Chapters

Soft switching DC-DC converter with MPPT for solar Home lighting system
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
THE GRAND CHALLENGE OF SOLAR POWER

There are many hurdles in the path to overcome in order to extract and use
solar energy more efficiently. Large awareness has to be created especially in Rural
India with the Government support. Problems like site selection, power storage, high
cost of installation and low efficiency are major ones. Considering efficiency todays
commercial solar cells, most often made from silicon, typically convert sunlight into
electricity with an efficiency of only 10 percent to 20 percent, although some test cells
do a little better. Given their manufacturing costs, modules of todays cells
incorporated in the power grid would produce electricity at a cost roughly 3 to 6 times
higher than current prices, or 18-30 cents per kilowatt hour. To make solar
economically competitive, engineers must find ways to improve the efficiency of the
cells and to lower their manufacturing costs. Production per unit cell is very low. So,
large numbers of solar panels (and thus large land areas) are required to produce
useful amounts of heat or electricity. Only areas of the world with lots of sunlight are
suitable for solar power generation.
Another major problem faced with solar power production is production and
disposal of solar panels because chemicals from the production of solar panels can
leach into the water supply, harmful gases can be released into the air, and chemicals
and toxins such as mercury can leach into groundwater when solar panels are
discarded.
High cost of initial installation of solar panels is the greatest challenge to this
renewable source of energy. This is largely because of high cost of solar cells due to
high fabrication cost and producing very pure material for the required purpose.
Current solar cell designs require high-purity, and therefore expensive, materials,
because impurities block the flow of electric charge. This problem would be
diminished if charges had to travel only a short distance, through a thin layer of
material. But thin layers would not absorb as much sunlight. Research is being made
to overcome this problem.
Cloudy weather and night-time darkness interrupt solar energys availability.
So, problem of storage has to be included. At times and locations where sunlight is
plentiful, its energy must be captured and stored for use at other times and places.
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Many methods have been suggested to store solar energy such as using large banks of
batteries, pumping back water for hydroelectric power generation. But these face
serious problems when it comes to scaling up for larger operation.
1.2 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar Energy plays a very important role in sustenance of life on earth. It is the
source of nearly all forms of energy, right from photosynthesis in plants to burning of
fossil fuels. Solar radiation along with secondary sources like wind power,
hydroelectricity and biomass accounts for most of the available renewable energy on
earth. Given the various forms in which energy from sun is utilized, there is still huge
potential to tap the solar radiation received on earth. The total solar energy absorbed
by earth is approximately 3,850,000 EJ/year. The amount of energy obtained in one
hour is more than the requirement of world for one year. Also the amount of solar
energy reaching the surface our planet is so vast, that in one year it is about twice as
much as will ever be obtained from all of the earth's non-renewable resources of coal,
oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. Hence it is important to harness this
vast source of energy and forms the basis of the Solar PV and Solar Thermal based
technologies. The price of solar electricity as cost per kilowatt-hour is the most
important. Lots of intensive research works are done throughout the world to improve
the current solar cell technology and to make them cheaper. It is expected that the
costs of photovoltaic energy will further decrease and reach grid-parity before 2020.
Photovoltaic offer various advantages compared to other energy technology. Some of
them are:
Source of solar energy, the sun is infinite.

Produces clean energy, i.e. no greenhouse gases are emitted.
It is reliable, i.e. no moving parts, typical module lifetime is >25years.
It is scalar, modular, and flexible (Can be installed in different sizes and
places).
Material used for making Solar cells and PV modules can be recycled.
It promises energy security.
1.2.1 Global Energy Scenario
Electricity is one of the world's fastest-growing forms of end-use energy
consumption and is one of the key infrastructural inputs for socio-economic
development of a country. Demand for electricity continues to rise in all parts of the
world. Population and economic growth are two main reasons for this increasing
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demand. Global energy demand increases by one-third from 2010 to 2035, with China
& India accounting for 50% of the growth. Fig.1.1 shows Growth in primary energy
demand in the New Policies Scenario.
Fig.1.1 Growth in primary energy demand.

With the advancement in technology it is expected that the electricity
generation sector to become far more efficient than it is today. Net electricity
generation worldwide will rise by 2.3 percent per year on average from 2007 to 2035
as compared to 1.4 percent per year growth for total world energy demand.
Renewable & natural gas collectively meet almost two-thirds of incremental energy
demand in 2010-2035. Fig.1.2 shows Natural gas and renewable become increasingly
important.
Fig.1.2 World primary energy demand.

The coal provides the largest share of world electricity generation. It accounted
for 42 percent of total generation in 2007, and its share will largely remain unchanged
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through 2035. In contrast, liquids, natural gas, and nuclear power will lose market
share of world generation over the course of the projection period, displaced by the
strong growth projected for renewable sources of generation. Renewable generation is
the world's fastest-growing source of electric power, rising at an average annual rate
of 3.0 percent over the projection period, as compared with increases of 2.3 percent
per year for coal, 2.1 percent per year for natural gas, and 2.0 percent per year for
nuclear power. With government policies and incentives throughout the world
supporting the rapid construction of renewable generation facilities, the renewable
share of world generation will increase from 18 percent in 2007 to 23 percent in 2035.
1.2.2 Solar Energy Scenario in India
India, a rapidly emerging economy with the worlds second largest population,
is facing a surging energy demand. A large portion of Indias rural population, which
represents 60% of the total population, does not have access to reliable electricity or
has limited access and relies heavily on fuels such as wood, diesel, and kerosene to
fulfill energy needs. Using the most recent available expenditure data, it is estimated
that Indias rural consumers currently spend US$4.86 billion (INR 243 billion) per
year on energy.
India is the fifth largest producer and consumer of electricity in the world and
demand is expected to increase from 900 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) to 1,400 billion
kWh by March 2017. India is in a state of perennial energy shortage with a demandsupply gap of almost 12% of the total energy demand.
Fig.1.3 India installed Generation Capacity in MW as on 31.01.2013.
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To meet this demand, Solar is the only completely renewable alternative

energy source with the fundamental capability to satisfy the energy needs of India.
In January 2010, Indias Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) under the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) announced the goal of deploying
20 Giga watts (GW) of grid-connected solar power and 2 GW of off-grid solar by
2022. The current installed capacity of renewable energy is around 92204 MW,
constituting about 7.3 percent of Indias total installed generation capacity. The
amount of solar energy produced in India is less than 1% of the total energy demand
[W-1].
1.2.3 Solar Energy Plans in India
The Jawaharlal National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the
Government of India and State Governments to promote ecologically sustainable
growth while addressing Indias energy security challenge. It will also constitute a
major contribution by India to the global effort to meet the challenges of climate
change. The National Action Plan on Climate Change also points out: India is a
tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and in great
intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy source. It also
has the advantage of permitting the decentralized distribution of energy, thereby
empowering people at the grassroots level.
TABLE I
Mission Targets on Capacity Addition
Application
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Utility grid power,
(2011-2013)
1,100 MW
(2013-17)
4,000-10,000 MW
(2017-22)
20,000 MW
Including roof top

Off grid solar
200 MW
1000 MW
2000 MW
Application
Solar Collectors
7 million sqm
15 million sqm
20 million sqm
The objective of the National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader in
solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as
quickly as possible. The Mission anticipates achieving 20,000 MW grids Parity. Table
I shows Mission Targets on Capacity Addition. The mission targets at:
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To create enabling policy framework for deployment of 20,000 MW of solar

power by 2022.
To ramp up capacity of grid connected solar power to 1,000 MW by 2013 and
additional capacity of 3,000 MW by 2017.
To create favourable conditions for developing Solar manufacturing
capability in the country.
To promote deployment of 20 Million solar lanterns by 2022.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

To meet the ever increasing energy demand it is necessary to harness the
renewable energy sources which play an important role in the sustainable growth of
electrical energy sector. This renewable energy conversion and its utilization need
efficient and economical converters. This is possible by using the power
semiconductors based converter topologies. The presented work is carried out to study
standalone photovoltaic system to utilize the solar energy generation and study and
implementation of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms to make full
utilization of the available solar energy. To achieve maximum Efficiency from the dcdc converter by using soft switching techniques.
The major objectives are listed as under:
MATLAB/Similink model for PV model based on commercial available
technical data sheet to track the operating V-I & P-V characteristics.
Realization of this module in real time by using the field input like irradiation
and temperature.
Design of soft switching DC to DC converter with MPPT.
MATLAB/Simulation for DC-DC converter (buck, boost and buck-boost) with
MPPT.
Hardware development of soft switching buck-boost converter with MPPT.
1.4 OUTLINE OF THESIS

In Chapter 1 the present statistics of India and global energy scenario is
discussed. Also information about the present renewable energy statistics in India and
the present solar energy scenario in India is provided. The literature survey related to
solar photovoltaic systems with different power conversion modules and different
MPPT algorithms is outlined In Chapter 2 the detailed analysis of photovoltaic
module that is developed in MATLAB/Simulation and along with the mathematical
Page 6
modelling and equivalent circuit of the PV cell is discussed. In Chapter 3, need for
Maximum power point tracking for PV system. Study of Different MPPT algorithms
along-with its implementation, performance and a comparative analysis of all are
presented. In Chapter 4 a complete operation of DC-DC converter for maximum
power transfer at different operating conditions along with the simulation results of
the proposed system are presented. In Chapter 5 the design and building of hardware
prototype is presented. Also the results of DC-DC boost converter are given for R
load in closed loop operating mode. The optimal operation with the MPPT is also
tested with the complete system. The conclusion and the future scope are sited in
Chapter 6.
CHAPTER 2
Page 7
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM MODELING

2.1
INTRODUCTION
A Photovoltaic (PV) array is the energy source used in this project. PV arrays
essentially consist of a number of internal silicon based photovoltaic cells combined

in series and in parallel, depending on the voltage or current requirements. These cells
are used to convert solar energy into dc electricity. This occurs when the photovoltaic
cells are exposed to solar energy causing the electrons to drift which, in turn, produces
an electric current. This current varies with the size of individual cells and the light
intensity.
2.2
SOLAR CELL, PANEL AND MODULE
A. Solar cell
The vast majority of solar cells are made from crystalline silicon. Single
crystal cells are the most efficient. However, cheaper multi-crystalline cells are also
popular. Even cheaper amorphous silicon cells are also available and used widely for
small consumer products but rarely used for power systems.
An ideal solar cell can be considered as a current source wherein the current
produced by the solar cell is proportional to the solar irradiation intensity falling on it.
Though the practical behaviour of the cell deviates from the ideal due to optical and
electrical losses, yet, in order to develop an electrical equivalent circuit model for
solar cell, appropriate components should be added with ideal current source
(representing solar cell).
The traditional equivalent circuits of a solar cell are represented by a current
source in parallel with one or two diodes. A two diode model is proposed in [1]-[2], is
shown in Fig.2.1 where IPV represents the light input, one diode represents the p-n
junction diode, the extra diode is incorporated to include the effect of recombination.
Where RP and RS are the series and parallel resistance of the solar cell respectively.
Fig.2.1 A two diode solar cell model.

