Cicind Part 1

CICIND
Model Code for

Steel Chimneys
(Revision 1 - December 1999)
Amendment A - March 2002
Commentaries and Appendices

(December 2000)
Copyright CICIND 2000, 2002

ISBN 1-902998-17-0
Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 ODZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@dcind.org
CICIND
.~_":.'"
,(
Model Code for Steel Chimneys

REVISION 1 - DECEMBER 1999
COMMENTARIES ANO APPENDICES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Commentary
l - Glossary
Commentary
2 - Safety
Commentary
C3.l.
of commonly
3
used words
3 - Wind Load
Appendix 2 - Insulation,
AZ.l. Insulation
A2.l.!
Linings and Protective
GeneraI
.. .30
.30
A2.1.2. InslilatonDesign
Willd Speed
A2.I.3.
Aluminum Cladding
30
C3.1.I.
BasicWind Speed
A2.l.4.
MineraI Wool or Foam Inslilaton
.31
C3.1.2.
Wind Maps
A2.l.5.
Lined and Multiflue Chmneys
C3.l.3.
The Influence of Heighl
C3.2
The GUSl Faetor
C3.3
Vortex Shedding
C3A
Movements in tbe second mode
C3.5
Ovalling
C3.6
.. ,
A2.2. Linings
15
A2.2.l.
15
A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners
.16
Continuously to tbe Shell "
18
Static effects
.18
AZ.3.
C3.5.2
Dynamic effects
20
A2A. Protective and Decorative Treatments
Recommended Start-up Procedures
21
Appendix
4 - Fatigue
22
A3.l.
Commentary
5 - Openings
24
A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations
Commentary
6 - Chemical EtTects and InternaI
Corrosion
Chemical Effects
"
30
.31
.31
3I
A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached
C3.5.1
Interference effects
, .. '"
31
GeneraI
Commentary
C6.1.
Coatings
. .26
A3.3
26
Appendix
3 - Guyed Chimneys
Guyed Chimney expansion
Guy Ropes
4 - Access Ladders
32
32
.32
33
33
33
, .33
34
A4.1. GeneraI
.34
M.2.
.34
C6.l. 1. Attack Due to SlIlphur Oxides
26
C6.l.2
Effects or Plue Gas DeslIphurisalion
26
C6.1.3.
Anack Due to Chlorne, Chlorides
A4.3. Materials
.34
and Pluorides
26
A4.4. Finish
.34
.34
Def.nitions
C6.2.
Intemal Corrosion
26
A4.5. Stringers
C6.3
Selection of materials
26
A4.6. Rungs
34
1- Base
28
A4.7. Safety Hoops
.34
.35
Appendix
PIate Design
A 1.1
Simple base plates
28
A4.8. Rest PIatforms and Landings
A1.2
Base plates wtb gussets
28
A4.9. Attachment to Chimney
35
A4.1 O. Access Hooks
35
A 1.3
Baseplates with gussets and compression rings
28
AIA
Groutng
29
DISCLAIMER
This CICIND document is presemed to tbe best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CIClND is not, oor are any of its
members, to be held responsible for any failure aIIeged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of informatioo
published by tbe associatiou in a Model Code or in any otber way.
CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-800l, Zurich, Switzerland
Copyright by CICIND, Zurich
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
page3
FOREWORD
In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steel
Chimneys was published. This is now expanded by the pubIication of
the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code.
Cravat (2.19) - An upstand fixed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate

to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also known as
counter flashing.
Cross-section - The section of the load bearing steel shell including
the corrosion allowance.
The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the

principles set out in the Model Code. It is divided into two parts. The
Commentaries cover the theoretical derivation of the formulae and
Damping device (2.20) - A device fitted to the structural shell to

increase its structuraldamping.
the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices

more practicalconsiderations.
Donbling plate (2.21) - A plate fixed to the shell to reinforce it

where increased stresses occur.
relate to
Double skin chimney (2.22) - A. chimney consisting of an outer

