IEEES-1
Proceedings of the First International Exergy, Energy and Environment Symposium
PIPELINES AND PIPING NETWORK IN GEOTHERMAL DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEMS
A.Caner Şener1, Gülden Gökçen1
1
İzmirInstitute of Technology Mechanical Engineering Department
Gülbahçe – Urla, 35437 İzmir, Republic of Turkey
Fax: +90.232.4986505 E-mail:acanersener@yahoo.com, güldengökcen@iyte.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
In geothermal district heating project construction of
transmission pipeline system is required to transport
the hot water from source to user. In most of the
geothermal district heating projects piping constitutes
the biggest part of capital investment cost. Since the
properties of geothermal water, infrastructure of cities
and economic criterion are different for each country,
standards and methods may change country to
country. Factors such as pipe sizing, pipe material,
insulation, installation, head loss, heat loss, and service
points should be considered before final decision. In
this study, general methods and international standards
used in geothermal piping and district heating piping
will be reviewed. Then suitable methods and standards
and their applicability will be discussed for the Turkey
case.
INTRODUCTION
Turkey is one of the richest countries in geothermal
potential which is mostly located at the western part of
the country. Characteristics of the geothermal
resources in Turkey are mostly suitable for heating. The
use of medium temperature (30 to 150 oC) geothermal
resources as a heat source in Turkish district heating
systems and greenhouses has been accelerating since
1980’s. Considering the geothermal district heating
projects, which are in the phase of conceptual planning
and construction, it is obvious that geothermal energy
will be started to use widely for the heating purposes in
the next decade. [1]
Considering the fact that transmission and distribution
piping generally constitute the biggest portion in a cost
of geothermal system. “For district heating systems, the
cost associated with the distribution network is
frequently 40 - 60% of the overall capital cost of the
project. [2]” One of the most important factors
influencing the success of geothermal project is proper
piping from material selection to installation and
maintenance. Since characteristics of geothermal
resources, weather conditions and infrastructure of
each city are different from each other. Each
geothermal project is unique. Therefore there is no
standard way of piping for all geothermal district heating
systems.
In Turkish geothermal projects, piping has not been
considered with enough attention at the beginning.
However, experiences in Turkish geothermal district
13-17 July 2003, Izmir, Turkey
Paper No.
heating systems show that, pipes are usually primary
source of problems during operation.
In geothermal district heating systems piping may be
divided into two categories. Geothermal transmission
pipeline which carries geothermal fluid from wells to
heat stations and city distribution network which
distributes hot water from heat stations to customers.
This study investigates the basic principles of route
selection, sizing, material selection, installation and
maintenance in Turkish geothermal district heating
systems.
ROUTE SELECTION
Generally route of pipeline follows the shortest path
from geothermal well to customers. Although it is the
best solution most of the times, it may not be always
possible to follow the shortest path. Highways, land
owners, military zones, rivers and other utility networks
are the main obstacles in front of the pipeline route. In
most of the times overcoming these obstacles requires
heavy bureaucracy and time. It is possible to gain time
if applicatios are made at the very beginning of the
project for a necessary permissions.
Geological structure of the area from where geothermal
pipeline passes is also important. According to the
geological structure of the region pipes may be burried
or above ground pipeline system considered. In Turkish
geothermal district heating systems both geothermal
pipeline and city distribution network are burried.
Although city distribution networks have always been
burried in all over the world, it is not the case for
geothermal transmission pipelines. If there is no dense
settlement between wells and heat station, then both
options underground and above ground piping should
be analysed. The primary decisive factor is cost of
installation for most of the cases, however external
corrosion risk should also be analysed.
PIPE SIZING
The pressure loss per unitary length is a common sizing
parameter. If the pressure loss is high, then the
investment in the pipe is well utilised, but the operating
cost is high. On the other hand, if the pressure loss is
low, the investment is badly utilised, but the pumping
cost is low [3].
The target head loss in the design of a new pipeline
system varies from 5 to 20 mm/m. While deciding target
head loss, future expansion scenarios of the system
should be considered. If the geothermal reservoir and
customer potential are promising for the future, then it is
wisefull to lower the target pressure loss.
Pipe sizing is an optimisation problem. As stated before
each geothermal project has different conditions.
Selection of target head loss directly influences the
feasibility of the all project. Figure 1 shows the variation
pipe cost and pumping cost with target head loss for a
sample Turkish district heating system which is located
at Aegean region and serves approximately 3000
dwellings. However the scene in Figure 1 may
completely change for different climates or pipe costs.