B. Solar panel
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A PV panel [3] consists of a number of solar cells connected in series (N S=36)

and parallel (NP=1) to obtain the desired voltage and current output levels. Each solar
cell is basically a p-n diode. As sunlight strikes a solar cell, the incident energy is
converted directly into dc electrical energy without any mechanical effort.
Transmitted light is absorbed within the semiconductor by using this light energy to
excite free electrons from a low energy status to an unoccupied higher energy level.
When a solar cell is illuminated, excess electron-hole pairs are generated throughout
the material, hence the p-n junction is electrically shorted and current flows.
C. Solar module
PV cells are grouped in larger units called Modules, which are further
interconnected in a series-parallel configuration to form PV array. For example, a
typical small-scale desalination plant requires a few thousand watts of power. Two
solar modules of 37WP and 74WP, rating which are commonly used for battery
charging application and solar home lighting system in rural areas. The proposed
system requires only one of them. A detailed discussion about PV and modeling of PV
appears in section 2.3.
The following are the basic equations from the theory of semiconductors and
photovoltaic [B-1], [B-2] that mathematically describe the I-V characteristic of the
photovoltaic cell and Module.
2.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING PV MODULE

For simplicity, the single-diode model of Fig.2.1 is used in this project. This
model offers a good compromise between simplicity and accuracy with the basic
structure consisting of a current source and a parallel diode.
Fig.2.2 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell.

(a) Ideal PV Cell
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The basic equation that mathematically describes the V-I characteristic of the ideal PV
cell is given by (2.1).
I PV =I P hI rs ( exp
qV
( AkT
)1)
(2.1)
(b) Practical PV device
The photocurrent (Iph) mainly depends on the solar irradiation in W/m2 (G) and cells
working temperature in degree Kelvin (Tc). It is described as
G
* I SC K1 Tc Tref
I ph
G
ST
(2.2)
I rs
Module reverse saturation current,
I rs
, is given by
I SC
exp qVoC / N S kATC 1
(2.3)
A :
Where
Ideality factor; q : Carrier charge(
(1.38 10 23W sec 0 .k 1 )

Manns constant
1.6 10 19
in Coulombs); k : Boltz
GST :
;
Standard insulation in W/m2;
I sc :
Output voltage in Volts;
in Volt;
IL :
Voc :
Short circuit current in Amps;
Load current in Amps;
Im :
Maximum voltage in Volt;
Eg :
Kelvin;
K1 :
Open circuit voltage
Vm :
current in Amps;
V:
Maximum
Tref :
Bang-gap energy in eV;
Standard temperature in degree
The cells short-circuit current temperature coefficient.
The Module saturation current (Is) varies with the cell temperature as
described by
Page 10
T
qE g Tc Tref
I s I rs c exp
T
Tref Tc kA
ref
(2.4)
The basic equation that describes the current output of PV module
of the
single diode model is given by (2.5).

The parallel resistance (Rp) has its greatest effect when the voltage is lowest,
that is, when the current passing through the diode of the equivalent circuit is very
small. The effect of parallel resistance, when it is sufficiently small, is to reduce the
open-circuit voltage (Voc) and the fill factor. The short-circuit current is not affected
by it.
I N p I ph N P I s
RI
s RS I
q
N
NP
exp s
AKTc
(2.5)
When RP is very large, we can neglect the same. In such case simulation values would
be higher than the actual values by 3 to 5 percent at low values of irradiation only.
However there would not be any appreciable variation at normal/higher values of
irradiation.
The use of simplified circuit model in this thesis makes this model suitable for
power electronics designers who are looking for an easy and effective model for
simulation of photovoltaic devices with power converters. The value of parallel
Rp
resistance
is generally high and hence neglected [4] to simplify the model as given
in Fig.2.1. The series resistance Rs is the sum of several structural resistances of the
PV module and its influence is stronger especially near the maximum power point
region. Table II shows the parameters of 74Wp solar panel.
TABLE II
Parameters of the 74Wp solar Panel
Page 11
Open circuit voltage (Voc)
22.42V
Short circuit current (Isc)
4.2A
Maximum voltage (Vmpp)
18.83V
Maximum current (Impp)
3.93A
Maximum power at STC (Pmax)
74WP
Maximum system voltage
600V
2.4 MATLAB SIMULATION

2.4.1 MATLAB Modelling of PV Panel
Fig.2.3 MATLAB/SIMULINK model for solar module (74Wp).
2.4.2 PV Array Characteristic Curves
Page 12
80
At 25 oC Temperature
60
2
1000 W/m
Power (W)
Current(A)
800 W/m
600 W/m
400 W/m2
200 W/m
0
0
600 W/m2
400 W/m2
40
200 W/m2
20
1000 W/m2 At 25 oC Temperature

800 W/m2
10
15
Voltage(V)
0
0
20
10
15
Voltage(V)
20
(a)
(b)
Fig.2.4 Characteristic of a PV module with temperature and irradiation: (a) V-I curves
with constant temperature and varying irradiation and (b) P-V curves with constant
temperature and varying irradiation.
The current to voltage characteristic of a solar array is non-linear, which
makes it difficult to determine the MPP. The MATLAB/SIMULINK model for solar
module of 74Wp rating panel as shown in Fig.2.3. The simulated I-V and P-V curves
for various irradiance but a fixed temperature (25 oC) are shown above in Fig.2.4. The
characteristic I-V curve tells that there are two regions in the curve: one is the current
source region and another is the voltage source region. In the voltage source region
(in the right side of the curve), the internal impedance is low and in the current source
region (in the left side of the curve), the impedance is high. Irradiance and
temperature plays an important role in predicting the I-V characteristic, and effects of
both factors have to be considered while designing the PV system. Whereas the
irradiance affects the output, temperature mainly affects the terminal voltage. The Fig.
2.5 gives the simulated I-V and P-V characteristic for various temperatures at a fixed
irradiance at 1000 W/m2. The Fig. 2.6 gives the simulated P-V and V-I curves of solar
module under non uniform radiation.
5
80
At 1000 W/m2 Radiation
20 oC
60
10 oC
20 oC
25 oC
40 oC
0
0
Power (W)
Current (A)
30 oC
40
25 oC
30 oC
40 oC
45 oC
20
10
15
Voltage (V)
(a)
20
25
0
0
AT Standard Radiation 1000 W/m2

5
Page 13
10
15
Voltage (V)
(b)
20
Fig.2.5. Characteristic of a PV module with temperature and irradiation: (a) V-I

curves with constant irradiation and varying temperature. (b) P-V curves with
constant irradiation and varying temperature.
70
60
1000 W/m2
Current (A)*15
Power (W)
50
40
700 W/m2
30
20
10
0
0
300 W/m2
P-V Curve
V-I Curve
10
20
30
Voltage (V)
40
50
60
Fig.2.6. Characteristic of a PV module with temperature and irradiation: P-V and V-I
curves of solar module under non uniform radiation.
2.5 THE I-V CURVE AND MAXIMUM POWER POINT

Fig.2.7 shows the I-V and P-V curve of the 74WP PV module simulated with
the MATLAB model. A PV module can produce the power at a point, called an
operating point, anywhere on the I-V curve. The coordinates of the operating point are
the operating voltage and current. There is a unique point near the knee of the I-V
curve, called a maximum power point (MPP), at which the module operates with the
maximum efficiency and produces the maximum output power. It is possible to
visualize the location of the by fitting the largest possible rectangle inside of the I-V
curve, and its area equal to the output power which is a product of voltage and
current.
Page 14
5 Isc =4.2A
80
Pmax
Maximum Power Point (MPP)
Current (A
)
Current (A)
60
X: 18.51
Y: 3.943
Impp = 3.94A
40
20
1
0
0
X: 18.71
Y: 73.04
Isc
MPP
10
Vmpp = 18.83V
15
Voltage (V)
Voc = 22.42V
20
25
0
0
(a)
10
Voltage (V)
15
Voc
20
25
(b)
Fig.2.7 I-V and P-V Curve and Maximum Power Point

