Part II: Partially melted zone

Grain boundary segregation is

one of the serious problems
observed in partially melted zone.
This unfortunately lowers the
mechanical properties of the
welds.

Partially
melted zone

The liquated and re-solidified

material along the grain
boundary is shown in fig (a darketched area is eutectic GB and a
lighter etched area is (Al-rich)
band along GB).
making grain
boundary weaker.
(a) PMZ microstructure of GMAW in
6061 aluminium made with 4145
aluminium filler wire, (b) enlarged.
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Liquated metal along GB

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Formation of partially melted zone

Consider welding of 6.3% Cu 2219 alloy
Metal at position a is
completely melted.

WM
PMZ

Metal at position b is
heated upto between the
eutectic temperature TE
and the liquidus
temperature TL. The
metal becomes a solid +
liquid mixture
partially
melted.

BM

Metal at position c is not

melted at all.

Formation of PMZ in 2219 aluminium weld (a) Al-rich side of Al-Cu phase
diagram, (b) thermal cycles, (c ) transverse cross section.
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Sep-Dec 2007

Microstructure
evolution in PMZ
Consider welding of 6.3% Cu 2219 alloy
At T < TE, microstructure of the base metal
consists of and (Al2Cu) within grains
and along GB, see fig (a).
At T = TE, eutectic reaction occurs
+
LE (liquid of eutectic composition,
CE). Cooling at this point gives
microstructure of eutectic particles and
some GB eutectic, fig (b) and (c).
At T > TE, liquation inside PMZ intensifies,
more dissolve into liquid phase changing
composition to hypoeutectic liquid. Cooling
at this point gives Cu-depleted and Cu
rich eutectic.
Microstructure evolution in PMZ of
2219 Al alloy.
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Sep-Dec 2007

Solidification of grain boundary liquid in PMZ

The grain boundary liquid has a tendency to
solidify essentially upward and toward the
weld due to high temperature gradient toward
the weld pool.

Solidified
GB liquid

Solidification of grain boundary

liquid in PMZ
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Solidified
GB liquid
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Sep-Dec 2007

Problems associated with the

partially melted zone
The partially melted zone can suffer from problems as described
below, which are induced by grain boundary liquation in the PMZ
during welding.

Liquation cracking
(PMZ cracking or hot cracking)
Loss of strength and ductility
Hydrogen-induced cracking

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Sep-Dec 2007

Liquation cracking
Liquation cracking is also called PMZ cracking and in the
more commonly used name hot cracking.

Weld

Liquation in the PMZ is an

intergranular type and can also
occur along the fusion
boundary.
Cracks

Partially
melted zone

The presence of a liquid phase

at the intergranular fracture
surface can be either evident or
unclear.

PMZ cracking in 2219 Al welded with

filler metal 1100.
Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Liquation cracking susceptibility tests

Circular patch testing

Solidification
cracking

Specimen is sandwiched between two copper

plates while welding is employed on the top.
Liquation cracking occurs at the outer edge
of the weld because the outer edge is
restrained in tension while the inner edge is
in compression due to contraction during
welding.
Liquation
cracking

Schematic
of a circular
patch test
Cracking in circular patch welds
(a) 6061 Al and (b) 2219 Al both
made with a 1100 filler wire.
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Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Liquation cracking - mechanisms

Since PMZ is weakened by grain

boundary liquation, it cracks when
the solidifying weld metal contract
and pulls it.
Metals having a wide freezing
temperature range especially most
aluminium alloys are susceptible for
liquation cracking (hot cracking).
It is also due to large
solidification shrinkage and large
thermal expansion.

Formation of PMZ cracking

in a full-penetration
aluminium weld.

Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Weld metal pulling and tearing

The papillary (nipple) type penetration is common in GMAW of Al alloys with Ar
shielding with spray transfer mode.
Small amount of weld metal in the nipple solidifies much more quicker than the
surrounding area. Contraction occurs in the nipple and pulls the PMZ that is
weakened by grain boundary liquation.

