Measurement of Temperature

Thermocouples
Resistance (RTD)
Thermistors
Pyrometers

Thermocouples
A thermoelectric temperature sensor consists of two
dissimilar metallic wires, e.g., one chromel and one
constantan, coupled at the probe tip (measurement
junction) and extended to the reference (known
temperature) junction.
The temperature difference between the probe tip and
the reference junction is detected by measuring the
change in voltage (electromotive force, EMF) at the
reference junction.
The absolute temperature reading can then be
obtained by combining the information of the known
reference temperature and the difference of
temperature between probe tip and the reference.

Three Wire Layouts of Typical Thermocouples

Common Specifications
Common commercially available thermocouples
are specified by ISA (Instrument Society of
America) types.
Type E, J, K, and T are base-metal
thermocouples and can be used up to about
1000C (1832F).
Type S, R, and B are noble-metal
thermocouples and can be used up to about
2000C (3632F).

ISA

Material
(+ & -)

Temperature
Range
C
(F)

Sensitivity@
25C (77F)
V/C
(V/F)

Error*

App.

Chromel &
Constantan
(Ni-Cr & Cu-Ni)

-270~1000
(-450~1800)

60.9
(38.3)

LT:1.67C(3F)
HT:0.5%

I,O

Iron &
Constantan
(Fe & Cu-Ni)

-210~1200
(-350~2200)

51.7
(28.7)

LT:2.2~1.1C(4~2
F)
HT:0.375~0.75%

I,O,R,V

Chromel &
Alumel
(Ni-Cr & Ni-Al)

-270~1350
(-450~2500)

40.6
(22.6)

LT:2.2~1.1C(4~2
F)
HT:0.375~0.75%

I,O

Copper &
Constantan
(Cu & Cu-Ni)

-270~400
(-450~750)

40.6
(22.6)

LT:1~2%
HT:1.5% or
0.42C(0.75F)

I,O,R,V

Platinum &
87% Platinum/
13% Rhodium
(Pt & Pt-Rh)

-50~1750
(-60~3200)

6
(3.3)

LT:2.8C(5F)
HT:0.5%

I,O

Platinum &
90% Platinum/
10% Rhodium
(Pt & Pt-Rh)

-50~1750
(-60~3200)

6
(3.3)

LT:2.8C(5F)
HT:0.5%

I,O

70% Platinum/
30% Rhodium &
94% Platinum/
6% Rhodium
(Pt-Rh & Pt-Rh)

-50~1750
(-60~3200)

6
(3.3)

LT:2.8C(5F)
HT:0.5%

I,O

LT = Low temperature range, HT = High temperature range

I = Inert media, O = Oxidizing media, R = Reducing media, V

= Vacuum

Constantan, Alumel, and Chromel are trade names of their

respective owners.

Pros:
- Low cost.
- No moving parts, less likely to be broken.
- Wide temperature range.
- Reasonably short response time.
- Reasonable repeatability and accuracy.
Cons:
- Sensitivity is low, usually 50 V/C (28 V/F) or less. Its
low voltage output may be masked by noise. This problem
can be improved, but not eliminated, by better signal
filtering, shielding, and analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.
- Accuracy, usually no better than 0.5 C (0.9F), may not
be high enough for some applications.
-Requires a known temperature reference, usually 0C
(32F) ice water. Modern thermocouples, on the other
hand, rely on an electrically generated reference.
- Nonlinearity could be bothersome. Fortunately, detail
calibration curves for each wire material can usually be
obtained from vendors.

Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD)
uses the fact that the resistance of metals
increases with temperature

 The resistance of commercially available RTDs ranges from 10 to

25,000 . More common ones are 100, 200, and 1000 strainfree platinum (>99.999%) probes and 10 copper probes.
Generally, the higher the resistance, the less affected the RTD will
be due to small resistance/voltage fluctuations in the lead wires
and circuit.
Common metals used in RTDs include platinum, copper, nickel,
BalcoTM (70% Ni-30% Fe), and tungsten.
Material

Temperature
Range

Platinum (Pt)

-260~1000 C
(-440~1800 F)

Copper (Cu)

-200~260 C
(-330~500 F)

Nickel (Ni)

-200~430 C
(-330~800 F)

Linearity is not good

Balco
(70% Ni-30% Fe)

-100~230 C
(-150~450 F)

Linearity is not good; cheap to

fabricate; high resistance

Tungsten (W)

-100~1200 C
(-150~2200 F)

Note
< 550 C (1022 F) in most
applications

 Pros:
Stable and accurate.
Linearity is better than thermocouples.
Higher signal-to-noise ratio.
Cons:
More expensive.
Self heating.
Requires a current source.
Response time may not be fast enough for
some applications.

Thermistor (Bulk Semiconductor

Sensor)
Similar to Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
Uses resistance to detect temperature.
However, unlike an RTD's metal probe where
the resistance increases with temperature,
the thermistor uses ceramic semiconducting
materials which respond inversely with
temperature.

Pros:
High accuracy, ~0.02 C (0.36F),
better than RTDs, much better than thermocouples.
High sensitivity, ~10 times better than RTDs, much better
than thermocouples.
As a result, lead wire and self-heating errors are negligible.
Small in size compared to thermocouples. Response time
shorter than RTDs, about the same as thermocouples.
Reasonable long term stability and repeatability.

Cons:
Limited temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 C (-148 ~
302 F).
Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike
RTDs which have a very linear relationship.

Pyrometer
Also called radiation thermometer
non-contact instrument that detects an object's
surface temperature by measuring the temperature
of the electromagnetic radiation (infrared or visible)
emitted from the object.
The wavelength of thermal radiation ranges from 0.1
to 100 m (4 ~ 4,000 in), i.e., from the deep
ultraviolet (UV) across the visible spectrum to the
middle of the infrared region (IR).
Pyrometers are essentially photodetectors which are
capable of absorbing energy, or measuring the EM
wave intensity, at a particular wavelength or within a
certain range of wavelengths.

Optical Pyrometer (Brightness Pyrometer or

Disappearing Filament Pyrometer)
Designed for thermal radiation in the visible
spectrum.
Utilizes a visual comparison between a calibrated
light source and the targeted surface.
When the filament and the target have the same
temperature, their thermal radiation intensity will
match causing the filament to disappear as it blends
into the targeted surface in the background.
When the filament disappears, the current passing
through the filament can be converted into a
temperature reading.

Infrared Pyrometer
Designed for thermal radiation in the infrared
region (0.75 ~ 1000 m; 30 in ~ 0.04 in)
usually 2 ~ 14 m (80 ~ 550 in)
Constructed from pyroelectric materials, e.g.,
triglisine sulfate (TGS), lithium tantalate
(LiTaO3), or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

Pros:
-Non-contact measurement
-Fast response time
-Good stability
Cons:
-Expensive
-Accuracy maybe affected by suspended dust,
smoke, and thermal background radiation