The power vs. voltage plot is overlaid on the I-V plot of the PV module, as shown in
Fig. 2.7. It reveals that the amount of power produced by the PV module varies
greatly depending on its operating condition. It is important to operate the system at
the MPP of PV module in order to exploit the maximum power from the module. The
next chapter discuss as how to do it.
CHAPTER 3
SOFT-SWITCHING DC-DC CONVERTER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the 1970s, conventional PWM power converters were operated in a
switched mode operation. Power switches have to cut off the load current within the
turn-on and turn-off times under the hard switching conditions. Hard switching refers
to the stressful switching behavior of the power electronic devices. The switching
trajectory of a hard-switched power device is shown in Fig.3.1. During the turn-on
and turn-off processes, the power device has to withstand high voltage and current
simultaneously, resulting in high switching losses and stress. However, the switching
Page 15
loss is proportional to the switching frequency, thus limiting the maximum switching
frequency of the power converters. Typical converter switching frequency was
limited to a few tens of kilo-Hertz (typically 20 kHz to 50 kHz) in early 1980s. In
the 1980s, lot of research efforts were diverted towards the use of resonant
converters. The concept was to incorporate resonant tanks in the converters to create
oscillatory (usually sinusoidal) voltage and/or current waveforms so that zero voltage
switching (ZVS) or zero current switching (ZCS) conditions can be created for the
power switches. The reduction of switching loss and the continual improvement of
power switches allow the switching frequency of the resonant converters to reach
hundreds of kilo-Hertz (typically 100 kHz to 500 kHz). Consequently, magnetic sizes
can be reduced and the power density of the converters can be increased.
In late 1980s and throughout 1990s, further improvements have been made
in converter technology. New generations of soft-switched converters that combine
the advantages of conventional PWM converters and resonant converters have been
developed. These soft-switched converters have switching waveforms similar to those
of conventional PWM converters except that the rising and falling edges of the
waveforms are smoothed with no transient spikes.
3.2. HARD SWITCHING AND SOFT SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

3.2.1
Basic Concepts of Switching Techniques
Present day fast converters operate at much higher switching frequencies chiefly
to reduce weight and size of the filter components. As a consequence, switching
losses now tend to predominate, causing the junction temperatures to rise. Special
techniques are employed to obtain clean turn-on and turn-off of the devices. This,
along with optimal control strategies and improved evacuation of the heat generated,
permit utilisation of the devices with a minimum of duration.
Hard switching
The process of power semiconductor device hard-switching is shown in
Fig.3.1 (a) and Fig.3.1 (b).
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Fig.3.1. Switching waveforms during hard switching.
Advantages of higher switching frequency
Size of the components used in the converter designing may be reduced.
Disadvantages of higher switching frequency
Higher power losses on power semiconductor devices

Power loss=f x Energy loss at each switching
More severe electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Steeper edges introduce more noises
Easier to be radiated
Solution
Soft-switching techniques
Soft-switching
Soft Switching brings one electrical parameter to zero (current or voltage)
before the switch is turned on or off. This has benefits in terms of losses.
The smooth resonant switching waveforms also minimize EMI.

Common topologies like Phase Shifted ZVS and LLC are soft switched
only at turn on.
The process of power semiconductor device soft-switching is shown in Fig.3.2

(a) and 3.2 (b).
Fig.3.2 Switching waveforms during soft switching.

Page 17
3.2.2 Significance of Soft-Switching

Switching transitions occur under favourable conditions device voltage or
current is zero.
Reduced switching losses, switch stress, possibly low EMI, easier thermal
management.
A must for very high frequency operation, (also medium frequency at high
power levels).
Usually involves compromises in conduction loss, switch rating, passive
components etc.
3.2.3
Classification of soft switching techniques

Generally there are two types of soft-switching techniques.
ZVSZero-voltage switching
Specifically means zero-voltage turn-on, i.e., the voltage across the device is
reduced to zero before the current increases. Fig.3.3 shows the zero voltage
switching.
Switch voltage brought to zero before gate voltage is applied.
Ideal, zero-loss transition.
(a) Turn ON
(b) Turn OFF

Fig.3.3 ZVSZero-voltage switching
Low-loss transition
Parallel capacitor as a loss less snubber.
Preferred scheme for very high frequency applications using MOSFET
ZCSZero-current switching
Specifically means zero-current turn-off, i.e., the current flowing through the
device is reduced to zero before the voltage increases.
Page 18
During Turn OFF
Switch current brought to zero before gate voltage is removed.
Ideal, zero-loss transition.
During Turn ON
Low-loss transition.
Series inductor as a loss-less snubber.
Energy in junction capacitance is lost.
Best suited for converters with IGBTs due to tail current at turn-off.
Difference between Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero Current Switching
(ZCS)
As both names imply either voltage or current within the transistor is zero before
switching occurs.
For ZVS, the transistor will be turned on at zero Vds voltage to reduce the turn
on switching loss.
For ZCS, the transistor will be turned off at zero Id current to reduce the turn
off switching loss.
3.3 DC-DC CONVERTER

DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct
current (DC) from one voltage level to another [B-3]. It also provides noise isolation,
power bus regulation, etc. The DC- DC converters are widely used in regulated switch
mode power supplies and in dc motor drive application. Switch mode DC-DC
converters are used to convert the unregulated dc input voltage into a controlled dc
output voltage at a desired voltage level.
The various types of non-isolated DC-DC converter are:
1) Step-down (buck) converter
2) Step-up (boost) converter
3) Step down/step-up (buck-boost) converter
4) Cuk converter
5) Sepic converter
The step-down and step-up are the basic converter topologies. Both the buck-boost
and Cuk converters are the combination of the two basic topologies.
3.3.1 Boost Converter Analysis
Page 19
The auxiliary circuit is composed of an auxiliary switch (S2), a resonant capacitor

(Cr), a resonant inductor (Lr), and two diodes (D1 and D2) as shown in Fig. 3.4. The
operational principle of this converter can be divided into six intervals [5]. The
different operating modes of the converter are shown in Fig 3.5. For a simple analysis
of each interval of this converter, the following assumptions are made.
All switching devices and passive elements are ideal.

The parasitic components of all switching devices and elements are negligible.
The input voltage (VS) is in the range of 1418 V.
This converter operates the continuous conduction mode at all intervals.
Fig.3.4 Boost converter

A. Interval 1 (t0 t < t1)
Switches S1 and S2 are both in the OFF state, the current cannot flow through
switches S1 and S2, and the accumulated energy of the main inductor is transferred to
the load . In this interval, the main inductor current decreases linearly. During this
time, the current does not flow to the resonant inductor, and the resonant capacitor has
charged as output voltage.
After two of the switches have been turned on, interval 1 is over. These conditions are
as follows:
V L (t )=V SV O
i L ( t )=i L ( t O )
V OV S
t
L
i Do ( t ) =i L ( t )
i Lr ( t )=0
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
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V Cr ( t )=V o
(3.5)
B. Interval 2 (t1 t < t2)

After turning on switches S1 and S2, the current flows to the resonant inductor.
At that time, two of the switches are turned on under zero-current condition. This is
known as zero-current switching (ZCS). Because the main and auxiliary switches
implement ZCS, this converter has lower switch loss than the conventional hard
switching converter.
As the resonant current rises linearly, the load current gradually decreases. At t2, the
main inductor current equals the resonant inductor current, and the output diode
current is zero. When the resonant capacitor voltage equals VO, the output diode is
turned off, and interval 2 is over.
i Lr ( t )=
i Lr ( t 1 )=0
(3.7)
V Lr ( t ) =V O
(3.8)
VO
t
Lr
(3.9)
i L ( t )=i L ( t 1 )
i Do ( t ) =0
V O V S
t
L
i L ( t 2 )=i Lr ( t 2 )
(3.10)
(3.11)
C. Interval 3 (t2 t < t3)

The current that flowed to the load through output diode DO no longer flows,
since t2 and the resonant capacitor Cr, and the resonant inductor Lr start a resonance.
The current flowing to the resonant inductor is a combination of the main inductor
current and the resonant capacitor current. The amount of resonant current is
expressed as (3.13)
i L ( t ) I min
i Lr ( t )=I min +
VO
sin wr
Zr
(3.12)
(3.13)
During this resonant period, the resonant capacitor Cr is discharged from VO to

zero. This is expressed as (3.14).
Page 21
Resonant frequency and impedance are given by (3.17) and (3.18). When the
voltage of the resonant capacitor equals zero, the interval 3 is over.
V Cr ( t )=V O cos wr t
(3.14)
V Cr ( t 2 )=V o
(3.15)
V Cr ( t 3 )=0
w r=
1
Lr C r
(3.16)
(3.17)
Zr=
Lr
Cr
(3.18)
D. Interval 4 (t3 t < t4)

After the resonant period in interval 3, when the voltage of the resonant
capacitor equals zero, interval 4 begins. In this interval, the freewheeling diodes of D1
and D2 are turned on, and the current of the resonant inductor is the maximum value.
The resonant inductor current flows to the freewheeling diodes S1LrD2 and
S2LrD1 along the freewheeling path.
i Lr ( t )=i L ( t ) +i D 1 ( t )+ i D 2 ( t )
i Lr ( t 3 ) =i Lr ( t 4 ) =I Lr ,max
(3.19)
(3.20)
During this time, the main inductor voltage equals the input voltage, and the
current accumulating energy increases linearly.
V L (t )=V S
i L ( t )=I min
VS
t
L
(3.21)
(3.22)
E. Interval 5 (t4 t < t5)

In this interval, all of switches are turned off under the zero voltage condition
by the resonant capacitor. During this interval, the initial conditions of the resonant
inductor current and resonant capacitor voltage are as follows:
i Lr ( t 4 )=I Lr ,max
(3.23)
V Cr ( t 4 ) =0
(3.24)
Page 22
When all of the switches are turned off, the resonant capacitor Cr is charged to
the output voltage by two of the inductor currents. Until the resonant capacitor has
been charged to VO, the output diode is in the OFF state.
i L ( t ) I max
(3.25)
i Lr ( t )=I max ( I max + I Lr ,max ) cos w r t
(3.26)
V Cr ( t )=Z r ( I max + I Lr, max ) sin w r t
(3.27)
V Cr ( t 5 )=V o
(3.28)
Fig.3.5 Different operating modes of the soft switching boost converter.