load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the fIue
gases. Also known as a dual wall chmney.
COMMENTARY No.1
GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY
USED TERMS
The numbers in brackets are given in figures C.1.l

showing typical chimney designs.
Drag coefficient - see wind force coefficient

and C.1.2.,
Access door (2.01) - A door for the entry of personnel or other means
of inspection.
Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) - A device fitted to the structural shell
to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding
Anchor bolts - See Holding down bolts
Base cone (2.04) - A truncated cone incorporated immediately above
the baseplate of a chimney.
Baseplate (2.05) - A horizontal plate fixed to the base of a chimney.
Also called a bearing plate.
Base 51001 (2.07) - A construction comprising two vertieal plates,
welded to the chimney shell and to the baseplate, supporting a
compression ring (2.14) through which a holding down bolt passes.
Blanking off plate (2.08) - An imperforate plate fitted immediately
beneath the inlet of a chimney to prevent the waste gases reaching the
lower portion of the chimney. Also known as afalse bottom.
Boiler mounted
foundation.
cbirnney - A chimney supported by a boiler and its
Bracket (2.10) - A construction providing resistance to lateral

displacement of the chimney andlor supporting part or alI of the
weight of the chimney.
Bracketed chimney (2.11) - A chimney in which not alI extemal
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural
sheIl and for which brackets, attached to an adjacent structure, are
provided to ensure stability. Also known as a braced chimney.
Breeching
- see inlet (2.28)
Cap plate (2.12) - A sloping or convex plate fitted to the top of the
structural shelI, covering the area between it and the liners and
incorporating cravats through which the liners protrude.
Drain pipe (2.23) - A pipe which connects a tundish to a point

outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate.
FIue - see liner
Guy (2.24) - A wire rope attached at one end to a chimney and
anchored at the other so as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral
displacement of the chimney
Guy band (2.25) - A steel section fitted around the outside of a
chimney with provision for the attachment of guys.
Guyed chimney (2.26) - A chimney in which not ali extemaIly
applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried excJusively by the structural
shell and for which guys are provided to ensure stability.
Holding down bolts (2.27) - Bolts built into a concrete foundation,
brick base or supporting framework to previde anchorage at the base
of the chimney.
Hoops - Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders.
Inlet (2.28) - A short duct fixed to the shell or baseplate of a chimney
for the entry of fIue gases.
Intermediate
cone (2.29) - A truncated cone incorporated
chimney shell at an intermediate level.
in the
Jointing f1ange (2.30) - A steel section fitted to the end of a chimney

section to enable sections to be connected together.
Ladder boss - A boss welded to the chimney shell into which an access
hook or eye can be screwed to provide fixing for temporary ladders.
Lateral supports (2.31) - Supports positioned at appropriate levels
within the structural shell to locate the Iiners, allowing independent
expansion of the shell.
Lightning
protection
system - System
continuity between the chimney and earth.
to provide
electrical
Liners (2.32) - FIue gas ducts contained within the structural shell.
Cleaning door (2.13) - A door, normaIly at the base of the chimney,

to permit the remova! of fiue dust.
Liner base (2.33) - A suitable support positioned at a convenient

height above the baseplate of the structural steel shell to carry the
weight of the liners.
Compression ring (2.14) - A steel plate welded to the sheIl which

transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the holding down
bolts. Also known as a base ring.
Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) -Amaterial applied to the internai

face of the chimney to prevent the fIue gases contacting the inner
surface of the steel shell.
Cope band (2.15) - A steel section attached to the top of the chimney
around its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance
at this leveL
Cope hood (2.16) - A hood fitted externaIly to the top of a liner,
covering the upstand of the cap plate, to prevent the ingress of
rain water.
Corrosion test piece (2.17) - A fixed or removable steel plate insert,
generally of lesser thickness than the shell of the chimney, in contact
with the waste gases and fitted at strategie points where maximurn
corrosion is expected to occur.
Cowl (2.18) - A conical or dished cap fitted to the top of the chimney
to reduce the ingress of rain water. Also known as a rain cap.
Multiflue cbirnney (2.35) - A group of two or more chimneys within

