How is binary information represented in followings:

CPU
RAM
Hard disk
Optical disk
USB
In electronic digital system, we use just two discrete values and are therefore
said to be binary (0 and 1). These binary values are represented in digital system
by physical quantities called signals. Electrical Signals such as voltages and
currents are most common ones but different signals are used for representing
these binary values in different devices.
Since 0 and 1 are associated with the
binary number system , they are the
preferred names for the signal ranges. A
binary digit is called a bit. Information is
represented in digital computers by
groups of bits. By using various coding
techniques, groups of bits can be made
to represent not only binary numbers ,
but also other groups of discrete
symbols. Groups of bits, properly
arranged, can even specify to the
computer
the
instructions
to
be
executed and the data to be processed.
The most common physical quantity used in digital system for representing the
information as discrete values is voltage. We typically represent the two discrete
values by ranges of voltage values called HIGH(1) and LOW(0). Output voltage
ranges and input voltage ranges are illustrated in the figure aside.
Other than voltage; electric charges, pits and lands, magnetic field directions,
etc. are used for representing binary information in different devices. Let us see,
which digital components use what sort of physical quantity for representing
binary information :

CPU(Central Processing Unit):

In CPUs, the physical quantity that is used for representing the binary values is
voltage. Higher voltage pulses represents 1 whereas lower voltage pulses
represents 0.CPU works on the principle of TTL. In TTL, the High output voltage
value ranges between 2.7 to 5.0 volts, and the low output voltage value ranges
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between 0.0 to 0.4 volts. And the high input range allows 2.0 to 5.0 volts to be
recognized as HIGH(1), and the low input range allows 0.0 to 0.8 volts to be
recognized as LOW(0).
Fundamentally, the role of a CPU is to calculate, write and read data. At the core
level, this data is represented and moved around the system as 1s and 0s
(binary patterns). Lets look at a crude visual representation of how data is
represented at the electrical level:

The wavy line is the signal alternating between a high and low voltage to
represent 1 and 0. In this brief example the data pattern being transmitted from
the memory bus to the processor is 101010.

VOH (voltage output high) is the high voltage output level of the
transmitter that represents a logic 1, while VOL is the low output voltage
(voltage output low) representing a logic 0.
VREF is the reference voltage. The reference is typically set at the
midpoint between VOL and VOH.

If the voltage is higher than VREF determines it to be a logic 1, or if the signal

voltage is below VREF it is interpreted as a logic 0.

RAM(Random Access Memory):

RAM is a volatile memory.
The discrete values is
RAM
are
represented
using electric charge or
bistable latching circuitry based on its types .
The two types of Random Access Memory are:
DRAM:
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access
Memory. The binary information on DRAM are represented using electric charges.
It stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The
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capacitor can be either charged or discharged; these two states are taken to
represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.
In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic memory (DRAM), a
transistor and a capacitor are paired to create a memory cell, which represents a
single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information (0 or 1) and the
transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read
the capacitor or change its state.
A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store 1 in the
memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store 0, it is emptied. The
problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few
milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to
work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge
all of the capacitors holding 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory
controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation
happens automatically thousands of times per second.The capacitor in a
dynamic RAM memory cell is like a leaky bucket. It needs to be refreshed
periodically or it will discharge to 0. This refresh operation is where dynamic
RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time
or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it
takes time and slows down the memory.
SRAM:
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory . It is a type of volatile
semiconductor memory to store binary logic '1' and '0' bits. SRAM uses a
bistable latching circuitry made of Transistors to store each bit. Like in DRAM,
SRAM doesnt have a capacitor to store the data, hence SRAM works without
refreshing. In SRAM the data is lost when the memory is not electrically powered.
The SRAM cell consists of a bi-stable flip-flop connected to the internal circuitry
by two access transistors. When the cell is not addressed, the two access
transistors are closed and the data is kept to a stable state, latched within the
flip-flop. The flip-flop needs the power supply to keep the information. The data
in an SRAM cell is volatile (i.e., the data is lost when the power is removed).
However, the data does not "leak away" like in a DRAM, so the SRAM does not

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require

refresh

cycle.