F. Interval 6 (t5 t < t6)
Interval 6 begins when the resonant capacitor equals the output voltage, and
the output diode is turned on under the zero voltage condition.
Page 23
During this interval, the main inductor current iL and the resonant inductor current iLr
flow to the output through the output diode DO
i Do ( t ) =i L ( t )+i Lr ( t )
i Lr ( t 5 ) =( I max +i Lr ,max ) cos wr ( t 5t 4 )I max
V Cr ( t )=V o
(3.29)
(3.30)
(3.31)
At that time, two of the inductor currents are linearly decreased, and the
energy of the resonant inductor is completely transferred to the load. Then, the
interval 6 is over.
i L ( t )=i max
V O V S
t
L
(3.32)
VS
t
L
(3.33)
i Lr ( t 6 ) =0
(3.34)
i L ( t )=i Lr ( t 6 )
3.3.2 Buck Converter Analysis

To simplify the analysis, the output filter inductance is assumed to be
sufficiently large to be considered as an ideal dc current source Io during a highfrequency resonant cycle.
Several assumptions are made for the analyses in Fig.3.6.
1) All semiconductor elements are ideal and have no time delay during switching. No
forward voltage drop occurs when switching the switch elements on, and no leakage
current is produced when switching them off.
2) The inductance and capacitance in the resonant circuit have no internal resistance.
3) The filter inductance Lo is much greater than the resonant inductance Lr. The filter
capacitance Co is much larger than the resonant capacitance Cr.
Page 24
Fig.3.6 Buck converter
Fig.3.7 Key waveforms of the buck converter.

Fig. 3.6 shows the simplified equivalent circuit of the ZCS buck converter for
a battery charger [6]. The operation modes of the ZCS buck battery charger can be
divided into six modes. Fig. 3.7 shows the key working waveforms in various modes.
The circuit operation in one switching cycle can be divided into six modes, whose
associate equivalent circuits are shown in Fig. 3.8. The operating principles are
discussed as follows.
1) Mode I (t0 t < t1):
Before t0, the main power switches Sm and the auxiliary switch Sa are both off,
and the freewheeling diode Dm is conducting. The current of Dm is equal to the
charging current Io. A turn-on signal is applied to the gate of the main power switch
Sm at the beginning of this mode. Fig. 3.8 (a) shows the equivalent of this mode. The
input voltage is imposed on the inductor Lr once Sm has been turned on. The inductor
Page 25
current iLr of the ZCS buck converter rises linearly from zero at ZCS operation. Thus,
the switch Sm turns on at ZCS condition. The slope of iLr is proportional to the input
voltage. The input current is is equal to iL in the interval of this mode. The current of
Dm is the difference between the inductor current iLr and the charging current Io. The
freewheeling diode Dm turns off, and Mode I end, when the difference between iLr
and Io becomes positive. The following operating equations are obtained:
V DS ( t )=0
(3.35)
V Da ( t )=0
i Sa ( t )=0
(3.38)
VS
( tt O )
Lr
(3.39)
V Cr ( t )=0
(3.40)
V Dm ( t )=0
i Dm ( t ) =I O
(3.37)
di Lr
dt
V S =V Lr =Lr
i Lr ( t )=
(3.36)
VS
( tt O )
Lr
(3.41)
(3.42)
The time interval between t2 and t1 is denoted as

t 1=t 1t 0=
Lr I O
VS
(3.43)
This interval finishes when Dm is turned off.

2) Mode II (t1 t < t2):
In this mode, iLr = IO at t = t1, such that the freewheeling diode Dm becomes
reverse biased and turned off. The main power switch Sm remains on during this
period. Fig. 3.8 (b) shows the equivalent circuit. In this mode, the current iLr Io
naturally passes from the diode Dm to the body diode Da of the auxiliary switch Sa.
Both the currents iLr and IO pass through the capacitor Cr, causing the inductor Lr and
capacitor Cr to resonate. The important equations describing the circuit operation
during this mode are as follows:
Page 26
V DS ( t )=0
(3.44)
V Da ( t )=0
i Dm ( t ) =0
i Sa ( t )=
VS
sin wO ( tt 1 )
ZO
i Lr ( t )=I O +
VS
sin wO ( tt 1 )
ZO
t
1 VS
V Cr ( t )=
sin w O ( T t 1 ) dT
Cr t Z O
(3.45)
(3.46)
(3.47)
(3.48)
(3.49)
V Dm ( t )=V S [ 1cos w O ( tt 1 ) ]
(3.50)
The maximal resonant inductor current iLr (t) that occurs at tmax is given by
i Lr ( t max )=I O +
VS
ZO
(3.51)
Furthermore, the peak capacitor voltage occurs at t = t2, where O(t2 t1) = .
When iLr (t) = IO, the peak capacitor voltage is 2 VS
V Cr ( t 2t 1 )=2 V S
(3.52)
The resonant time is calculated from the difference current between the
resonant inductor current iLr and output current IO under the zero-current condition.
This mode ends at t = t2 when i iLr decreases to IO. The operating interval in this stage
is written as
t 2=t 2t 1=
wO
(3.53)
This interval ends at t2 when the current through the body diode Da decreases to zero.
3) Mode III (t2 t < t3):
The main power switch Sm remains on during this period. Accordingly, the
load current IO flows through the main power switch Sm, and the capacitor voltage VCr
is clamped at 2VS. Fig. 3.8 (c) shows the equivalent circuit in Mode III. Thus, the
voltage and current expressions for this mode are derived as
Page 27
V DS ( t )=0
i Lr ( t )=I O
(3.54)
(3.55)
V Cr ( t )=2 V S
V Dm ( t )=V S
(3.56)
(3.57)
V Da ( t )=V S
(3.58)
i Dm ( t ) =0
(3.59)
i Sa ( t )=0
(3.60)
The trigger signal time can be varied in this mode. To simplify the circuit
design, this interval and Mode I are assumed to have equal values. Therefore
t 3=t 3t 2=
Lr I O
VS
(3.61)
This mode ends at the time when the auxiliary switch Sa is turned on.
4) Mode IV (t3 t < t4):
A control signal is applied to the gate of the auxiliary switch Sa at t = t3. Fig.
3.8 (d) shows the equivalent circuit. The auxiliary switch is turned on with ZCS. A
reverse resonance between Lr and Cr begins by the path Lr Sm Sa Cr under
constant current IO. The characteristic equations for this mode are obtained for this
resonance
V DS ( t )=0
(3.62)
V Da ( t )=0
(3.63)
i Dm ( t ) =0
(3.64)
i Sa ( t )=
V S
sin wO ( tt 3)
ZO
(3.65)
i Lr ( t )=
V S
sin wO ( tt 3 )
ZO
(3.66)
Page 28
1 V S
V Cr ( t )=
sin wO ( T t 3 ) dT + 2V S
Cr t Z O
(3.67)
V Dm ( t )=V S [ 1+cos wO ( tt 3 ) ]
(3.68)
This mode is finished at t = t4, as the main power switch current ism drops to
zero. Thus, the main power switch Sm is also turned off under ZCS. In this state, the
time interval is determined as
t 4=t 4 t 3=
I Z
1
sin1 O O
wO
VS
( )
(3.69)
The aforementioned equation signifies that the load current IO must be

sufficiently large that ZO IO< VS. Otherwise, the current of the power switch would not
return to zero naturally, and the power switch has to be turned on at a nonzero current,
causing turn-on losses. This interval ends at t4 when iLr decreases to zero and the main
power switch Sm is turned off.
5) Mode V (t4 t < t5):
At the start of interval V, the main power switch Sm is switched off, and the
charging current flows through the diode Da. Fig. 3.8 (e) shows the equivalent circuit.
The resonant capacitor Cr is discharged with constant current IO, and VCr falls. Mode
VI begins when the voltage VCr eventually falls to zero at t = t5, when the freewheeling
diodes Dm become forward biased. Therefore, the freewheeling diodes Dm is turned on
perfectly under both ZCS and ZVS conditions. For this case, the operating equations
are determined as
i Lr ( t )=0
V Cr ( t )=
(3.70)
i Dm ( t ) =0
(3.71)
V Da ( t )=0
(3.72)
I O
( tt 4 ) +V Cr ( t 4 )
Cr
(3.73)
I O
( tt 4 )+ V Cr ( t 4 )
Cr
(3.74)
V Dm ( t )=
Page 29
i Sa ( t )=
V S
sin wO ( tt 4 )
ZO
(3.75)
This mode ends at t4 when VCr declines to zero. The time interval in Mode V is
given by
t 5=t 5t 4=
Cr V S
1+cos [ wO ( t 4t 3 ) ] }
IO {
(3.76)
6) Mode VI (t5 t < t0 + TS):

The charging current IO is commutated from resonant capacitor Cr to
freewheeling diode Dm with soft switching immediately after the time t = t5. Fig. 3.8
(f) shows a sketch of the equivalent circuit at this stage. Notably, the control signal of
the auxiliary switch Sa needs to be removed once the resonant capacitor Cr is
completely discharged. Accordingly, the auxiliary switch Sa can be turned off with
zero voltage, theoretically cancelling turnoff losses. This interval is the OFF state of
the known PWM converter, and its duration can be controlled by the trigger signal of
the main power switch. The equations of this interval are represented as
V DS ( t )=V S
(3.77)
i Lr ( t )=I O
(3.78)
V Cr ( t )=0
(3.79)
V Dm ( t )=0
(3.80)
V DS 1 ( t )=0
(3.81)
i Dm ( t ) =I O
(3.82)
Page 30
Fig.3.8 Different operating modes of buck converter.

i Sa ( t )=0
(3.83)
The interval time t6 of this mode is given by

t 6=T S t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5
(3.84)
This mode ends when the main power switch Sm is excited again by the driving
signal VG and the operation returns to Mode I in the next switching cycle.
3.3.3 Buck-Boost Converter Analysis
Fig.3.9. Buck-Boost converter.
Page 31
The converter [7] aims to provide zero switching loss to the main switch. This
is done by adding auxiliary switch converter. The auxiliary switch is also needed to
switch under ZCSZVS by itself, so that no additional switching loss will occur in the
creation of the ZVS circuit. Fig. 3.9 shows the soft switching buck-boost converter
and where has Fig.3.10 shows the key waveforms of the converter. The resonant tank
circuit Lr and C1 to provide ZVS switching. The path created by D2 and Lr is to
remove the charge across S2 for providing ZVS condition. C2 is added in parallel, with
the main switch S2 to provide ZVS during turn-off. Fig.3.11 shows the different
modes of converter.
The principle behind the development of the topology to ensure no over
voltage/current stress is:
To prevent resonance between resonant components Lr and C1,2 when either
of them has initial charge.

