ELECTRICAL MACHINES

ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES

o SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
CYLINDRICAL (Laminated / solid)
M tl used
Mostly
d as llarge capacity
it G
Generator
t driven
d i
by
b steam
t
/
gas turbines. Speed 1500 rpm/ 3000 rpm. (Solid rotor)
Motors for high speed applications 3000 and above) are
with solid rotor and lower speed are with laminated rotor.
SALIENT POLE (Laminated / solid)
p
design
g used with hydro
y
turbines.
Slow speed
Large & medium capacity motor, having low speeds.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

In case of turbogenerators, Rotor winding is supplied with
DC current (through sliprings or brushless exciter) which
produces constant magnetic field.
3 phase stator winding is laid in stator core.
When generator rotor is rotated (by a turbine) magnetic flux
produced by rotor winding also rotates.
Voltage is induced in stator winding (Faradays
(Faraday s Law*)
Law )
3 phase stator winding also produces magnetic flux revolving
at synchronous speed (=120*f/2p). Rotor also rotates at
synch speed. Both the magnetic fields are locked and rotate
together.

*Faraday s Law : E.M.F.

*Faradays
E M F (Voltage) is induced in a closed path
due to change of flux linkages and is proportional to rate of change
of flux linkages. The change in flux linkages can be caused by
change in flux in a stationary coil or by motion of coil with constant
flux or by both.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Stator winding, which is stationary, experiences change in
flux linkages and thus E
E.M.F.
M F (voltage) is generated in stator
winding

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Induced EMF E = N.(d/dt).10

N (d/dt) 10-8 volts
= m.Sin(.t)

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator at No Load

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Armature Reaction
MMF generated by stator winding current.
Armature Reaction interacts with Rotor MMF and
a resultant Magnetic
Field is created.
Armature Reaction
may be considered as
mechanical reaction
necessary to balance
the energy equation.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

P = ((Et.Ef / Xd).sin
)

Generator at
Unity Power
Factor Load

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator at Unity PF

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Power can only be delivered by an
advance
d
off rotor by
b an angle
l in
i the
h
direction of rotation.
Rotor
R t angle
l is
i a measure off Power
P
as att
no load is zero.
P = ((V.Ef / Xd).sin
)

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator at Zero Power Factor (Lag) Load

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Direct axis Reactance Xd
Under short circuit condition terminal voltage is
zero. It means that excitation required to circulate
the stator current must be that just to overcome
armature reaction.
The ratio of excitation current to circulate rated
stator current to excitation required to generate
rated open circuit voltage (measured on air gap
line) will give Unsaturated Synchronous reactance
Xd.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Open Circuit
and
Short Circuit
Curve

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator at Lag Load

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator at Lagging Load

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator Capability Diagram

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Generator Capability Diagram

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

V C
V-Curve

Generator Module Selection Parameters

Location/ Environment Conditions
Ambient Temperature, Coolant Temperature
Atmospheric Conditions
Dust, Chemicals, Explosive Gases
Humidityy
Altitude
Driving Equipments
Type of Turbine (Driving System)
MW rating
Speed

Generator Module Selection Parameters

Performance Requirements
yp of Generator ((Cylindrical
y
/ Salient Pole Type)
yp )
Type
Voltage (for large TGs voltage is arrived by its own design)
Frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz)
Variation in V & f
Power Factor
Short Circuit Ratio
Negative Sequence Capability
Asynchronous capability
Cooling Method
Class of Insulation & Winding Temperature limits
Limitation
Li it ti on Dimensions
Di
i
and
d weight
i ht

Sizing of Generator Module

Almost all the requirements / parameters influence Size
and Design of the machine in one way or other.
It is difficult to consider all the parameters in one go.
At first step, design is worked out considering those
parameters which directlyy influence basic Machine Size
p
In subsequent steps, the design is checked for other
parameters / requirements

Sizing of Generator Module

Basic Equation for Sizing of Electrical Machines
P = K.As.B. D2L.n
or,

D2L = P/ (K.As.B.n)

Here,
P

= MW output

As = Electric Loading (Amp.cond/cm)

(Amp cond/cm)
B = Magnetic loading (gauss)
D

= Stator bore diameter (cm)

= Stator core length (cm)

= Rated speed

Sizing of Generator Module

D2L represents Volume of Rotor or Size of the
Machine.
The Output Equation assumes several key factors :
Complete Stator Geometry
Relative p
proportion
p
of stator Outer & Inner Dia.
Slot and Tooth Dimensions
Flux densities in the Iron Parts.
Parts
MW Rating :
Size of machine (D2L) is directly proportional to its output
(MW)

Sizing of Generator Module

Speed :
Size of machine (D2L) is inversely proportional to its
Speed
Synch. Speed (RPM) = 120*F / (2*P)
F=Freq.,
q P= Pole Pair
For 50Hz supply, Speeds are (2*P = 2 16) :
3000 1500,
3000,
1500 1000,
1000 750,
750 600,
600 500,
500 428,
428 375 rpm .
Frequency :
Size of machine (D2L) is inversely proportional to its
Frequency.

