Basic signals and systems

Signals and systems

signal is a set of data or information Eg. Telephone voice, monthly sales of
corporation
signals are a functions of the independent variable time and space.
Signals are processed by systems
System is an entity that processes a set of information(generally inputs) and
yields another signals (generally outputs)
Systems may be made up of physical components (electrical, mechanical, e.t.c)

Classification of signals

ex00basicsignalclassification.m

continuous time and discrete time signal - based on the nature of signal along the time axis .
- signal is defined for a range in time or instants of time
Eg: telephone signal
vs. monthly sales of company

Analog and digital signals

based on the nature of signal along the amplitude
Amplitude is taking infinite possible values or finite possible
values

 Periodic and aperiodic signals

Periodicity condition is x(t) = x(t+m) for all t ,
where m is the the smallest value that satisfies the
periodicity condition
and it is called the fundamental period.
Properties
- Periodic signal must start at t = - and continue for ever
- Periodic signal x(t) can be generated by periodic extension of
any segment x(t) of duration m (the fundamental period)
- Area under x(t) [periodic signal] over any interval of duration
m is the same. i.e for any real numbers a and b
+
+
()
() =

Causal and non causal signals

A signal that does not start before t=0 is a causal signal i.e.
x(t) = 0 for t < 0
A signal that exists before t=0 is a non-causal signal i.e. x(t) 0
for t < 0
Everlasting signal is always non-causal, but non-causal signal is
not necessarily everlasting

Energy and Power signals

o A signal with finite energy is the energy signal
o A signal with finite power is the power signal
Power is the time average of energy
A signal cannot be both an energy signal and power signal
A ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal

Deterministic and random signals

Deterministic signals :A physical description is known
completely either in mathematical form or a graphical form.
The nature and amplitude of such signal at any time can be
predicted.
o Examples are x(t) = bt and x(t) = a sint
random signals: amplitude cannot be predicted precisely but
known only in terms of probabilistic description.
o A typical example of random signals is thermal noise
generated in electric circuit.

Even and Odd parts of the signal:

A real function xe(t) is said to be an even function of t if
xe(t) = xe(-t) i.e symmetrical about vertical axis at t= 0
A real function xo(t) is said to be an odd function of t if
xo(t) = -xo(-t) i.e anti -symmetrical about vertical axis at t= 0

o Some properties:
Even function odd function = odd function
Odd function odd function = Even function
Even function Even function = Even function

Area
() = 2 0 () and

0 () =0
Given any arbitrary signal x(t), odd and even parts can be found as
1

Even part of the signal xe(t) = 2[x(t)+x(-t)]

Odd part of the signal xo(t) = 2[x(t)-x(-t)]

MATLAB code:

ex01signalevenodd.m

What is the signal size of these signals ?

Size of a signal: -----------> It indicates the largeness or strength of the

signal
Eg:

Signal energy:

human size

-----> volume ; not the height only

Ex = 2 ()

OR

Ex = |()|2

o Signal size is the area under square of the signal x(t), i.e. x2(t)
o Signal energy should be finite and non zero for it to be a
meaningful measure of signal size
o Necessary condition is that amplitude of signal x(t) ----> 0
as
|| --->
Examples ???
x(t) = 2
: -1 t 0
2 e-t/2 :
t0

Energy of the signal is

8.0018 units

Signal power:
o If the amplitude of the signal x(t) is not ----> 0 as || ---> , signal
energy is infinite.
o A more meaningful measure of signal size in such a case would be
Time average of the energy
1

2(

o Px = lim )

OR Px = lim | ()|2

where T is the period of the periodic signal.

o Signal power should be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of
signal size.

Power of the signal is 0.3333 units

= RMS Value of the signal, generally applicable for periodic signal.

Note: Generally mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval

approaching infinity, exists if the entity either is periodic or has a statistical
regularity. If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may not exists.
Power is the time average of energy
A signal cannot be both an energy signal and power signal
A ramp signal is neither energy nor power signal
A causal signal but periodic is also referred as power signal.