To discharge the energy stored in S1 by creating a path for the inductor current
Lr through D2.
To create zero-capacitive turn-on loss for S1 and S2 by creating three-element
resonance among C1, Lr and C2.
Interval 1 [Capacitor C1 charging mode (t0-t1)]:

In this stage, D0, D2 and S1 are in conduction where as S2 is off and C2 is
charged to Vo + Vi. The current in Lr is circulating through D2 and S1. S1 is turned off
with ZVS to initiate this stage in order to allow C 1 to charge from Lr. At the end of the
stage, D1 conducts and clamps Vc1 at the input voltage Vi.
I Lr 0 I o I i
(3.85)
VC 2 0 Vo Vi
(3.86)
I Lr t ( I o I i ) cos wt
(3.87)
VC1 t ( I o I i ) Z sin wt
(3.88)
I Do t ( I o I i ) I Lr t
(3.89)
Page 32
Lr
C1
Where
w 1
(3.90)
Lr C1
(3.91)
At the end of this stage, VC1=Vi

The duration of this stage is
Vi
sin 1 where
t1
Io Ii Z
w
(3.92)
Interval II [Inductor discharging mode (t1-t2)]:

In this mode, the energy stored in the inductor Lr is completely discharged
into the input voltage through, D2 and D1. At the end of this mode, D 2 and D1 switch
off at ZVS and ZCS. In practice, the fuel cells cannot accept any current from external
circuit and as a result, a capacitor connected across the fuel cell, absorbs this current
and provides a path for the inductor to discharge its stored energy.
Initial conditions:
I Lr t1 ( I o I i ) 1 2
(3.93)
I Lr t
Vi
t I Lr t1
Lr
(3.94)
I Do t I o I i
(3.95)
I Lr 0
At the end of this stage and the duration of this stage is
t2
(3.96)
Page 33
I o I i Lr
Vi
1 2
Fig.3.10. Key Waveforms of the converter.

Interval III [Resonant stage (t2-t3)]:
In this stage Lr, C1 and C2 resonate causing VC1, VC2, and ILr to go to zero at the
same time. This condition creates the zero-voltage and zero current turn-on of S 1 and
S2. Since the switches are turned on when the current and voltage are zero.
The expressions for the current and voltages are given below
I Lr t
1
sin we t
2 Lr C
(3.97)
VC1 t Vi 1 cos we t
(3.98)
VC 2 t
Vo Vi 1 cos w t
2
(3.100)
(3.101)
Where C=C1=C2 and
we 1
Lr C 2
(3.103)
Page 34
The end of the duration is determined by
I Lr VC1 VC 2 0
t3
we
(3.104)
Interval IV [Inductor charging mode, (t3 t4)]:

To begin this mode, S1 and S2 are turned on at ZCS and ZVS to charge Lr with
constant current until the current in Lr is equal to the current in the output filter. At the
end of this stage, D0 is turned off with ZCS.
I Lr t
Vo Vi
t
Lr
(3.105)
(3.106)
I Lr t I o I i
The stage ends when
and the duration of this stage is

t4
Vo Vi L
Io Ii r
(3.108)
Interval V [constant current stage (t4 t5)]:

During this period, the output is isolated from the input and constant current
flows from the input to the filter inductor.
I Lr t I o I i
(3.109)
I Do t 0
(3.110)
and the duty ratio
t6
t5 t 4
Ts
(3.111)
Page 35
(g)
Fig.3.11 Different operating modes of buck-boost converter.
Interval VI [Capacitor C2 charging mode, (t5 t6)]:
In this mode S2 is opened at ZVS to begin interval 6 operations to charge C2
VC 2 Vo Vi
with constant current. The stage ends when
conduct to end the current stage.
Page 36
at which diodes D2 and D0
VC 2 t
Io Ii t
C2
(3.112)
I Lr t I o I i
(3.113)
I Do t 0
(3.114)
VC 2 Vo Vi
At the end of this stage
t6
and the duration is:
Io Ii C 2
Vo Vi
(3.115)
Interval VII [Freewheeling stage, (t6-t7)]:

In this stage, the energy in the filter inductor is released into the output
capacitor and load while the current in Lr freewheels through D2 and S1. The output
current is:
I Lr t I o I i
(3.116)
I Do t I o I i
(3.117)
TABLE III
TABLE IV
Boost Converter Parameters
Buck Converter Parameters
Switching frequency
fS
20 kHz
Switching frequency
fS
16kHz
PV Module Voltage
Vi
15-
PV Module Voltage
Vi
Output Voltage
VO
17.5V
25V
Output Voltage
VO
1517.5V
14V
Main Inductor
280H
Resonant Capacitor
Cr
2.98H
Resonant Inductor
Lr
150H
Resonant Inductor
Lr
16.96H
Input Filter Inductor
Lf
50H
Output Inductor
LO
160H
Output Capacitor
CO
1000F
Output Capacitor
CO
300F
Resonant Capacitor
Cr
20nF
Page 37
TABLE V
Buck-boost converter parameters
Switching
3.4
fS
100kHz
frequency
PV
Module Vi
16-20V
Voltage
Output Voltage
Resonant
Vo
Lr
14V/26V
5H
Inductor
Capacitors
C1,C2 800pF
SIMULATION RESULTS
Boost converter
The converter is supplied by 74-WP of a solar panel. Fig.3.12 shows soft switching
buck-boost converter. Fig.3.13 shows voltage across the diode. Fig. 3.14 shows the
pulse width modulation (PWM) gate signal of the main switch and auxiliary switch
and main inductor current. Fig. 3.15 shows Main switch voltage &current of boost
converter. Fig. 3.16 shows the waveforms of the resonant capacitor voltage and
resonant inductor current.
Fig.3.12 SIMULINK model for boost converter.
Page 38
Voltage across diode
V o lt a g e (V )
20
10
0
9.6
9.65
9.7
9.75
9.8
Time (sec)
9.85
9.9
9.95
10
x 10
-3
Fig.3.13 Voltage across the diode.
Current (A)
2.4
2.2
Main Inductor Current
2
9.5
9.55
9.6
9.65
9.7
9.75
Time (sec)
9.8
9.85
9.9
9.95
10
x 10
-3
x 10
-3
Voltage (V)
1.5
Gate Pulse
1
0.5
0
9.5
9.55
9.6
9.65
9.7
9.75
Time (sec)
9.8
9.85
9.9
9.95
10
Fig.3.14 Main inductor current and gate pulse
Voltage( V)
30
Voltage across the Main Switch
20
10
0
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Time (sec)
9.7
9.8
9.9
10
x 10
-3
x 10
-3
Current (A)
3
2
Current through Main Switch
1
0
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Time (sec)
9.7
9.8
9.9
Fig.3.15 Main switch voltage &current of boost converter.

Page 39
10
Voltage (V)
30
Resonant Capacitor Voltage
20
10
0
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.8
9.9
Resonant Inductor Current
3
Current (A)
9.6
9.7
Time (sec)
10
x 10
-3
x 10
-3
Resonant Inductor Current
2
1
0
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Time (sec)
9.7
9.8
9.9
10
Fig.3.16 Resonant capacitor voltage and resonant inductor current.

Buck converter
Fig.3.17 SIMULINK model for buck converter.

The converter is supplied by74-WP of a solar panel. Fig.3.17 shows soft switching
buck-boost converter Fig. 3.18 shows the pulse width modulation (PWM) gate signal
of the main switch and auxiliary switch. Fig. 3.19 shows the waveforms of the
resonant capacitor voltage and the resonant inductor current. Fig. 3.20 shows the
waveforms of the freewheeling diode voltage and current. Fig.3.21 shows voltage and
current waveforms of the auxiliary switch.
Page 40
Voltage(V)
Main Switch
0
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
Time(Sec)
7.57
Voltage(V)
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
Auxillary Switch
0
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
Time(Sec)
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
Capacitor Voltage(V)
Inductor Current (A)
Fig.3.18 Gate pulses for main and auxiliary switch

15
10
5
0
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
5.46
Time(Sec)
5.47
5.48
5.49
5.5
-3
x 10
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
5.46
Time(Sec)
5.47
5.48
5.49
5.5
-3
x 10
40
20
Voltage(V)
40
30
20
10
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
Time(Sec)
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
Time(Sec)
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
Current(A)
6
4
2
0
7.5
Fig.3.20 Freewheeling diode voltage and current

Page 41
Current(A)
10
0
-10
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
Time(Sec)
7.56
Voltage(V)
20
Current of the Auxillary Switch

7.57
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
10
0
7.5
7.55
7.56
Time(Sec)
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.6
-3
x 10
Fig.3.21 voltage and current waveforms of the auxiliary switch

Buck-boost converter
Fig.3.22 MATLAB/SIMULINK model for buck-boost converter.

