Photovoltaic

Systems
ENR 320

Photovoltaic Systems - Outline

Principle of operation
The solar resource PSH & Orientation
System overview, configurations & components
Design problem: system sizing
Installation issues
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PV Systems What are they?

PV module

DC - Load

Photo=light, volt electricity

Direct conversion : sunlight to electricity
DC power output.
Solid state semiconductor device; solar panels

Types of Solar Panel Works

Semiconductor made of Si or GaAs, CIGS and CdTe
Mostly Si- based
90% are mono & multi-cystalline Si, panels

multi-crystalline Si
Amorphous-Si

mono-crystalline Si

Photovoltaic panel make

up & Specs
Made-up of multiple cells
p-n junction with photovoltaic effect

Panel Specification
Model

SUN-A-210-FA3

Power (Wp)

210 Watts

Open Circuit
Voltage (V)

22.80 Voc

Short Circuit
Current (A)

12.11 Isc

Maximum Power
Voltage (V)

18.30 Vmp

Maximum Power
Current (A)

11.48 Imp

Dimensions

Length X Width

Photovoltaic panel Operation

Each cell = p-n junction
Requires minimum
energy band limited.
Extra energy causes
heat.
Heat reduces efficiency:
atom vibration.
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Current-voltage curve

Varying power output

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Effect of sunlight intensity & temperature

Temperatures above 25 are bad for panels!

The Sun as a Resource

Standard measure of resource = PSH
Perfect/Peak Sun Hours (PSH): the number of hours of a
perfectly sunny day with no clouds. (sometimes equivalent
sun hours -ESH)
A PSH is equivalent to having 1 kW/m2 (watts per meter
squared) of sun for one continuous hour.
PSH is found by adding up all the amount of sun received for
every hour of the day and then dividing the total by 1kW/m2.
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Peak Sun Hours

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PSH = area under the red curve

Calculating Peak Sun Hours

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World map of PSH

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SOURCE: www.campingworld.com

PV panel : Orientation
Tilted towards the equator at
an angle approximately equal
to the latitude of the location

Optimize for winter: L + 15o

Optimize for Summer L - 15o
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PV system: Configurations
PV Array

PV Array

Inverter

Utility Grid

DC - Load

2. Grid connected
system

1. Direct coupled
DC system

PV Array

Charge
Controller

Inverter

Storage
Batteries

Aux.
Generator

AC - Load
Hybrid system: AC with backup
battery and generator

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PV system: Configuration
Direct coupled DC system
PV Array

DC - Load
Source: electrical-engineering-portal.com

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PV system: Configuration
Grid connected system
PV Array

Inverter

Utility Grid
Source: ecofriend.com

Stringent power quality requirements on the inverter

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PV system: Configuration
Hybrid system: AC with backup battery and generator
PV Array

Charge
Controller

Inverter

Storage
Batteries

Aux.
Generator

AC - Load

Source: EXMORK

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Stringent power quality requirements on the inverter

PV system: Components
Solar Panel - Converts sunlight to electricity.
Charge Controller/regulator - Manages the flow of electricity
between the solar panel battery and load.
Batteries - Store electricity.
Inverter - Converts DC power from the solar panel and battery to AC
power.
Load - Application for electricity, e.g. lights, LED light, computer,
radio.
Wires - Connect the other various components together.

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Charge Controller: functions and specifications

Its central: The wiring from the solar panels, the batteries, and all
of the loads goes through the charge controller
Manages electricity flow from panels, into and out of the
batteries, and to the loads. It can:
Protects the battery from overcharging, by controlling how the PV
panel charges the battery.
Protects the battery from over discharge: disconnects the loads when
the battery voltage gets too low.
Gives information on the state of change of the charge controller.

Important specs: Voltage & Max. Current

Ratings

Rate Voltage

Max. Current

12V-48V

100A

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Charge controller: examples

State of Charge LED

Connection sockets

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Wiring
The wiring is what carries the electricity from the panels
through the charge controller to the batteries and from the
batteries through the charge controller out to the loads.
if the wiring is not sized and installed correctly, the electricity
will not flow properly to the loads.

Size Matters!

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Wiring: Voltage drop

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Wiring: Loses vs. Size

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Wiring: Sizing problem

Example: Which wire size should be used?

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Wiring: Sizing problem

Using 1.5mm2 copper wire, drops 15.02 v @ 100
meters. (so 8m drops: 0.08 * 15 = 1.2 V). Twice
as much!
A 2.5 mm2 wire, drops: 0.08 * 9.46 = 0.8V. Okish?