Sizing of Generator Module

Magnetic loading B (Air-gap magnetic flux density)
Machine Size is inversely proportional to B
Large B : High Magnetising Current (field current),
High Iron Losses & Core Temperature, Low Efficiency,
High Overload Capability.
Value
V l
off B
B is
i restricted
i d due
d
to magnetic
i saturation
i
i
in
any parts of Magnetic Circuit (Core/ Teeth).
Choice
Ch i
off B also
l
d
depends
d on the
th grade
d off stampings
t
i
(ETS) used.
Cold
C ld Rolled
R ll d Non-Grain
N G i Oriented
O i t d (CRNGO),
(CRNGO) Silicon
Sili
(0 3
(0.34.5%) ETS are used for Generators : Low Loss,
Eli i t Aging,
Eliminates
A i
L
Low
permeability.
bilit

Sizing of Generator Module

Consideration for Electrical Loading As
From Output Equation, Machine Size is inversely
proportional to As
As
Electrical Loading As is indicative of Winding Losses.
Higher
Hi h the
th losses
l
are allowed,
ll
d more Output
O t t Power
P
can
be obtained from Machine.
Winding Temperature increases with increase in Losses.

Sizing of Generator Module

Consideration for Electrical Loading As
One of the most important aspect of deciding the
Maximum output which can be obtained from a given
frame size is limitation on winding temperature.
Winding
Wi di
t
temperature
t
i limited
is
li it d by
b the
th Class
Cl
off
Insulation being used in the machine.
World-wide, for High Voltage AC Machines, Epoxy
based Class-F insulation (140 C ) is used.
Winding Temperature is limited to 120 C (Class-B).

Insulating Material, Class & Temperature

Class Y (Temperature : 90 C)
Cotton, Silk, Paper (unimpregnated)

Class A (Temperature : 105 C)

Cotton, Silk, Paper (impregnated in natural resins, oil)

Class E (Temperature : 120 C)

C)
Synthetic Resin enamels, Cotton & Paper laminates with
formaldehyde bonding

Class B (Temperature : 130 C)

Mica, Glass fibre, asbestos with suitable bonding (bitumen)

Class F (Temperature : 155 C)

Class B material with bonding material of higher thermal stability.

Class H (Temperature : 180 C)

Glass fibre and Asbestos, and buildup mica, with Silicon Resin.

Class C (Temperature : > 180 C)

C)
Mica, Ceramic, Glass, Quartz with Silicon Resin of higher thermal
stability.

Sizing of Generator Module

Factors effecting winding temperature
Losses
Cooling method and its Heat carrying capacity
Coolant (Cooling Media) temperature
Ambient temperature
Thermal Steady State Condition
Losses produced in machine
= Losses dissipated from Machine
Losses dissipated (Tw Tc)

{Temp. Rise}

p
on Insulation Class = 120 C
Tw depends
Tw = Winding Temp.

Tc = Coolant Temp.

((Class-B))

Sizing of Generator Module

Cooling Methods for very Large Size Machines :
Machine Size is a critical and important
p
aspect
p
of design
g of
very Large Capacity Machines from
handling,
p
point of view. ((turbo-gen)
p
g )
transportation
Size can only be limited with very high As. This is
achieved by more efficient cooling methods such as.

Stator : Indirect air cooling,

Stator : Indirect H2 cooling,
Stator : Direct H2 cooling,
Stator : Direct Water cooling,
St t : Direct
Stator
Di t Water
W t cooling,
li

Rotor : direct air cooling

Rotor : direct H2 cooling
Rotor : direct H2 cooling (axial)
Rotor : direct H2 cooling (axial)
R t : direct
Rotor
di t Water
W t H2 cooling
li

Large Capacity Generator modules are classified w.r.t

w r t cooling
method and arrangement.

Sizing of Generator Module

Cooling Methods and value of As :
Normallyy factor AsxJs is taken as the basis for design.
g
Js = current density assumed in stator winding
Indirect Air cooling = 1600-2000
g = 2000-3000
Indirect H2 cooling
Stator indirectly & Rotor directly cooled (H2) = 3000-3600
Stator water cooled, rotor H2 cooled = 6500-12000

Generator Cooling Methods

Generator Cooling Methods

Development of Cooling Methods for Large Size M/cs :

Sizing of Generator Module

P D2 . L . B . As . n
D

Mechanical
M
h i l Strength
St
th
of Material

Length
L
th off Cooling
C li
Paths

Saturation
S
t
ti
off
Magnetic Paths

Temp. Rise
T
Ri
in
i
Armature
Winding

Alternating
Expansion
p
during
g
Start-Ups & Shut
Downs

Dynamic Stability

Stator Core
Dimension

Temp. Rise in
Field Winding
g

Conductor & Insul.