The converter is supplied by74-WP of a solar panel. Fig.3.22 shows soft
switching buck-boost converter Fig. 3.23 shows the pulse width modulation (PWM)
gate signal of the main switch and auxiliary switch. Fig. 3.24 shows the waveforms of
the resonant capacitor voltage and the resonant inductor current. Fig. 3.25 shows the
waveforms of the capacitor voltage and the output voltage of the converter.
Page 42
V o lt a g e (V )
Main Switch
1.5
1
0.5
V o lt a g e (V )
0
9.5
9.55
Time (sec)
Auxillary Switch
9.6
-3
x 10
9.55
Time (sec)
9.6
-3
x 10
1.5
1
0.5
0
9.5
V o lta g e (V )
C u rre n t (A )
Fig.3.23 Gate pulse for buck-boost converter

Inductor Current (Ilr)
5
0
9.5
4.5A
9.55
Time (sec)
9.6
-3
x 10
Capacitor Voltage (Vc1)

20
10
0
9.5
20.8V
9.55
Time (sec)
9.6
-3
x 10
V o lta g e (V )
Capacitor Voltage (Vc2)
40
20
35.5V
V o lta g e (V )
0
9.5
0
9.55
Time (sec)
Output Voltage
-5
9.6
-3
x 10
14V
-10
-15
9.5
9.55
Time (sec)
9.6
-3
x 10
Fig.3.25 Capacitor voltage and the output voltage of the converter.
Page 43
CHAPTER 4
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The photovoltaic system has a non-linear current-voltage and power-voltage
characteristics that continuously varies with irradiation and temperature. In order to
track the continuously varying maximum power point of the solar array the MPPT
(maximum power point tracking) control technique plays an important role in the PV
systems [8]. The task of a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) network in a
photovoltaic (PV) system is to continuously tune the system so that it draws
maximum power from the solar array regardless of weather or load conditions. In
recent years, a large number of techniques have been proposed for tracking the
maximum power point (MPP).
4.2 NEED FOR MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

When a PV module is directly coupled to a load, the PV modules operating
point will be at the intersection of its IV curve and the load line which is the I-V
relationship of load. For example, a resistive load has a straight line with a slope of
1/Rload. In other words, the impedance of load dictates the operating condition of the
PV module. In general, this operating point is seldom at the PV modules MPP, thus it
is not producing the maximum power. A study shows that a direct-coupled system
utilizes a mere 31% of the PV capacity. A PV array is usually oversized to compensate
for a low power yield during winter months. This mismatching between a PV module
and a load requires further over-sizing of the PV array and thus increases the overall
system cost. To mitigate this problem, a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) can
be used to maintain the PV modules operating point at the MPP. MPPTs can extract
more than 97% of the PV power when properly optimized.
This chapter discusses the I-V characteristics of PV modules and loads,
matching between the two, and the use of DC-DC converters as a means of MPPT. It
also discusses the details of some MPPT algorithms and control methods, and
limitations of MPPT.
Page 44
4.3 THE MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER PROCESS

Basic principle
PV strings are known to be nonlinear, and there exists one operating point
where the PV string generates maximum power. In order to achieve maximum
utilization efficiency of the PV string, the MPPT control technique, which extracts the
maximum possible power from the PV string, is essential in systems powered by the
PV string. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called
maximum power point (MPP). Maximum power varies solar radiation, ambient
temperature and solar cell temperature. From solar array characteristics the maximum
power point (MPP) is as shown in Fig.4.1
The mismatch between load electrical characteristics and PV module characteristics
as shown in Fig.4.2. Since PV modules still have relatively low conversion efficiency,
especially under low radiation states, the overall system cost can be reduced using
high efficiency power conditioners which, in addition, are designed to extract the
maximum possible power from the PV module.
Maximum
Power
Point
Fig.4.1 Maximum power point (MPP).

According to the maximum power transfer theory, the power delivered to the load is
maximum when the source internal impedance matches the load impedance.
ZS=ZL
(4.1)
Thus, the impedance seen from the converter side needs to match the internal
impedance of the solar array. There are many MPPT algorithms available; the most
Page 45
widely-used algorithms are described in the section 4.4. A resistive load has a directly
connected to solar PV system as shown in Fig.4.3.
(a)
(b)
Fig.4.2. V-I and P-V Characteristics of Solar Panel with Load Line Characteristics.
Fig.4.3 PV Module is directly connected to a (variable) resistive load

MPPT is electronic tracking and has nothing to do with the panels. Instead, the
controller looks the output the panels and compare with output voltage.
Typically we get a 20-45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actually
gain can vary widely depending on weather, temperature, battery state of charging and
some other conditions.
MPPT has most effective under these conditions
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days. i.e. PV module works better at cold
temperature.
When battery is deeply discharging. i.e. MPPT can draw more current more
current to charge the battery.
The efficiency of energy conversion depends mainly on the efficiency of the PV

panels that generate the power. Weather conditions also influence the efficiency,
which depends nonlinearly on the irradiation level and temperature. When a PV array
Page 46
is directly connected to a load, the systems operating point will be at the intersection
of the IV curves of the PV panel and load. Under most conditions, this operating
point is not at the PV arrays maximum power point (MPP).
4.4 VARIOUS MPPT ALGORITHMS

MPPT algorithms [9] have to be fast, stable, robust, and
efficient. They should respond quickly to changes in atmospheric
conditions (i.e., temperature and insolation) and be robust to
disturbances or malfunctions and ageing. Moreover, an MPPT has to
be efficient over a large power range. MPPT methods, commonly
used in widespread applications, are reported in the technical
literature.
Comparisons
among
the
techniques
and
their
implementations have been discussed in dedicated papers (i.e., [9]).

MPPT methods can be mainly categorized into four classes. Fig.4.4
shows the MPPT controller for PV system.
Fig.4.4 MPPT controller.

4.4.1 Perturb and Observe (P & O)
This method change the voltage reference based on the sign of the dP/dV. In order
to evaluate this sign, a perturbation is applied, causing the continuous fluctuation of
the voltage.
1. Change duty cycle
2. Observe consequences on power output
3. Decide direction of next change in duty cycle
The P&O method has an advantage of not requiring solar panel characteristics as
inputs and being easy to implement. The MPPT controller with P&O algorithm shown
in Fig.4.4 is used in this paper. In P&O algorithm, a slight perturbation
D 0.01
is
introduced in the system. This perturbation causes the power of the solar module to
change. If the power increases due to the perturbation, then the perturbation is
Page 47
continued
D D
in that direction. After the peak power is reached, the power at
the next instant decreases and after that the perturbation reverses
D D
. The MPP
tracking process is shown in Fig.4.5 (a) and Table VI shows different cases of P&O
method. Where D is the duty ratio of the converter.
The P&O MPPT algorithm is shown in Fig.4.5 (b). The starting point may
vary, depending on the atmospheric conditions, while the duty cycle is changed
continuously, according to the above mentioned algorithm, resulting in the system
steady state operation around the maximum power point.
(a)
(b)
Fig.4.5 (a) MPP Tracking process and (b) P&O MPPT algorithm.
TABLE VI
SUMMARY OF P&O ALGORITHM
Perturbation
Change in
Next
Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Power
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Perturbation
Positive
Negative
Negative
Positive
4.4.2 Incremental conductance method

Page 48
This is based on the fact that the slope dP/dV of the panel P-V curve is
positive on the left side of the MPP, zero at the MPP and negative on the right side of
the MPP as shown in Fig.4.6.
The incremental and conductance algorithm makes use of the following eq:
dP d V .I
dV
dV
dP
0
dV
at MPP.
dP
0
dV
at the left of the MPP.
dP
0
dV
Fig.4.6 Incremental conductance

method.
at the right of MPP.
In contrast with P & O, this algorithm can find the MPP without oscillations.
4.4.3 Fractional-Open-Circuit-Voltage
This method is derived from the observation that, usually, the MPP voltage is a
fraction of the open-circuit voltage. The classical implementation of this algorithm
disconnects the PV panels from the load for a short time and measures the open
circuit voltage to evaluate the voltage reference as shown in Fig.4.7.
Page 49
Fig.4.7. Fractional-open-circuit-voltage method

A linear dependency exists between cell voltages corresponding to Maximum power
and cell open circuit voltage.
VMP=MV.VOC
(4.1)
Where MV is the voltage factor equal to 0.74.

4.4.4 Fractional-Short-Circuit-Current
This method is based on the observation that, under varying atmospheric conditions,
the current of the MPP is approximately linearly related to the short-circuit current Isc.
To use this method, an additional switch is added to the power converter to
periodically short circuit the PV source, so that Isc can be measured using a current
sensor.
The optimum operating current for the maximum output power is proportional to the
short circuit current under various condition of radiation as shown in Fig.4.8.
Iop=k.Isc
(4.2)
Where k is the proportional constant.
Fig.4.8. Fractional-short-circuit-current
Other MPPT techniques with higher implementation costs, including PV array
reconfiguration, multilevel converter, panel modelling, and fuzzy and neural
networks, have also been widely proposed and investigated.
4.5 PV system with MPPT control
Page 50
Fig.4.9. PV System with MPPT control.

The operation of MPPT cannot be achieved unless a tunable matching network is used
to interface the load to the PV array [10-12]. The main constituent components of a
PV system are power stage and controller as shown in Fig.4.9. The power stage is
realized using switch mode DC-DC converters (buck, boost, and buck boost),
employing PWM control. The control parameter is duty ratio, which is used for the
tuning of the network for maximum extraction of power.
4.6 SIMULATION & PERFORMANCE OF MPPT WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
This section presents the soft-switching buck-boost converter using the PV
module modelling of 74 W using the MATLAB software. Fig.4.10 shows soft
switching DC-DC converter with MPPT (P & O algorithm) controller.
Fig.4.11 shows the simulated output characteristic waveform of the PV
module, which controlled the MPPT using the MATLAB software. At 0.05 sec, this
converter starts estimating the maximum power point. After 0.0725 sec, the MPPT is
completed. At this time, the simulated PV module reaches the maximum power of 74
W, and then, the output voltage and current of simulated PV module are 18.93 V and
3.93 A, respectively.
Fig. 4.12 shows the simulated output characteristic waveform of the PV
module, for step change in solar radiation i.e. 400 W/m2, 1000W/m2, and 300W/m2
respectively.
Page 51
Fig.4.10. Simulation of soft switching buck-boost converter with MPPT.