Matlabcode :

ex01signalenergypower.m

Example : determine the power and RMS value of

X(t) = C cos (ot +) and
X(t) = C1 cos (ot +1) + C2 cos (ot +2) with 1 2
........................................

Px =

1 2
2

2 2
2

OR

Px =
=1
1
2

signal operation:
Amplitude operation : 2 x(t) OR 2 + x(t) e.t.c.

Time operation
o Time shifting :
delay
-----> right shift
Advance ------> left shift

o Time scaling :
Compression -----> fast up ,
what happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to
(t) = x(at) at the instant t/a , where a > 0

Expansion -----> slow down ,

what happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to
(t) = x(t/a) at the instant at, where a > 0

o Time reversal :
What happens to x(t) at some instant t also happens to (t) = x(-t)
at the instant t.

o Arbitrary operation :

x(-2t-3)

= x(-2(t-[3/2]))
---------------------
Arrange the each operations in multiplication form and then the
sequence of operations are
Reversal
Compress by 2
Advance by 3/2

MATLAB code:

ex01signal1operation.m

Basic signals models

- CONTINUOUS TIME

Unit step functions u(t)

1
o u(t) = {
0

0
<0

delayed

1
u(t-) = {
0

<

o If we have any arbitrary everlasting signal to start at t = 0, we

need to multiply the signal by u(t), to get the causal signal.
Eg. e-at is an everlasting signal but e-atu(t) is a causal signal.

o A pulse with nonzero value from 1s to 2s can be expressed in

terms of step functions as
u(t-1) u(t-2)

OR

u(t-1) *u(2-t)

o It is useful in specifying a function with different mathematical

description over different intervals.
x(t) =
t for 0 t 1 and
e-t for 1 t 4
can be written in single mathematical expression as
x(t) = t { u(t) u(t-1) } + e-t {u(t-1) u(t-4) }

Example :

MATLAB code:

ex00basicsignalmodels1.m

 Unit Impulse functions (t) :

It is defined as

i) () = 1 i.e area under the impulse curve is one

ii) (t) = 0 for t 0
i.e. as t -----> 0, the value and shape
of the impulse curve is not defined.
Example

Impulse function does not define an unique function

Delayed impulse is (t-) , i.e delay by units

Multiplication of a function by an impulse :
Let x(t) be an arbitrary continuous time signal.
Then,
x(t) (t) = x(0) (t)
is an impulse of strength x(0) at t= 0
x(t) (t-T) = x(T) (t-T) is an impulse of strength x(T) at t= T
Sampling property of the unit impulse function

since (t) = 0 for t 0

() () = x(0) ()

= x(0)
since () = 1
Impulse function can be defined in terms of its effect on a test
function x(t).
It is not a true function in ordinary sense
Its range is undefined
In the generalised sense ( considering the unit step function),

= (t) OR ()= u(t)

u(t) is discontinuous and hence

sense.

does not exist in ordinary

The exponential functions

o x(t) = et
o

et

=e

( +j)t

where is complex in general given by = +j

= e t ejt = e t (cos t+jsin t )

o et is the generalisation of the function ejt where the frequency

variable j is generalised as complex frequency variable .
o Function, et compasses Large class of functions : viz
1. = 0

i.e.

2. = i.e. with = 0

A constant K = K e0t
A monotonic exponential e t

 is +ve or ve real values

3. = j i.e. with = 0

A Sinusoid cos t

4. = +j

A exponentially varying sinusoid

e t (cos t )

Matlab :

ex00basicsignalmodels2.m

Other commonly used standard signals :

A unit rectangular signal
A unit triangular signal
Sinc function
Signum function
Half triangle
1

|| >
2

0
1

|| =
2

{1

|| <
2

A unit rectangular signal rect (x) =

the denominator of the argument rect ( ), indicates the width of

the pulse.
MATLAB command is rectpuls
A unit triangular signal

(x) = {

||
2
1

1 2|| || < 2

the denominator of the argument ( ), indicates the

width of the pulse.
MATLAB command is tripuls

Sinc function sinc(x) =

It is also known as the filtering or interpolating function.