Stresses during
Start-Ups & Shut
Downs

Sensitivity to
Bowing

Vibration of
Stator Core

Temp. Rise in End

Zone of Stator
Core

Transportation Sizes
& Weights)

Alternating
Bending Stresses

Temp. Rise in
End-Zones of
Core

Bar Forces

Torsional Stresses
in Shaft &
Coupling

Protection
against
Overvoltages

Short Circuit
Forces in End
Winding

Requirement for
improved
Balancing
Techniques

Flux Density in
Rotor

Excitation & ShortCircuit Losses

(Eff)

Manufacturing
Facility (Sizes &
Weights)

Transient Stability
(Reactances)

No increase of utilization
Same or higher mfg. Costs

Increased utilization
Lower mfg. costs possible

Sizing of Generator Module

Separation of D and L
= Pole Pitch = .D/2P (= .D/2 for turbogenerator)
L/ factor
2*L / .D
D
1= L1/D1 = 2 to 6
1
6, higher value > smaller weight
Da 2.1 D1
L1 L2
1 5, minimum stator copper weight
1 also has role stator winding leakage which decides
sub-transient reactance

Sizing of Generator Module

Separation of D and L
2 = L2/D2 2.7, minimum rotor copper weight
2 effects critical speed
p
of rotor.
Air gap is determined from SCR requirement
Selection of Voltage and Stator Slots
Voltage E=4.44*f*W
E 4.44 f W1**fw
fw1
E/W1 = 4.44*f**fw1 = E/W1 = 4.44*f*(B*.D.L) *fw1
E/W1 D.L
Voltage
g has no role in sizing
g : E=4.44*f*W1**fw
1

Sizing of Generator Module

SLOT SIZE : Current density & No. of Slots

Voltage and Frequency variations

Zone A

Rated
Point

Zone B

Practically a machine will

sometimes be required to
operate outside the zone-A.
zone A
Such excursion should be
limited in value, duration and
f
frequency
off occurrence.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Short Circuit Ratio
Short circuit ratio may be defined as stator current (PU)
under 3 phase short circuit condition when field excitation
corresponding to rated open circuit voltage is applied. It is
just inverse of direct axis reactance Xd. It is often used as
rough and ready basis for calculating excitation for
various loading.
SCR is also indicative of generator stability level.
SCR reduces as generator capacity increases

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Negative Sequence Capability
In practice, generators are asymmetrically loaded, i.e.
each phase draw different load current
current. This leads to
asymmetrical distribution of the current between stator
phase windings.
Thus asymmetrical current in winding phases may consist
of all three symmetrical components Positive I1,
Negative I2 and Zero Io sequence currents
currents.
Negative sequence current I2 produces countercounter
synchronous MMF which induces e.m.f. in rotor winding,
rotor body and damper windings.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Negative Sequence Capability
Presence of closed paths allows large currents to
flow in these
components, resulting
losses and temperature
rise.
Limits :
Neg. seq. current I2
Product I22.t

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Asynchronous Operation
In case of load angle reaches 90, and no corrective
action is taken, rotor angle will continue to increase untill
synchronism is lost
lost. There are two types of asynchronous
operation.
1. Pole slipping : Field exc.
not strong enough to hold
synchronism.
h i
2. True Asynch. Operation:
Complete loss of excitation
excitation.
Generator runs as induction
generator and draws
magnetising current from
grid.

Basic Principal of Operation of Generator

Asynchronous Operation
3. Motoring operation of Generator : Connected to grid
but turbine is not charged
charged.
It causes :
Stator heating : Severe end core heating. Low power
pp loss.
factor increases stator current and thus stator copper
Rotor Heating : Rotor losses (rotor body, winding &
damper I2R losses) are proportional to slip. Temperature
rise shall be rapid iff slip is high.
Generator transformer heating
Generator voltage reduction during asynchronous
running occurs at full load

Design Considerations
Altitude
At high altitude, air density reduces thus effecting
cooling of motors Operation under Voltage and

Typical Curves

Altitude : 1000 M

Altitude : 1500 M

Altitude : 2000 M

Altitude : 2500 M

Altitude : 3000 M

% MO
OTOR OU
UT PUT

Frequency Variation

COOLING AIR TEMPERATURE