a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or
more liners within a structural shell.
Nett section - The section of the load bearing steel sbell without
corrosion allowance.
Reinforcement
- Structural shapes or plates at or near to shell
aperatures to strengthen the shell.
Roofplate (2.36) - A plate whieh follows the contour of the roof
round the chimney where it passes through the roof of a building.
Also known as jlashing.
Rungs - Horizontal bars in ladders.
page4
CICINO Model Code -Commentaries
Safety system - Proprietary fali arrest system fixed to ladder rungs

or beside the ladder to gve a safe fixing for attachment of operatives'
safety harnesses.
Self supporting chimney
applied Ioads (e g. wind)
sheli and which, together
under alI design conditions
and Appendices
Stayed chimney (2.40) - A chimney in which not alI externally

applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried excIusively by the structural
shell and far which stays, connected to another structure, are
provided to ensure stability.
(2.37) - A chimney in which externally

are carried exclusively by the structural
with the foundation, will remain stable
without additional supporto
Stiffening ring - Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to

maintain the chimney shell circular during fabrication
and
transportation.
Strakes - see aerodynamic stabilisers
Splitter plate (2.38) - A vertical plate welded to the interior of the

shell between two horizonta!Iy opposed inlets to divert the fiow ofthe
ftue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of ftue
gases from one inletinto the other.
Stringer - Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.
Stay (2.39) - A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive

resistance to the lateral displacernent of the chimney. ALso known as
a Lateral brace.
Typic:al grteralarrangement
of three types of self supporting steelchimney.
The numbers are related to the texi
c OPE
f1QOO
2 16
TOP CONE 2.42
--HELICAL
AEROOYNAMIC
SI ABlllZERS
MINER A L WOOl
INSULA 110N
......
OAHPING
OEVICE 220
2.03
I
l.INEIl 232
JOINTING
Fl ANGE 2.3D
L,,,,"~
,,,,,,
~
L1NERS 2.32
I
I
I
1. .~..;
I
I
..~.
I
I
--STRunURAL
SHELL 241
---INTERMEDIA
CONE
I
{.",_~.:."_."""
..il
TE
1--STRUCTlIRAL
SHELl 24
219
JOINTING
'FLANGE Z3D
ACCESS
HOOKS 202
---....
--STRUCTURAl
SHrtl141
INI.ETS 2.28
TUNOISH 143
/'
SPLITTER
PlA TE 2.38
lINER
BASE 2.33
BASE CONE 204
INl
DRAIN
PIPE 2 23 -.--.
.
BASE
STOOL 207.
ns
228
A(CESS
/ACCESS
........-OOOR 2.01
. __ OOOR 201
:IT.....
[/COHPRESSION
RING 2.14
__
BASE STOOl 2.01
'-...
BASE OR Bf ARING
HOlOING
f'lAH
BOl.TS
zos
SELF SUPPORTING
;;ELF SlJPPORTING
I1ULl.!..FLUjJ;HIMNE
235
'BASEPLA TE
lQS
HOlOING OOWN
BOllS 2.n
DDWN
z.n
CHIMNEY
237
Figure C1.1
DOUBLE SKIN
CHIMNEY
Z2Z
CICINO Model Code - Commentaries
and Appendices
page5
Structural shell (2.41) - The main extemal structure of the chimney,

excluding any reinforcing or flanges.
Vanes - See Aerodynamic stabiIizers

Venturi. - See Top cone
Top cone (2.42) - A truncated cane or other device fitted at the top
of a chimney to increase the gas exit velocity.
Weatherhood (2.44) - A hood designed to shed raio water clear of

the cravat and prevent its entry into the building. Also known as
Tundish (2.43) - A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided

with facilities far drainage. Also known as afa/se bottom.
counter flashing.
Wind foree coefficient - The ratio between the wind pressure on the
chimney and the equivalent pressure on the same area normal to the
wind direction.
Thned mass damper - A forro of damping device which employs a

pendulum, tuned to the chimney's natural frequency. The moving
part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy
absorbing device.
Typical generaI arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys.