Sinc(x) is an even function of x.

Sinc(x) = 0 when sin x = 0 except at x= 0, where it appears
to be indeterminate. This means that the sinc x = 0 for
x = , 2, 3 ......
Using LHopitals Rule we find sinc(0) = 1.
Sinc(x) is the product of an oscillating signal sin x (of period
1
2) and a monotonically decreasing function . Therefore

sinc(x) exhibits damped oscillations of period 2, with

1
amplitude decreasing continuously as .

The argument 3/7 = when = 7/3.

Therefore the first zero of this function occur at = 7/3
MATLAB command sinc with sinc(x) gives

Signum function:

1
sgn (t) = {
1

> 0
< 0

Signum function is odd or antisymmetric function.

MATLAB command is sign

Half triangle:

Systems
Systems are used to process signals
They represents the input output (signal) relationship
Systems are governed by the laws of interconnection.
Classification of systems
Linear and Nonlinear systems
o Superposition and Homogeneity property holds good
Eg: y = 5 x OR y = 5 x2
Time invariant and time varying systems
o Systems whose parameters do not change with time
o i.e physical phenomenon (parameters) will not change over
time.

If the input is delayed by T s, the output is also delayed by T s, but

output pattern remains same.
Illustration / Evaluation :
Let, y(t) = S[x(t)] ;

y(t,T) = y(t) |x(t) = x(t-T) be the output calculated by the

delayed input

y(t) = y(t) |t = t-T be the output delayed by T units.

Examples : 1. Let y(t) = e-t x(t) Case 1 :
y(t,T) = e-t x(t-T)
Case 2 :
y(t) = e-t-T x(t-T)
Here y(t,T) y(t) hence Time-variant
2.
Here

Let y(t) = ex(t)

Case 1 :
y(t,T) = ex(t-T)
Case 2 :
y(t) = ex(t-T)
y(t,T) = y(t) hence Time-invariant

 Instantaneous and dynamic systems (memory less/memory)

o System output at any instant t depends only on the excitation
at that instant, not the past value / future value of excitationis
called the Static systems AND / OR
o Otherwise it is dynamic / memory systems
o A system whose response at any instant t is completely
determined by the input signals over a past T seconds
[interval from t-T to t] is finite memory system.
Example:
y(t) = 10 x(t) is a static system
y(t) = 10 dx(t) /dt is the dynamic system. OR
1
v(t) = () is the dynamic system / element
Causal and non causal systems
o Causal - - -> physical or non anticipative
System output at any instant to depends only on the value of
the input x(t) for t < to i.e conversely, present o/p of the
system does not depend on future value of input.
o Non causal ----> anticipative
System output at any instant to depends on the future value
of the input x(t) i.e for t > to. i.e conversely, the response
starts before the input is applied to the system.
o Prophetic system.
o Generally non temporal systems. i.e. system does not
depends on time. Eg. optics, charge etc.
o Noncausal systems are not realisable systems.

Example:
y(t) = 10 x(2t) is a Non causal system
Put t = -2 y(-2) = 10 x(-4) ----- input before the o/p
Put t = 0
y(0) = 10 x(0) ----- o/p at same instant as i/p
Put t = 2 y(2) = 10 x(4) ----- o/p before the input
which gives Non-causal property

Continuous time and discrete time systems

System whose inputs and outputs are continuous time signals
are continuous time system.
System whose inputs and outputs are discrete time signals are
discrete time system.