Step size = 0.005
80
1000 W/m2 & 25 o C
Current(A), Voltage(V), and Power(W)
70
Calculated MPP Power =74W
60
50
Measured Power(W)
MeasuredVoltage(V)
Measured Current(A)
40
30
Calculated MPP Voltage = 18.93V
20
Calculated MPP Current = 3.93A
10
0
0
With out MPPT
0.05
Time(Sec)
0.1 With MPPT
0.15
Fig.4.11 Simulated waveforms of the PV module power, voltage, and current

waveforms.
Page 52
For Step Change In Solar Radiation

80
25oC Temperature
1000 W/m
Current(A), Voltage(V), and Power(W)
70
60
50
Power(W)
Voltage(V)
Current(A)
40
400 W/m2
30
300 W/m2
20
10
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Time(sec)
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Fig.4.12 Simulated waveforms of the PV module power, voltage, and current

waveforms for step change in solar radiation.
(a)
Page 53
PV Module Power (W)
Power(W)
100
50
Power(W)
0
0
0.05
0.1
Time(sec)
0.2
0.25
% Duty Ratio
100
% Duty Ratio
0.15
50
% Duty Ratio
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Time(sec)
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
PV Module Power (W)
80
Power(w), Step size = 0.001

Power(W)
75
70
65
60
0.2
0.201
0.202
0.203
0.204
0.205
Time(sec)
0.206
0.207
0.208
0.209
% Duty Ratio
77.5
%Duty Ratio , step size= 0.001

% Duty Ratio
77
76.5
76
75.5
0.2
0.201
0.202
0.203
0.204
0.205
Time(sec)
0.206
0.207
0.208
0.209
(b)
Fig.4.13. Simulated waveforms of the PV module power, and duty ratio for (a) step
size 0.005. (b) step size 0.001.
Fig. 4.13 shows the simulated output characteristic waveform of the PV
module, for different step sizes 0.005 and 0.001. If the step size is smaller value then
the oscillation in output power will be reduced, if more the step size wide range of
oscillation in output power will occur.
Page 54
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
5.1 HARDWARE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Page 55
Control
Fig. 5.1 Hardware circuit diagram
Fig.5.2. Experiment set-up.

TABLE VII
CONVERTER SPECIFICATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS
Switching frequency
PV Module Voltage
Output Voltage
fS
Vi
Vo
100kHz
16-20V
14V/26V
Page 56
Resonant Capacitor
Resonant Inductor
MOSFET
Diodes
Current sensor
Voltage sensor
Microcontroller
Capacitors
C1
Lr
S1,S2
D0,D1,D2
R1,R2
C1,C2
800pF
5H
IRF540
MUR8100
WCS2705
33K,10K
AT mega 328
800pF
The converter is supplied by the 74 W P solar panel. The output current and the voltage
of a PV were sensed and controlled by the P&O algorithm for the MPPT using an AT
Mega 328. To confirm the aforementioned operations, the proposed soft-switching
buck-boost converter was experimented.
Fig.5.1 shows the block diagram implementation of hardware setup. Table VII shows
the converter specifications and implementation details. Fig. 5.2 shows the
experimental setup of specifications in Table VII.
5.2 COMPONENT USED IN VARIOUS STAGE OF THE CIRCUIT
5.2.1 Power Circuit
Component Used in the power circuit are
74Wp Panel from VNIT, Nagpur.
12V lead acid battery.
DC-DC Converter
IRF540.
MUR8100 Diode.
Inductor (1mH & 5uH) & Capacitor (800pF).
Fig.5.3. shows the vvarious main components used for experimental work like
inductor, MOSFET, solar panel, battery and capacitors etc.
Fig.5.3. Various main components used for experimental work

5.2.2 Control Circuit
Page 57
Component Used in the control circuit are
Current sensor (WCS2720).
Voltage sensor (33k &10k Ohms).
AT Mega 328 microcontroller.
5.2.2.1 Current sensor

The WCS2720 consists of a precise, low-temperature drift linear hall sensor
IC with temperature compensation circuit and a current path with 0.4 m
typical internal conductor resistance.
This extremely low resistance can effectively reduce power loss, operating
temperature and increase the reliability greatly.
Fig.5.4. Design of current sensor
Fig.5.5. Current sensor

Fig.5.4 shows the characteristics of current sensor (WCS2720) i.e it gives the relation
between current and voltage and Fig.5.5 shows the experimental setup of current
sensor which is supplied by 9V battery.
5.2.2.2 Voltage sensor
To measure the voltage of the panel and realize a feedback for the uC, is
necessary to monitor this voltages.
Page 58
A small capacitor in the output of the voltage sensor to use it like a filter for
the fluctuations in the power line sensed. (To Reduce losses in the sensor
choose high value resistance R1=33k ohm.)
Where Fig.5.6 shows the voltage divider circuit and Fig.5.7 shows the design of
voltage sensor.
Fig.5.6 Design of voltage sensor
Fig.5.7 Voltage sensor
(5.1)
5.2.2.3 AT Mega 328 microcontroller (technical specification)
Page 59
Fig.5.8 AT Mega328 Microcontroller

Fig.5.8 shows the characteristics of AT Mega 328 microcontroller, which used for
MPPT controller using perturb and observe method. The PWM signal can be
controlled by AT Mega 328 microcontroller.
Microcontroller
AT Mega 328.
Operating Voltage
5V.
Input Voltage (recommended)
7-12V.
Input Voltage (limits)
6-20V.
Digital I/O Pins
14 (of which 6 provide PWM
output).
Analog Input Pins
DC Current per I/O Pin
40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin
50 mA.
Flash Memory
32 KB of which 0.5 KB used

o by boot loader
SRAM
2 KB.
EEPROM
1 KB.
Clock Speed
16 MHz
5.3 MOSFET gate driver circuit

The
MIC4423/4424/4425
family
are
highly
reliable
BiCMOS/
DMOS
buffer/driver/MOSFET drivers. Primarily intended for driving power MOSFETs, the

MIC4423/4424/4425 drivers are suitable for driving other loads (capacitive, resistive,
or inductive) which require low-impedance, high peak currents, and fast switching
times. Heavily loaded clock lines, coaxial cables, or piezoelectric transducers are
some examples. The only known limitation on loading is that total power dissipated in
Page 60
the driver must be kept within the maximum power dissipation limits of the package.
Fig.5.9 shows the gate driver circuit for MOSFETs using MIC4425 IC and Fig.5.10
shows the Buffer IC HD74LS07.
Fig.5.9 MOSFET Driver circuit

Component used in the circuit are
HD74LS07
IC 6N137
Driver IC MIC4425
5.3.1 Buffer IC HD74LS07
Convert TTL Voltage Levels to MOS Levels

High Sink-Current Capability
Fig.5.10 Buffer IC HD74LS07
5.3.2 Opto-coupler IC 6N137 Isolation

Opto-couplers are mainly used to isolate the control circuit from the power circuit.
Here in the circuit maximum DC voltage applied to the inverter is 325 Volts. On the
other hand isolation is needed while giving the control signal to each MOSFET .So
that the bottom switches of the inverter will not be shot-circuited. The 6N137 optocoupler contains a GaAsP LED and a high gain photo detector to realize the isolation
and to minimize propagation delay. It is characterized for its operation over the range
Page 61
of 0 70 oC. Fig 5.11shows the schematic connection of 6N137 opto-coupler and

truth table of 6N137.
Fig 5.11 Schematic connection of 6N137 opto-coupler

5.3.3 Specification of Driver IC MIC4425
The
MIC4423/4424/4425
family
are
highly
reliable
BiCMOS/
DMOS
buffer/driver/MOSFET drivers. Fig.5.12 shows the gate driver IC which is using in

the hardware implementation.
Dual output (inverted)

Peak output current 3A
Operating voltage 5V - 18V
Fig.5.12 Driver IC MIC4425

5.4 HARDWARE WAVFORMS AND RESULTS
Signal output after Gate Driver IC 4425 is shown in Fig5.13.
Bipolar in nature
30 V (peak to peak)
Dead band 0.8 sec

Page 62
Fig.5.13. Signal output after Gate Driver IC 4425.
(a)
(b)
Fig.5.14 Instantaneous global solar radiation at VNIT Nagpur 21 May 2011. (b)
global radiation during cloudy conditions .
Page 63
Fig.5.14 shows instantaneous global solar radiation at VNIT Nagpur on21 May 2011
and during cloudy condition.
Fig. 5.15 shows the pulse width modulation (PWM) gate signal of the main switch
and auxiliary switch generated using AT Mega 328 microcontroller by sensing voltage
and current from PV Module.
Fig. 5.16 shows solar PV voltage and current. Fig. 5.11 shows the waveforms of the
resonant capacitor voltage VC1 and capacitor voltage VC2.
Fig.5.15 Waveforms of the gate pulses for main and auxiliary switch.
Fig.5.16 Solar PV voltage and current.

Page 64
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.17 shows the waveforms of (a) the resonant capacitor voltage VC1 and
(b) capacitor voltage VC2.
Page 65
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
CONCLUSIONS
In this project, we proposed a soft-switching DC-DC converter with MPPT.
All of the switching devices in this converter achieved ZCS and ZVS by the resonant
inductor and capacitor at turn/off. Therefore, the switching losses were reduced 510%.
This thesis has analysed the operational principles of the adopted converter
and applied them to the P&O algorithm, which is a kind of MPPT method. Simulation
and experimental results are presented to verify the theoretical analysis.. It is
concluded that soft-switching buck-boost converter can be applied to a stand-alone
and a grid-connected system using a PV power conditioning system.
FUTURE SCOPE
Future work is aimed at carrying out the following studies.
Improvement in P & O maximum power point tracking algorithm (MPPT).