The numbers are related to the text
/COWL
(OPE BANO
215
216
(oPE 6AND
215 '
=
'-'
. .....-- 239
2.15
(OPE SAND
.
215
CORROSION
TEST
STAY
-lOP
O
O
,/COPE6AND
-=-..
i='"
P1EC[--I-O
211
SUPPORfiNG
FRAME
BRACKE1S -~
2.10
SECflON
~JOINTING
Fl.ANGES
230
JOINfiNG
FLANGES
2.30
GUY
\oIIRE
2.2.
i
.J
ROOFPLA
236
2.11
(RAVAT
2.19
,I
,!;y
TE
"
I
I
I'I--INTERMEDIA
S[(fI0N
DOUBLING
PLATES
TE
221
fLANGC
230
: /ClEANING
JOINTING
,
/OOOR
213
'INLET
226
TiON'
INlET
228
208
--BASE
ACCESS
FRAME
SEOION
DOOR
201
~'D
ELEVA
BLANKING
OH PLATE
213
~A(CESS
DOOR
2.01
BASEPLA TE
205
CLEANING
DOORS
NLE!
228
~'
::.---STAY
----
2.39
STArs
_5UPPORTING
/
/BASEPLATE
205
239
COLUHN
o&f-CHIMNEY
FLUE
m=------SUPPORfiNG
BRACKET
PLAN
PLAN
GUYED
CHIMNEY
226
STAYEO
CH/MNEY
WITH THREE FLUES

(CENTRAL
COLUMN)
STAYEO
Figure C1.2
PLM!
CH/MNEY
WITH FOUR FLUES

(EXTERNAL
240
240
210
FRAME)
[2RACKETED
SINGLE
FLUE CHIMNEY
211
page 6
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
COMMENTARY
No.2
The principalload is due to wind. The moment is proportional to the

wind pressure, the extreme values of which foIlow a Fisher- Tippett
Type I (Fr!) distribution as described in reference 3.
SAFETY
The safety of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors
at the ultimate limit state. These partial safety factors are Iisted in
paragraph 5.3 of the code. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the
maximum stress due to the characteristic load, increased by the
appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress,
divided by the partial material safety factor. The level of wind load
factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycle fatigue,
caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, can not occur .
Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor In The Wind

Direction (Temperate Zones)
This distribution has a Cumulative Distribution

given by P(q) = exp( -exp( -a.(q - u)
Function
(CDF)
in which the constants are the mode u and the dispersion 1Ia.. In
temperate climates the product U.a. = 5; other values may obtain
eIsewhere (see ref.Z)
Now, the characteristic wind is defined as having annual probability
of being exceeded = 0.02
It foIlows that the charactenstic
. . pressure qk = q ( 1 + ~
In(50) )
This is converted to standard measure by substituting q = x. u
The partialload factor for wind load in the wind direction is derived
as folIows by considering the soci al and economie consequences of
failure or damage requiring the chimney's repair or replacement. This
involves deriving the acceptable probability of failure (P) duriI1Jgthe
chimney's lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRIA
(U.K.) Report No. 63, entitled "Rationalisation
of Safety and
Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes"[l]:
then Ps1(x) = exp( -exp( -au(x-l)

The probabiIity distribution function (pdi)
d
= dx PBl(x)=auexp(-au(x-l)Ps1(x)
Th e 50 -year Wlll
. d pressure IS
.
Xs50
= l
+-au
In(50)
.h (C2.l)
The resistance is assumed norma1ly distributed
standard deviation <Tr
Where
nr = average number of people near the structure during the
period of risk
The characteristic value is
= design life of structure (assumed to be 20 years for a

steel chimney)
The load factor F = xs50 =
Dd
Xr5%
xr5%
= Xr -
with mean Xr and
1.645<Tr
xr-1.645<Tr
l
+-au
In(50)
Ks = a sodal criterion factor, given in table C2.!