350,000
300,000
Total pipe cost (Euro)
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
Total pipe cost
50,000
Annual pumping cost
0 0
0 5 10 15
Target head loss (mm/m)
Figure 1: Target head loss selection
PIPE MATERIALS
There are numerous types of piping materials which
greatly vary in cost and durability for geothermal
heating systems. The main classification is made
between metallic and non-metallic pipes. Among
metallic pipes steel pipes (slip-joint steel (STL-S) and
welded steel (STL-W)) are most commonly used. Types
of non-metallic pipes can be listed as: gasketed
polyvinyl chloride (PVC-G), solvent welded PVC (PVC-
S), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), polyethylene
(PE), cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), mechanical joint
fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP-M), FRP epoxy
adhesive joint-military (FRP-EM), FRP epoxy adhesive
joint (FRP-E), FRP gasketed joint (FRP-S), and
threaded joint FRP (FRP-T). The temperature and
chemical quality of the geothermal fluids, in addition to
cost, are the decisive factors in the selection pipe
materil. Both metallic and non-metallic piping can be
considered for geothermal applications. Carbon steel is
the most widely used metallic pipe and has an
acceptable service life if properly applied. [4]
Since metallic pipes used in higher temperatures
compared to non-metallic pipes, they are commonly
used in most of the geothermal applications. In addition,
its properties and installation requirements are familiar
to most installation crews. The advantage of non-
metallic materials is that they are virtually impervious to
most chemicals found in geothermal fluids. However,
the installation procedures, particularly for fibreglass
and polyethylene are, in many cases, outside the
experience of typical labourers and local code officials.
[4]
In Turkish GDHSs the most common selection is
carbon steel pipes (welded). Steel pipe is available in
almost all areas and manufactured in wide range of
sizes. Steel is the material most familiar to pipe fitters
and installation crews. The joining method for small
sizes (<50 mm) is usually threading, with welding used
for sizes above this level. For underground installations,
all joints are typically welded when unlined piping is
used.
The most important disadvantage of steel piping is
corrosion. In many geothermal fluids, there are various
concentrations of dissolved chemicals or gases that can
result in corrosion. If the potential exists for this type of
attack, or if the fluid has been exposed to the air before
entering the system, carbon steel should be the
material of last resort. Steel piping is used primarily on
the clean loop side of the isolation heat exchanger,
although in a few cases it has been employed as the
70,000 Annual pumping cost (Euro) geothermal transmission line material. A distinct
60,000
disadvantage in using steel pipe is that the buried pipe
50,000 is also subject to external corrosion unless protected
40,000 with a suitable wrapping or cathodic protection [4]. For
30,000 instance, the distribution system at Balçova-Narlıdere
20,000 GDHS consists of carbon steel pipe with polyurethane
10,000 foam insulation wrapped with insulating coat (glass
fibre) to provide a seal. The water seal degraded with
20 25 time (approximately 5 years) and allowed ground water
to contact the pipe. External corrosion resulted in a
number of failures, which cause significant amount of
leakage from the system.
Consideration of non-metallic pipes in Turkish
geothermal projects is rather new. Local manufacturers
have just started to compete with steel pipe
manufacturers in terms of price. However, non-metallic
pipes cannot be used at temperatures higher than 90oC
and it is still the main disadvantage. Also cost of non-
metallic pipes is still higher than steel pipes.
Considering the fast improvement of composite pipes, it
is expected that the non-metallic pipes will be started to
use more commonly in future geothermal projects.
INSTALLATION
Installation and maintenance of pipelines can be
investigated in 9 steps. [5]
1. Receipt, handling and storage
2. Excavation of trench
3. Installation of pipes and components
4. Welds
5. Leak and pressure tests
6. Installation of joints
7. As-built survey
8. Related work
9. Backfilling of trench
Typically preinsulated pipes and components are
delivered from the manufacturer’s store or plant by the
manufacturer. The owner takes delivery of the goods at
a temporary storage area or directly at the pipe trench.
The owner should carry out inspection on arrival of the
materials. An inspection on arrival should include.
• Inspection of bill of quantaties
• Inspection of quality of materials including check for
transport damage.
• Inspection of possible certificates
Any handling, transportation and storage of pipes and
fittings, etc. must be done in consideration of the
properties of the different materials and current external
conditions, in order to avoid the components being
subjected to harmful impacts and in order to avoid
impurities etc. in pipes and fittings. [5]
Figure 2 shows a typical cross-section of the trench with
safety fence between the work space and the traffic at
one side, and a marked safety area to the other side of
the trench.
Figure 2: Section of trench and surrounding speace
requirements [5]
When pipes and fittings are transported to the trench
site, precautions must be taken to avoid damage of the
pipes. At the trench site pipes and components are
arranged and prepared for laying and welding. [5]
The contractor must monitor the quality of piping work
by establishing and maintaining a quality assurance
system with reference to EN 729-3 (Quality
requirements for welding). Welding should preferably
only take place in dry weather. Where the work is
performed during unfavourable weather conditions the
work site must be covered with tents or equivalent. [5]
A complete visual inspection must be carried out
throughout the entire welding process by the contractor,
the owner’s supervisors and sometimes by an external
specialist consultant. [5]
In co-operation with the contractor the supervisor
selects the welds for non destructive testing welding
inspection. The welds are divided into inspection
sections so that welds in the same section are unlikely
to have differences in qualty. [5]
The leak test is compulsory and the pressure test is
optional and can be specified according to local
authorities or the requirements of the owner. [5]
The main emphasis is laid on the leak test in order to
find any penetrating pinholes, which will result in
subsequent failure. [5]
Welds can be subjected to a leak test by one of the
following methods.