Design and development of solar home lighting system using higher ordersoft
swithing DC-DC converter.
Page 66
REFERENCES
Books
[B-1] Chetan Singh Solanki, Solar Photovoltaics fundamentals, techonolgies and
application, PHI learning private Ltd, 2012.
[B-2] A.K. Mukerjee, Nivedita Takur, Photovoltaic Systems- Analysis and Design,
PHI learning private Ltd,2011.
[B-3] Muhammad
H.Rashid,
Power
Electronics
Hand
Book,
Academic
Press,2001.
Websites
[W-1] Resources from Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Annual Report 2013,
http://mnre.gov.in/
[W-2] Resources from Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Annual Report 2009,
http://mnre.gov.in/
Papers
[1]
J. A. Gow and C. D. Manning, Development of a photovoltaic array model

for use in power-electronics simulation studies, IEE Proc. Elect. Power Appl.,
vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 193200, 1999.
[2]
J. A. Gow and C. D. Manning, Development of a model for photovoltaic

arrays suitable for use in simulation studies of solar energy conversion
systems, in Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Power Electron. Variable Speed Drives, pp.
6974, 1996.
[3]
Subiyanto, Azah Mohamed and MA Hannan, Development of an Efficient

Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Controller, IEEE International
Electric Machines & Drives Conference, pp.1189-1194, 2011.
[4]
V. Di Dio , D. La Cascia, R. Miceli .A Mathematical Model to Determine the

Electrical Energy Production in Photovoltaic Fields Under Mismatch Effect,
IEEE, pp. 46-51, 2011.
[5]
Sang-Hoon Park, Gil-Ro Cha, Yong-Chae Jung, and Chung-Yuen Won,

Design and Application for PV Generation System Using a Soft-Switching
Boost Converter With SARC, IEEE Transactions On Industrial Electronics,
Vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 515-522, February 2010.
Page 67
[6]
Ying-Chun Chuang, High-Efficiency ZCS Buck Converter for Rechargeable

Batteries, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 57, no. 7, pp.2463-2472, July
2010.
[7]
B.P. Divakar, K.W.E. Cheng and D. Sutanto, Zero-voltage and zero-current

switching buck-boost converter with low voltage and current stresses IET
Power Electron., 2008, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 297304, 9th December 2007
[8]
Weidong Xiao, Nathan Ozog, and William G.Dunford, Topology Study of

Photovoltaic Interface for Maximum Power Point Tracking IEEE
Transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 54, no. 3,pp.196-1704, June 2007.
[9]
T. Esram and P. L. Chapman, Comparison of photovoltaic array maximum

power point tracking techniques, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 22, no.
2, pp. 439449, Jun. 2007.
[10]
P. Huynh and B.H. Cho, Design and analysis of microprocessor controlled

peak power tracking system, in Proc. 27th IECEC, vol. 1, pp. 6772, 1992.
[11]
Eftichios Koutroulis, Kostas Kalaitzakis, Member, IEEE, and Nicholas C.

Voulgaris
Development of a Microcontroller- Based, Photovoltaic
Maximum Power Point Tracking Control System., IEEE Transactions on

power electronics, vol. 16, no. 1, pp.46-54, January 2001.
[12]
Chihchiang Hua, Jongrong Lin, and Chihming Shen, Implementation of a

DSP-Controlled Photovoltaic System with Peak Power Tracking, IEEE
Transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 45, no. 1, pp.99-107, February
1998.
Page 68
APPENDIX A
COMPONENT LIST
Semiconductors
Power MOSFET IRFP540 - 2 NO.
DIODES MUR8100 - 3 NO.
Gate Driver ICs-MIC4425-2 NO.
Buffer ICs-HD74LS07-2 NO.
Opto coupler IC- 6N137-2 NO.
Zener Diode 4.7V.
Capacitors
800pF -2 NO. (CERAMIC)
0.01uF -2 NO. (CERAMIC)
100uf-2 NO. (CERAMIC)
50 F, 50V- 1 NO. (ELECTROLYTIC)
Resistors
11 Ohms, 5A-1 NO.
47 Ohms- 1 NO.
470 Ohms-2 NO.
Inductors
10 uH -1 NO.
1mH -1 NO.
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS USED
DC ammeter - 0-1/2 A
AC milliammeter - 0-1000 mA
Digital Multimeter - Agronic
DC lamp load - 10 W, 20 W
4 Channel Digital Storage Oscilloscope Texas
Page 69
APPENDIX B
Solar Radiation Measurement Digital Pyranometer
Introduction
Digital Pyranometer is a microcontroller based Digital Solar Radiation Recorder. It is
used to measure Global as well as direct solar radiation. It will collect all real time
data automatically.
Components of Digital Pyranometer:
1. Solar Radiation Sensor
2. Solar Panel
3. Data Shuttle
4. Batteries
1. Solar Radiation Sensor: Specifications
Temperature range -40 to +80 C

Range 0- 2000 w/m2
Sensitivity 15v/wm2
Spectral range 305-2800 nm
Temperature dependence < 0.1%/ C.
2. Solar panel: Specifications
Wattage 10Wp
Output voltage 12V DC
3. DATA SHUTTLE
It is a pocket sized device that can use to download and transfer data from
logger to computer.
4. Batteries
It consists of two SMF batteries.
Page 70
Fig.B.1 Digital Pyranometer

Sample readings
Table. B.1 presents sample readings of Digital Pyranometer on 06/08/2012.
TABLE B.1
Readings of Digital Pyranometer
Page 71
APPENDIX C
Design Values of Converter
A. Design of Buck Converter
Assume Input Voltage from Solar Panel at MPP=17.5V (approx.)
Output voltage required for battery charging=14V (approx.).
Assume Switching Frequency, fs=16 kHz,
Capacity of Solar Panel=37Wp+75Wp=112Wp.
Maximum Charging Current=112/12=10A.
Taking higher value, Maximum Output Current=15A.
The equivalent output. Impedance=Vo/Io=14/15=1(Approx.),Q (quality factor)=1,
Hence characteristic Impedance Zo=Ro/Q=1, Assume fns=0.7.
The necessary resonant frequency is derived from fo=fs/fns=16KHz/0.7=22.85 kHz.
Resonant Angular Frequency,
WO= (Lr*Cr)-1/2=2fo=143.57x103rad/s
Lr=Zo/ WO=1/143.57x103rad/s=6.96H
Cr=1/WO*ZO=1/143.57x103rad/s=6.96F
To limit charging current ripple and the output voltage ripple ,the circuit parameters
for the low pass filter of the ZCS battery charger are set as follows,
Lo=100Lr.
Co=100Cr.
B. Design of Boost Converter

2
Dmin TVo V fw Dmax T

Lr
i L
I min
(C.1)
2
2
0.04 Dmin
T 2 4 I min
Lr 0.8 I min Dmin T
Cr
2 Lr
2 Vo2
2 Vo
(C.2)
Page 72
C. Design of Buck-Boost Converter

Vin =18 V, V0 =12 V; fS=100kHz.
I0 = 2A; Lr =5mH; C=C1 = C2 = 800 pF,
Z
Lr
C1
(C.3)
w 1
Lr C1
(C.4)
Lr
Vi max
C
I i I O min
(C.5)
APPENDIX D
Physical, Electrical and Magnetic characteristics of ferrite core
Page 73
Page 74
APPENDIX E
Page 75
DATASHEETS
Page 76
Page 77
Page 78
Page 79
Page 80
Page 81
Page 82
Page 83
Page 84
Page 85
Page 86

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Soft switching DC-DC converter with MPPT for solar Home lighting system

THE GRAND CHALLENGE OF SOLAR POWER

1.2 SOLAR ENERGY

Source of solar energy, the sun is infinite.

Fig.1.1 Growth in primary energy demand.

Fig.1.2 World primary energy demand.

Fig.1.3 India installed Generation Capacity in MW as on 31.01.2013.

To meet this demand, Solar is the only completely renewable alternative

Utility grid power,

Including roof top

To create enabling policy framework for deployment of 20,000 MW of solar

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

1.4 OUTLINE OF THESIS

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM MODELING

essentially consist of a number of internal silicon based photovoltaic cells combined

SOLAR CELL, PANEL AND MODULE

Fig.2.1 A two diode solar cell model.

A PV panel [3] consists of a number of solar cells connected in series (N S=36)

2.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING PV MODULE

Fig.2.2 Equivalent circuit of a solar cell.

(b) Practical PV device

Ideality factor; q : Carrier charge(

(1.38 10 23W sec 0 .k 1 )

Standard insulation in W/m2;

Load current in Amps;

Open circuit voltage

Bang-gap energy in eV;

Standard temperature in degree

The cells short-circuit current temperature coefficient.

The basic equation that describes the current output of PV module

single diode model is given by (2.5).

Open circuit voltage (Voc)

Short circuit current (Isc)

Maximum voltage (Vmpp)

Maximum current (Impp)

Maximum power at STC (Pmax)

Maximum system voltage

2.4 MATLAB SIMULATION

Fig.2.3 MATLAB/SIMULINK model for solar module (74Wp).

2.4.2 PV Array Characteristic Curves

1000 W/m2 At 25 oC Temperature

AT Standard Radiation 1000 W/m2

Fig.2.5. Characteristic of a PV module with temperature and irradiation: (a) V-I

2.5 THE I-V CURVE AND MAXIMUM POWER POINT

Maximum Power Point (MPP)

Fig.2.7 I-V and P-V Curve and Maximum Power Point

3.2. HARD SWITCHING AND SOFT SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

Basic Concepts of Switching Techniques

Fig.3.1. Switching waveforms during hard switching.

Advantages of higher switching frequency

Size of the components used in the converter designing may be reduced.

Disadvantages of higher switching frequency

Higher power losses on power semiconductor devices

More severe electromagnetic interference (EMI)

The smooth resonant switching waveforms also minimize EMI.

The process of power semiconductor device soft-switching is shown in Fig.3.2

Fig.3.2 Switching waveforms during soft switching.

3.2.2 Significance of Soft-Switching

Classification of soft switching techniques

Switch voltage brought to zero before gate voltage is applied.

Ideal, zero-loss transition.

(b) Turn OFF

Parallel capacitor as a loss less snubber.

Preferred scheme for very high frequency applications using MOSFET