Weld metal pooling and tearing PMZ in 7075 aluminium welded with filler 1100.
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Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Loss of strength and

ductility
Microhardness of the Cu-depleted is
much lower than that of Cu-rich eutectic.
This segregation results in a weak PMZ
microstructure with a soft ductile and a
hard brittle eutectic next to each other.
During tensile loading, the yield without
much resistance while the eutectic fractures
badly.
Fracture is along the GB and large eutectic
particles.

Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Hydrogen-induced cracking
Since hydrogen dissolves in liquid iron ~ 3-4 times better
than in solid, GB liquated films in the PMZ therefore act as
pipelines for hydrogen to diffuse from the weld metal through
the fusion boundary.

Supersaturated hydrogen
GB films with higher
hardenability.

Hydrogen induced cracking

Hydrogen
induced cracking
Hydrogen-induced cracking in the
PMZ of HY-80 steel.

Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Remedies for liquation cracking

1) Use proper filler metals
Ex: for Al weld, Al-Mg filler is not preferred, but Al-Si filler is more
favourable for the reduction of liquation cracking
2) Reducing heat input
Heat input

PMZ

3) Reducing degree of restraint

The presence of tensile stress can be the cause of liquation cracking.
Reducing the degree of restraint and hence the level of tensile stresses.

Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Remedies for liquation cracking

4) Controlling the base metal
Impurities

Reducing S and P is known to reduce

the freezing temperature range,
reducing chances for liquation
cracking, i.e. nickel base alloy.

Microsegregation
Liquation cracking

Grain size and orientation

Small grains

Grain size

Liquation cracking

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Tapany Udomphol

Large grains

Sep-Dec 2007

Part III: The heat-affected zone

Temperature distribution outside the fusion zone is not sufficiently high
to melt the base metal in the adjacent area of the weld.
Grain growth, recrystallisation, phase transformation or tempering/annealing
can occur, depending on temperature gradient and the nature of the alloy.

Temperature gradient and grain

structure transformation
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Sep-Dec 2007

Recrystallisation and grain growth

in welding
If the base material has been cold worked prior
to welding, the effect of work hardening is
completely gone in the fusion zone due to
remelting and is partially lost in HAZ due to
recrystallisation and grain growth.

Fusion
zone

Grain
growth

Base
metal

Grain growth in electron beam

weld of molybdenum.
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Softening of workhardened material

caused by welding
(a) thermal cycles
(b) strength or
hardness profile.

Note: Strength loss should be taken into

account in structural designs. (even
toughness)
The harder the base metal, the greater the
strength loss is.
Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Effect of welding parameters

and process

Heat input per unit length

HAZ width
Loss of strength/hardness

Effect of heat input per unit length of weld on (a)

width of HAZ, (b) thermal cycles near fusion
boundary (c ) strength or hardness profile.
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Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

Effect of heat input on HAZ

Small HAZ in single pass
electron beam welding of beta
titanium alloy. (Low heat input)

HAZ

Fusion Zone

HAZ

0.5 mm

Large HAZ in multipass

gas tungsten arc welding
of beta titanium alloy.
(High heat input)
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HAZ

Fusion Zone

HAZ

2 mm
Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007

References
Kou, S., Welding metallurgy, 2nd edition, 2003, John Willey and
Sons, Inc., USA, ISBN 0-471-43491-4.
Evans, G.M., Bailey, N., Metallurgy of basic weld metal, 1997,
Abington publishing and William Andrew Inc., ISBN 1 884207 57 X
David, S.A., Babu, S.S., Vitek, J.M., Welding : Solidification and
microstructure, JOM, June 2003.
Koteswara Rao, S.R.,Madhusudhana Reddy, G., Kamaraj, M.
andPrasad Rao, K., Grain refinement through arc manipulation
techniques in AlCu alloy GTA welds, Material Science and
Engineering A, Vol. 404, 2005, p. 227-234.

Suranaree University of Technology

Tapany Udomphol

Sep-Dec 2007