mechanism for the
removal of carbon dioxide. Dissolved CO2 gives rise to acidic conditions, thus if not
removed the pH of blood and tissue fluid will drop interfering with metabolic activities of
the cells.
In humans, gaseous exchange occurs at the level of the lungs. In simple organisms such
as bacteria, flat worms and amoeba-simple diffusion via the body surface is sufficient.
But, for more complex organisms a more advance respiratory system is vital.

Breathing is the movement of air in and out of the lungs aided by the relaxation and
contraction of specific muscles. Fresh air enters and stale air leaves the lungs. A
breathing system consists of the nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, glottis, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli sacs and its associated capillaries.

Structure of the human breathing system

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 This system has two nostrils leading to the nasal cavities. The nostrils are guarded by
hairs. In the lining of the nasal cavities are ciliated and mucus secreting cells that trap
dust and germs from inhaled air. Cilia sweep the mucus to the outside of the nose. Heat
from blood capillaries warm the air that enters the body, thus, the air becomes moist,
warm, dust-free and germ-free.

The epiglottis guards the opening of the larynx which prevents food particles entering the
trachea during swallowing. The air passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and bronchioles to finally enter the alveoli.

Pharynx A common passage way for food and air

Glottis Is the opening of the wind pipe (trachea)
Epiglottis It is a piece of tissue that covers the glottis during swallowing
Larynx Also known as the voice box is located on top of the trachea. It possess the
vocal cords

Trachea

It is a flexible tube passing through the neck into the thorax cavity where it branches into
two bronchi. The trachea and bronchi are held open by c-shaped cartilage which permits
movement e.g. removal of obstructed food particle by coughing.
The lining is ciliated and mucus secreted serves as a dust and germ remover.

Bronchioles They branch until they form narrow tubes without cartilage. They open
into the alveoli.

Alveoli
Are cup-shaped and have a diameter of 0.2mm. It is thin, moist and elastic. Each alveolus
is surrounded by a network of capillaries. The wall is one cell thick providing least
resistance for the diffusion of gases.
How?

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  Being cup-shaped it provides a larger surface area for gaseous exchange.
 A one cell thick wall also allows easy diffusion of gases
 The moist lining of the alveoli wall increases the ease for gases to dissolve into it
 A diffusion gradient is maintained across the alveoli and surrounding blood
capillaries

This diffusion gradient is maintained by:

A continuous supply of deoxygenated blood into the alveolar capillaries and rapid
drainage of oxygenated blood
A continuous breathing mechanism to provide fresh air and remove stale air
Surfactant present in the mucus in the wall decreases resistance to diffusion of gases.

Gaseous Exchange in Alveolus

The barrier separating air in the alveolus and blood in the capillaries is only two-cell
thick. Deoxygenated blood entering the capillaries is of high concentration in CO2
compared to the air in the alveolus, thus it diffuses out into the lungs.
Oxygen also diffuses down a gradient first dissolving in the mucus layer. The surfactant
present reduces surface tension aiding in diffusion of oxygen into the mucus layer. The
capillaries constantly drain oxygenated blood away to maintain this concentration
gradient.

Diaphragm
It is a circular sheet of muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavity. At rest the
diaphragm is dome-shaped (arc). It flattens when the muscles attached to it contract

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Rib cage
The lungs are enclosed in a rib cage for protection. It consists of a number of rod-shaped
bones called the ribs, each rib is attached to the sternum on the ventral side and the
ventral column on the dorsal side.

Intercostal muscles are skeletal muscles attached to the ribs. They are of two types:

1. External Intercostal Muscles

2. Internal Intercostal Muscles

They are antagonistic to each other.

Mechanism of Breathing

Breathing is the movement of air in and out of the lungs. It is brought about by the action
of the ribs, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. Normal breathing is involuntary and
triggered by carbon dioxide level in the blood.

Breathing includes two processes:

1. inspiration (inhaling)
2. expiration (exhaling)

Inspiration is the movement of air into the lungs. Since the diaphragm muscles
CONTARCT to flatten and the external intercostal muscles CONTRACT to raise the ribs
outside; these two processes increase the volume of the thorax, at the same time
decreasing pressure inside the thorax. Air consequently rushes into the lungs inflating
them.

Expiration is the movement of air out of the lungs. Here the diaphragm muscles RELAX
becoming dome-shaped by the elastic recoil. The internal intercostal muscles
CONTARCT while the external intercostal muscles RELAX.
These two processes cause the ribs to move inwards and downwards. As a result, the
volume of the thorax decreases forcing air to move out of the lungs. They Deflate.

Differences between inspired air and expired air

Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen 20% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Water Vapour Same as atmosphere Fully saturated
Temperature Same as atmosphere Body temperature

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 1. Exhaled air contains less oxygen because oxygen diffuses out into the blood
2. Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide because it diffuses from the blood into
the alveoli air.
3. There is more water vapour because the inhaled air is moistened by mucus
secreted by the nasal cavities, trachea and the moist alveolar surface.
4. Exhaled air is warm because it gains heat which is lost by the blood passing
through capillaries the nasal cavities and alveoli.

Volume of airs exchanged

1. Tidal volume: vol. air moving in and out of lungs (0.5dm during quiet breathing)

2. Vital Capacity: total vol. that can be expired with force after the deepest possible
inspiration.

3. Residual volume: air left inside the lungs even after maximum expiration (1.5dm)

4. Total lung capacity: total amount of air that can be present inside the lungs (vital
capacity + residual air)

Vol. of air in lungs/ dm3

Tidal Volume Vital Capacity

Residual Volume

Time/s

Effect of exercise on breathing

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The rate and depth of breathing increases so as to increases the rate of gaseous exchange
in the lungs. This is essential to provide extra oxygen to the active muscles and remove
the carbon dioxide produced.

Volume/ dm3

Breathing Depth LOW

Breathing Rate LOW

Time/s

BEFORE EXERSISE

Volume/ dm3

Breathing Depth HIGH

Breathing frequency
higher

Time/s

DURING AND JUST AFTER VIGOROUS EXERSISE

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Experiment 1:
To compare the oxygen content of inhaled and exhaled air

Procedure
Invert a jar of air (inhaled air) over a burning candle
a) Note the time the candle takes to go off
b) Use a rubber tubing to blow air into a glass jar
c) Remove the jar of exhaled air and invert it over another piece of burning candle
and note the time the flame extinguishes.

Result
The time the exhaled air supporting the burning of the candle is shorter than that of the
inhaled air

Interpretation
Some of the oxygen in the inhaled air is absorbed by the lungs, therefore less oxygen is
left in the exhaled air.

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Experiment 2:
To compare the carbon dioxide in inhaled and expired air

To mouth

Air blown in Air sucked in

Lime
Water

B A

Procedure
a) Set up the apparatus as shown above.
b) Breathe in through the mouth piece slowly to prevent solution rising in tube B.
Air rushes along the tube in A (inhaled air)
c) The blow out gently and exhaled air bubbles through the solution in tube B
d) Repeat these breathing processes several times and observe the colour changes in
tube A and B

Result
The solution turns milky faster in Tube B (expired air) than tube A (inhaled air) At the
point where the exhaled air turn tube B milky the solution in tube A remains clear. More
carbon dioxide is required to turn the water milky. Carbon dioxide is produced by body
tissues and expelled.

Experiment to show effect of exercise on rate and depth of breathing

Breathing rate: Count number of breath per min before and after exercise. It is found
that the number of breath increases with an increase in exercise.

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Depth of breathing: Measure the volume of air expired before and after exercise. It is
found that the volume of air expired per breath increase after exercise.

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