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27. Folds (I)

I Main Topics
A What is a fold?
B Curvature of a plane curve
C Curvature of a surface

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27. Folds (I)

hEp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Caledonian_orogeny_fold_in_King_Oscar_Fjord.jpg

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27. Folds (I)

AnScline, New Jersey

Syncline, Rainbow Basin, California

hEp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NJ_Route_23_anScline.jpg

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hEp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rainbow_Basin.JPG

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27. Folds (I)

Folds, New South Wales, Australia

Folds in granite, Sierra Nevada, California

hEp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Folded_Rock.jpg
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27. Folds (I)

Energy Resources and an AnScline

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hEp://www.wou.edu/las/physci/Energy/graphics/OilAnScline.jpg
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27. Folds (I)

Three-dimensional Fold, Salt Dome, Zagros Mountains

hEp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/ZagrosMtns_SaltDome_ISS012-E-18774.jpg
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27. Folds (I)

Complex Folds

hEp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/SaltTectonics1.jpg
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27. Folds (I)

II What is a fold?
A DeniSon: a surface (in
a rock body) that has
undergone a change in
its curvature (at least
locally)
B All kinds of rocks can
be folded, even
granites
C Consider a folded
piece of paper
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Folded dike in granite near fault

Sierra Nevada, California

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27. Folds (I)

III Curvature of a plane curve
D Tangents
Consider a curve r(t), where
r is a vector funcSon that
gives points on the curve,
and t is any parameter
dr
1 Tangent vector: r =
dt

2 Unit tangent vector: T =

r
3 Tangent gives the slope
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27. Folds (I)

D Tangents (cont.)
5 Example 1: parabola

y = x2 r ( x ) = x i + x2 j

dr d x i + x j
r'( x ) =
=
= i + 2x j
dx
dx

1i + 2xj
1i + 2xj
=
1 + 4x 2
12 + ( 2x )2

i +2j
At x = 1, T =
5

r'
T ( x) =
=
r'

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PosiSon vectors in black

Unit tangent vectors in red

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27. Folds (I)

D Tangents (cont.)
4 Example 2: unit circle

r ( ) = cos i + sin j

dr d cos i + sin j
r' =
=
= sin i + cos j
d
d

r'
T=
=
r'
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sin i + cos j

( sin )2 + ( cos )2

PosiSon vectors in black

Unit tangent vectors in red

= sin i + cos j

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Note that Tr = 0 here

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27. Folds (I)

III Curvature of a plane
curve
A Tangents (cont.)
6 If origin is on curve
and reference axis is
tangent to curve,
then local slope = 0

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27. Folds (I)

III Curvature of a plane curve
B Curvature = deviaSon
from a straight line
1 Curvature is the rst
derivaSve (i.e., rate
of change) of the
unit tangent (i.e.,
slope) with respect
to distance (s) along
the curve
2 Curvature vector is
normal to tangent
vector

lim = tan ( ) = T T1 = T 1 = T
s0

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27. Folds (I)

III Curvature of a plane curve
B Curvature (cont.)
dT
3 K ( s ) = T ( s ) =
ds

4 T ( s ) =

dr
ds

dr

dr
ds

In a local tangenSal reference frame,

dr is in the direcSon of ds, |dr| = ds ,
and |dr/ds|=1
dT
5 K ( s ) = T ( s ) =
=
ds
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dr
d
ds
d 2r
= 2 = r (s)
ds
ds

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27. Folds (I)

B Curvature of a plane curve
(cont.)
6 Curvature vector (K)

a K(t) = dT dr

dT
b K(t) =
dt

dr
dt

7 Curvature magnitude

dT dr
K (t) = K =
dt dt
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27. Folds (I)

B Curvature of a plane curve (cont.)

r ( ) = cos i + sin j
8 Example: circle of radius

dr
=
d

dT dr
K( ) =
d d

d ( cos i + sin j )

r'
T=
=
r'

( sin ) + ( cos )

= sin i + cos j

r
K( ) = ( cos i sin j ) = 2

r 1
K= 2 =

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= sin i + cos j

sin i + cos j
2

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27. Folds (I)

B Curvature of a plane curve (cont.)
9 One can assign a sign to the
curvature
a PosiSve = concave
(curve opens up)
b NegaSve = convex
(curve opens down)

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InecSon pt

Convex

Concave

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27. Folds (I)

IV Curvature of a surface
A Consider a local x,y,z
tangenSal
reference frame,
where the x and y
axes are tangent to
the surface and z is
perpendicular to a
folded surface that
was originally planar
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27. Folds (I)

IV Curvature of a surface
B The rst parSal
derivaSves z/x and
z/y are the slopes of
the curves formed by
intersecSng the surface
with xz-plane (black
curve) and the yz-plane
(white white),
respecSvely. At the
local origin, these
derivaSves equal zero.

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27. Folds (I)

IV Curvature of a surface
C The second parSal
derivaSves 2z/x2,
2z/xy, 2z/yx,
and 2z/y2 can be
arranged in a
symmetric matrix (a
Hessian matrix).

H=

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2 z
x 2
2 z
yx

2 z

xy

2 z
y 2

dx

If [ X ] =
, [ H ][ X ] =
dy

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2 z
x 2
2 z
yx

z
2 z

xy dx x
=

2 z dy z

2
y
y

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27. Folds (I)

IV Curvature of a surface
D The principal values of the
symmetric Hessian matrix
are the greatest and least
normal curvatures
E The principal direcSons X of
the symmetric Hessian
matrix are the direcSons of
the principal curvatures;
these direcSons are
perpendicular

H=

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2 z
x 2
z
yx
2

2 z

xy k1

2 z 0
y 2

k2

Analogous to principal stresses

[ H ][ X ] = k [ X ]
X gives direcSons in which slope
increases or decreases most rapidly

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27. Folds (I)

Curvature-based Three-dimensional Fold ClassicaSon Scheme

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