A 4 mm2 wire, drops: 0.08 * 6 V = 0.48V.

< 0.6 volts. Good!
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Batteries: Specs

Provide storage
Lead-acid = most common
Rated in Amp Hours (Ah)
Self discharge rate(% per month)
Life cycle for a given Depth of
Discharge
(above 50% recommended).
5-7 years life time

Lead-acid battery

Efficiency

Self discharge rate

(usually 12V)

83-90

3-10% per month

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PV systems use deep-cycle batteries, Car batteries not recommended!

Batteries :State of Charge

Can be described by measuring the voltage with a digital multi
meter (DMM). The voltage measurements must be made when
Battery is disconnected from the charge controller.
Battery has been at rest for 30 minutes.

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Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual

Batteries: Role of the charge controller

Critical issues:
Charging : follows a charging cycle
Discharging: beyond 80% reduces life.

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SOURCE: Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Inverters: About
Converts DC to AC
3 types of Inverters: Square wave inverters, modified (quasi) square wave inverters and sine wave inverters.
Issues: Cost & power quality
Harmonics content (e.g. interference on computer monitors / TV,
slower heating on microwave). Some dont work all together.

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Increasing power quality & cost

Inverters: Pictures

Source: flexcell
Source: flexcell

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Inverters: Specification
Important Specs:
Efficiency: varies with load
(85% - 90% ).
Power rating: Higher than max.
load. Recommended to (20-30%
higher than load)
Source: solar-energy-at-home.com

So an AC system would need a larger panel and battery than a

DC system.
Grid-integrated systems need: low harmonic distortion levels,
low noise, Switch-off upon grid failure.

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Designing a PV System

Client says: Design a PV system for my granny in rural Limpopo. She needs
two 60W lighting bulbs in the evening, a 230W iron on every morning. Do I
need charge controller? What I need an Inverter? How big should my solar
panel be? Battery?

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Designing a PV System:
General Procedure
0. What is the nominal voltage of the system?
1. Determine load daily energy consumption
(Wh to Ah)
2. Consider system losses
3. Size panel, considering solar resource
4. Size battery, considering days without sun
5. Size inverter & charge controller
6. Install remember the wire size
Usually 12 V for cheap small system
or 24 V for larger application!

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Step 1: Load-Total Daily Consumption

Calculate Total Daily Consumption in Watt-Hours: find total load to
be powered by the PV System.
For how long will each item be used?

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Thus, load is: 236Wh/12V = 19.7Ah, for a 12Volts system

Step 2: Considering system

efficiency
Consider efficiency of the PV System: The efficiency is not 100%,
we need to size the panels and the batteries large enough to
account for the losses, and still have enough power left over for the
loads
PV Array

Charge
Controller

Inverter

Storage
Batteries

Aux.
Generator

AC - Load

Recall: The inverter is at least about 85% efficient.

Thus for a 236Wh AC load on a 12V system, the load is
236Wh/(0.85*12V) = 23.1Ah higher than 19.7Ah for DC

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Step 2 : Wire efficiency

Wiring Efficiency: We wanted to keep the voltage drop to 5% or

less. Properly designed wiring may have a combined efficiency of
97% or 0.97

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Step 2: Panel efficiency loss due to

Temperature
Accounting for non-standard temperature: Solar panels function the
best at 25 C , For every degree that the solar panel temperature is
above 25 C the solar panel output 0.5% less.

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Step 2: Panel efficiency loss due to

Temperature
Formula:
Solar Panel Temp = Air Temperature C + 15 C
Efficiency drop = (Solar Panel Temp.)* 0.5
Example: If the Air Temperature = 30 C, then the temperature of
solar panel is 30 C + 15 C = 45 C .
45 C-25 C=20 C (this is the amount that the solar panel is above
the optimal temperature) . Efficiency is 20 C * 0.5% per degree =
10% less, so the panel output is 90% at 30 C
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Step 2: System all losses - summary

Inefficiencies/losses are due to:

Inverter
Charge controller functions
Wiring losses
Temperature of the panel

Account for losses by:

Consider inverter efficiency for AC load @ 85%
Account for losses by adding 20% to the load.