Static RAM is fast because the six-transistor configuration (shown in figure) of its
flip-flop circuits keeps current flowing in one direction or the other (0 or 1). The 0
or 1 state can be written and read instantly without waiting for a capacitor to fill
up or drain (like in DRAM). However, the six transistors take more space than
DRAM cells made of one transistor and one capacitor.

Hard Disk:
In Hard disks, the physical quantity used for binary information representation is
magnetic field direction. Hard disk uses different patterns of magnetization in a
magnetisable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile memory. It
contains platters, which are made up of glass or aluminum. These platters are
used for storing information bits. Magnetic impulses with either positive or
negative polarities represent the data stored on the magnetic layer of a hard
disk's round, rigid platters. A positive polarity could represent 1 and a negative
polarity could represent 0.
A continually varying current is used for producing continually varying magnetic
field. Digital data can be recorded by alternating the direction of the current. To
minimize the data loss or errors, binary data is not solely determined by the
direction of magnetization in a domain. Instead, it is represented by the change
in magnetic orientation between two domains. If one bit of magnetic field has the
same direction as the one before it, that represents a 0 (no change). If one bit
of magnetic firld has the opposite direction as the one before it, that represents a
1(change). So, 1 is written by changing the direction of the current between
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two domains comprising a

bit, and 0 is written by
keeping the direction same.

Information is written to and read from the storage medium as it moves past
devices called read-and-write heads that operate very close (often tens of
nanometers) over the magnetic surface. The read-and-write head is used to
detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. In the
figure above, the field direction pointing upward in the vertical magnetized bits
represents 1 while the field direction pointing downward represents 0.

Optical Disk:
An optical disk records information in a spiral pattern on the surface of a disc
using laser beams. It encode binary data in the form of pits and lands on a
special material on one of its flat surfaces. The lands represent "1" and the pits
represent "0" in binary computing. As the disc rotates a laser beam is used to
produce a '1' every time it finds a pit edge. The bits are read by the disc drive
that uses a laser beam to distinguish between the lands and pits based on the
amount of scattering or deflection that occurs when the beam of light hits the
surface of the disc.

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When the laser beam strikes "land", the beam is

reflected onto a photoelectric cell. When it
strikes a "pit", the photocell will receive only a
weak reflection. Thus the photoelectrical cell
receives series of light pulses corresponding to
lands in the disc. These light pulses
binary 'digital' data. A simple
weak signal 0 and the in-focus signal
results in a pure digital playback
without alteration, every time,
without failure or degradation.

the pitss and

are the foundation of
substitution for the
1

When programs or data are

written onto the disc, a high
intensity
laser beam burns the
surface to inscribe them.
To write 1, the laser
beam is turned on, which
turns a pit up to the
reflecting layer. To write
0, the laser beam is not
turned on & hence, no pit
is burned.
A low intensity laser
beam reads the disc. It
can tell the binary 1s
from the binary 0s
because light is reflected
from
non-burned
surfaces called lands but not from the darkened pits because if light strikes a pit
then it scatters due to which it isnt reflected back to the sensor. When there is
no sign of reflection to the sensor, 0 is read otherwise 1 is read.

USB(Universal Serial Bus):

In USBs , the binary information are represented using gates.The gate allows or
prevents electricity from passing through it. It has a source where electricity
enters the transistor and a drain where electricity can leave. When the gate is
opened, electricity can pass through it and it is read as a 1 and when the gate is
closed, no electricity can pass through and it is considered a 0.

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When a voltage is applied to the control gate ,it sends electrons from the source
to start flowing towards the drain. In the process of the flowing, the electrons
gain energy to penetrate the oxide layer and gets stored in the floating gate. As
a result, the floating gate forms a negative charge (that is, bit value 1 is
generated). If no charge is formed on the floating gate then we consider it as a
bit value 0 .
Both the source and the drain regions
are rich in electrons while the section
marked p does not. If we apply a
positive charge to the bitline and the
wordline, electrons get pulled from the
source to these regions, creating a
tunnel where electricity can pass
through. This is essentially like
opening the gate. The presence of
electrons in this tunnel tells the
computer that the gates are open and
it reads it as a 1. The electrons will stay there indefinitely, even when the
positive voltages are removed and whether there is power supplied to the circuit
or not. The electrons can be flushed out by putting a negative voltage on the
wordlinewhich repels the electrons back the way they came, clearing the
floating gate and making the transistor store a 0 again.

By Sarbagya Dhaubanjar