 Analog and digital systems

System whose inputs and outputs are analog in nature of
amplitude are analog systems.
System whose inputs and outputs are digital in nature of
amplitude are digital systems.
Invertible and non-invertible systems
o A system S performs certain operation(s) on input signal(s). If
we can obtain the same input(s) back from the corresponding
output, by some operation, the system S is said to be
invertible
o For an invertible system, it is essential that every input have a
unique output.
o System that achieves the inverse operation is the inverse
system for S.
o If S is ideal integrator, then ideal differentiator is the inverse
system.
o Also,

For lossless coding, the input to the encoder must be exactly

recoverable from the output. It means that the encoder must
be invertible.
o It is something related to the concept of identity system
o Otherwise it is Non-invertible systems.
Eg. Rectifiers where y(t) = |x(t)|
Stable and unstable systems -can be internal / external
o If the signal x(t) is bounded, then its magnitude is always a finite
value. Mathematically |x(t)| Mx < , where M is a positive real
finite number.
Ex: sinusoidal signal , OR Exponential decay signal
o Any signal which does not satisfy |x(t)| Mx < is called
unbounded signal. -------- BIBO stability (External)
o For this to happen, output of the system is also bounded i.e.
|y(t)| My < for all values of t.
o Other class of stability is the internal which mainly refers
whether the behaviour is stable.
Single input single output system (SISO), MIMO

System models: (input-output description)

It is basically a mathematical expression OR rule that satisfies

and approximates the dynamic behaviour of the system.
ORDER of a SYSTEM : the order of a continuous time system
corresponds to the total number of dynamic elements or highest
derivative of the output signal which may appear in the input-output
differential equation.
Note: Most basic characterisation of system is a linear, time invariant
(LTI) system .
The reason for this are
1. Powerful analysis techniques are exists for such systems
only.
2. Many real world systems can be closely approximated as
LTI systems.
3. Analysis techniques for LTI systems can be generalised to
any extent and it suggest approaches for the analysis of nolinear systems.
Differential equation
( )
1 ()
()
+

+ . . +1
+ () =
1

()

OR

+ 1

1 ()
1

+ . . +1

()

+ ()

Q(D) y(t) = P(D) x(t)

Where, P(D) and Q(D) are respective operator polynomials for input
and output.
Transfer function model
()

=
()

( ) =

b0 Dm +b1Dsm1 + b2Dm2 ++bm1 D+bm

Dn +a1 Dn1 + a2 Dn2 ++an1 D+an

() ()
=
() ()

Frequency response model

()
() =
()
State space model
= (, , )
= (, , )
Where,

----------> State equation

-----------> Output equation

x State variables

f and g are functions

u Input signal ;

Basic signal plotting and signal operation

MATLAB code:
Plotting using inline functions :
{ >> prompt is used in every following MATLAB Statements}
Many simple functions are most conveniently represented by using
MATLAB

inline objects.
Ex: Consider a continuous time function: f(t) = e -tcos(2t) can be
expressed as,
>>f= inline('exp(-t).*cos(2*pi*t)','t')

Once defined, f(t) can be evaluated simply by passing the input values
of interest.
Ex:
>> t= 0;
>> f(t)

ans = 1

f(t) can be plotted over the interval -2 t 2 as

>> t= [-2:.01:2];
>> f(t)
>> plot(t,f(t));
>> u=inline('t>=0','t')

ans = 100 values of f(t) .

will plot the above function.
will create a unit step

function.
>> p=inline('(t>=0)&(t<1)','t')

will create a unit pulse of

duration 1 sec
>> f=inline('exp(-t).*cos(2*pi*t).*(t>=-2)&(t<1)','t')

will create a function f(t) valid for interval -2 to 1secs.

>> p=inline('t.*((t>=0)&(t<1))+exp(t).*((t>=1)&(t<2))','t')

will create a single function made out of two different

functions valid for two different intervals.

signal operation
Amplitude operation
Time operation
o Time shifting
o Time scaling
o Time reversal
Ex:
>>plot(t,p(-t))

will plot the above defined functions after

reversing
>>plot(t,p(t-5))

will plot the above function time shifted right

(delay) by 5 sec.
>>plot(t,p(2t)

will plot the above function compressed in

time by a factor 2
Even and Odd parts of the signal:

Even part of the signal xe(t) = [x(t)+x(-t)]

Odd part of the signal xo(t) = [x(t)-x(-t)]

MATLAB code:

ex01signalenergypower.m