System load(Ah) =(AC load/0.85 + DC load)*1.2

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Step 3: Size panel, considering solar resource

3.1 Calculate current requirement.
3.2 Find the optimal optimum module
arrangement.
Series

Parallel & series

Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual

Parallel

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Step 3: size panel, considering solar

resource
3.1 Calculate current requirement.
3.2 Find the optimal optimum module
arrangement.
Consider a 12v DC system with
45.6Ah load, in Pretoria (5 PSH)
[3.1.] Current = 45.6Ah/5h = 9.12 A

[3.2.] # Panels = 9.12 A/3.15A = 2.9

2.9 (rounded up) = 3 panels
15.9V panel output enough for 12V
9.12A requires 3 panels in parallel

Model

Shell SM50-H

Power (W)

50 Watts

Open Circuit
Voltage (V)

19.80 Voc

Short Circuit
Current (A)

3.40 Isc

Maximum Power
Voltage (V)

15.9 Vmp

Maximum Power
Current (A)

3.15 Imp

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Step 4: Size battery, considering days without sun

Rule of thumb: - efficiency of 85%
- assume 3 days without sunshine
- 50% max. discharge

For a load of 230 Amp-hours. Then battery size is:

45.6 Amp-hrs / .85 for efficiency = 53.6 Amp-hrs

Considering dark days. 53.6 Amp-hrs needed per day x 3
days with no sun = 161 Amp-hrs

Consider max. discharge:

161 x 2 = 322 Amp-hrs

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Step 5: Charge controller sizing

Charge Controller: Max Current & Voltage rating.
Voltage rating = Nominal system voltage.
[12V]
Max. Current > Short-circuit current *(# parallel panels) [>10.2A]

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Step 5: Inverter sizing

Inverter: Efficiency & power rating.
Efficiency = (As high as possible.) safely assume 85%
Power rating =
(for grid connected systems: no general rule among country guidelines, location
dependent) 70%-90% OR 80%-110% of solar array rating

Stand alone systems: Definitely higher than the AC load!

so about 25% higher than load you wish to run simultaneously
For a 120kWh AC load, use 150kWh inverter!

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Designing a PV System: Summary

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Determine load daily energy consumption (Wh to Ah)

Consider system losses
Size panel, considering solar resource
Size battery, considering days without sun
Size inverter & charge controller

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Installation: Panel Orientation

The panel should mounted on an angle approximately equal to the
latitude of the area, and pointing to the equator.
If you are in the southern hemisphere, aim the panel to the north,
and if you are in the northern hemisphere, aim the panel to the
south.
If you are very close to the equator, then the latitude is close to 0
degrees. In these areas, the optimum angle for maximum power
might be flat, but it is still good to tilt the panel 5 or 10 degrees to
let the rain help to keep the panel free of dust and dirt.

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Installation: Avoid shading

Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual

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Installation: mounting
The panel must be installed on sturdy mountings so its
orientation will stay as originally designed, and so it will not be
subject to being knocked.

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Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual

Installation: Charge controller

The cabling from the Panel to the Controller should be sized
large enough, and kept as short as possible, and located
where it will not be a hazard or be pulled down.

Controller needs to be mounted in a location where there is

not a lot of activity, to avoid the possibility of being knocked
into by carried items.

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Installation: Battery
battery needs to be close to the controller to limit the length
of the wire, and reduce the losses in this cable.
It should be in a non-metallic battery box (wood or plastic)
vented to the air, and covered so nothing metal can be placed
on top of the battery.

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 Battery Safety Issues:

Chemicals - The acid in the battery is bad for people and for
the environment
Gas - Batteries vent a gas that be extremely flammable
Electrocution- Batteries have a lot of electricity and can
easily electrocute people

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Installation: Wiring
Wiring should be neat, and fastened securely in all
locations.

This makes checking for trouble much easier, and avoids

problems of things being hung on the wiring or cutting
into the wiring.

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Wiring: termination at the

battery
Terminations: all wire connections need to be clean and tight

Source: Green Empowerment , Photovoltaic System, Training Manual

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Installation: Lighting
First of all, try to install a separate light switch for every
light. This way if only one light is needed, the others can
remain off.

It is good to install all of the light switches at the

controller location, because this reduces the number of
field terminations and connections, and points of
potential failure. Then, all of the cables are direct runs
from the controller to the lights.

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Installation: Load Connections

All wiring to loads must be connected through the charge
controller.
No wires should be terminated on the battery except for the
wires going to the charge controller.
If loads are connected directly to the battery, then these loads
are not disconnected when the charge controller decides to turn
the loads off to protect the battery, and the battery will fail
prematurely.

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Photovoltaic systems
Principle of operation
The sun resource PSH & Orientation
System overview, configurations & components
Design problem: system sizing
Installation issues

The End

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