• Test with water applied at 1.3 times maximum
operating pressure with simultaneous visual
inspection of the welds for leaks.
• Test with air at 0.2 bar over-pressure or 0.65 bar
below atmospheric pressure where the tightness of
the weld is checked by application of a suitable
indicator fluid.
• 100% radiographic inspection of steel service pipe
where the weld seams are made up of a minimum
of 2 passes and if start/end positions of the two
passes are mutually displaced.
A leak test with air must be performed before the pipes
have been water-filled, e.g. for flushing or pressure test.
Once buried the only information on the location of
pipes and components are the drawings and listings
based on a survey of the executed work. [5]
This information is essential when it comes to later re-
excavation of the trench in situations such as:
• Evidence of leakage into the pipes
• Connection of new pipe sections or branches to the
pipes.
• Planning of excavation for other underground utility
networks.
A high level of accuracy of the survey is essential for
the effective later use of the information. Each metre of
inaccurate excavation when accessing the buried pipes
is costly and so are the costs of repair of pipes, which
have been damaged due to incomplete and inaccurate
information on their exact location.
The trend is to survey the co-ordinates of the pipes and
components in a common local co-ordinate system.
However, in a transitional period co-ordinates to fixed
objects as mentioned above should also be measured
in order to calculate measurements for finding the
pipeline. Within a few years it must be expected then
GPS (Global Positioning System) will be used. [5]
The objects of the pipe systems to be exactly identified
and located are for example [5]
• Bends
• Branches
• Joints
• Valves
• Connections of electronic surveillance system
• Other special components
• Crossing of other utility cables or pipes
Installation of preinsulated bonded pipes often involves
work of another character than just fitting of
preinsulated pipes. This could include concrete works,
or work on other utilities in the trench. In many cases
the intended functioning and service life of preinsulated
pipes also depend on the execution and quality of the
related work. Related work may include valve chambers
and fixpoints, drainage and sewerage work.
The assembled pipe system must be subjected to a
final inspection by the owner’s supervisor and the
contractor prior to backfilling of the pipe trench.
The excavation is to be backfilled in layers. Each layer
is to be completely compacted before the next layer is
laid. Where mechanical compaction is permitted,
backfilling should be performed in layers of max. 300
mm which are then compacted. In the case of manual
compaction the height of layers is to be max. 150 mm.
[5]
Sand and gravel materials can be added directly into
the excavation using grabbing crane. If they are to be
tripped, the materials have to be unloaded at the side of
the excavation. Materials must never be tipped into the
excavation.
CONCLUSION
In this study higlights of the district heating piping
standards were given. These procedures are accepted
as minimum standards in European district heating
systems. Unfortunately, there is no standard piping
approach in Turkish district heating projects. At some
points like reception of pipes Turkish Standards are
referred, however especially at the installation level
there is no standard approach.
In Turkey geothermal district heating projects are
mostly financed by municipalities or local governments.
In both cases the financial sources are very limited.
This case affects the quality of piping work. In addition
to the lack of money, geothermal district heating
projects have limited time schedule, mainly because of
public and political pressure.
Experiences show that the vital points especially at the
installation phase are generally neglected. For instance,
leakage is one of the traditional problems of Turkish
geothermal district heating systems, however, leak test
have never been applied in one of the Turkish
geothermal district heating projects.
Although skipping most of the standard piping
procedures at the beginning may decrease the
investment cost of the project, it definetely raises the
maintenance cost and decrease the life of the system.
There is no question that the local contractors can
provide sufficient level of piping standards if they are
required. The project owner should be aware of the fact
that quality of piping determines the future of the all
project. Even the smallest deviations from standards
may result in collapse of the all project. Geothermal
project owners which are generally municipalities and
local governments should have ready list of conditions
to give to the contractors. These list of conditions
should be prepared by geothermal specialists and
accepted by the contractor at the beginning of the
project.
REFERENCES
1. A.C. Şener, Importance of load based automatic
control in geothermal energy systems, 3rd IFAC
Workshop DECOM-TT 2003, 225-231 (2003).
2. K. Rafferty, Piping materials for geothermal district
heating systems, Geo-Heat Centre Publications.
(1996).
3. T. Karlsson, Geothermal district heating the Iceland
experience, United Nations University Geothermal
Training Programme Report 1982-4, 11
4. K. D. Rafferty, Geothermal direct use engineering
and design guidebook, Piping, Geo-Heat Center,
Klamath Falls, OR 97601, Editor in chief: J. W.
Lund, 1998, p.241.
5. European District Heating Manufacturers
Association, District Heating Handbook, pp. 215-
290, 1997.