:.
Table C2.1 - Social Criterion Factor

Nature 01 structure
=.F ( 1+ -au ) + 1.64S<Tr

In(50)
l
Ks
Placesof publicassembly,Dams
Domestic,OfficeorTradeand Industry
0.005
0.05
Bridges
Towers,Masts,OffshoreStructures
0.5
5
In order to use equation C2.! it is necessary to estimate the value of

nr. It is suggested [l, 2] that allowance be made for the number of
people Iikely to be dose to the structure at the time that maximum
loading can be expected. Since maximum loading is most Iikely to
occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one
will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except
through necessity.
If we assume nd = 20 years and Ks as 0.05 for "normal" chimneys
and 0.005 far criticaI chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be
estimated as summarised in table C2.2:
Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities
environmental economie risk
Ks
.05
0.005
10-4
10-3
.05
P
Environrnent
10-4
xr
for
nr1
0.1
the pdf of the resistance is Pr(x) =
1 x-xrexp ( -"2
<Tr~
O)?)
-;;:;-
The CDF far the wind pressure in period T years is PsT(q) = (P'I(qT
The effect of altering the period of exposure from l to T years is to
. the mode from 1 to l + -In(T)'thWl out a l'tenng th e s h ape of
shltt
a.u
the distribution.
Hence the CDF is PsT(x) = exp( -exp( -au(x-
I) +In (T)))
The probability of failure is given by PFT = I(1-PsT(x)'Pr(x)dx

o
Now the factor F =

the material factor.
Assuming
if
if
'Yw' 'Ym
where
'Yw is
the wind load factor and
'Ym
'Ym= 1.1, then

'Yw= lA PF2o= 8.10-4
'Yw= 1.5 PF20 = 3.10-4
When faiIure is ductile, additional safety against collapse is derived

from the chimney's residual strength, atter mobilisation of its
allowable (yield) strength at one point of its periphery (Le.. at the
ultimate Iimit state).
Thc probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of

resistance and loading.
When failure is by buckling, additionaI safety is implicit in the

reiationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength
and the yield strength of the material. This relationship inc1udes an
additional partial safety faetor to ensure that the criticaI buekling
stress is sufficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves
used as a basis for the design (see ref. 5 ). For normal steel chimneys,
this additional partial safety factor lies between 1.2 and 1.33,
depending upon the diameterl thickness fatio.
The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally

disributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of standard deviation
to mean value) approximately 10%.
It is, therefore, proved that wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will
ensure failure (collapse) probabilities of 10-3 and 10-4, required by
"Normal" and "CriticaI" chimneys, respectively.
It follows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of

failure of 10-3 for a "Normal" chimney and 10-4 far a "CriticaI"
chimney.
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries
('
and Appendices
References
(1) Report 63 "Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors

.
in structural codes" - CIRIA (U.K.), 1977
(2)
BS 8100 Part 2, British Standards Institution, 1996
(3)
Bierrum, N.R. - Letter to the Editor,

CICINn REPORT VoI.5, No.1, 1989
(4) ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995

(5)
'European Recommendations for steel construction' European Convention for Construction Steelwork <ECCS), 1978.
page7
page
COMMENTARY
2.11
l
~--V
WINDLOAD
./'"
Vb
At tbe time of publication of tbe revised CICIND Model Code far

Steel Chimneys (1999), tbe wind load mode1 currently used in ENV
1991-2-4 (eventually intended to forro tbe basis of Eurocode 1, Part
2-4: Actions OD StructureS - Wnd Actions) has been ShOWDby
calibration studies by CICIND and otbers to be unacceptable. In view
of tbe time expected to elapse before an acceptable modeI for
Eurocode 1 is agreed by all parties, CICIND have decided for tbe time
being to retain tbe wind Ioad modeI described in tbe 1988 version of
this Model Code. A recent paper[l] has shown tbat this model gives
safe and reasonably accurate estimates of tbe wind load on chimneys.
C3.1 Wind-speed
As tbe basis for tbe wind-Ioad, tbe hourly mean windspeed has been
retained. Tbe wind-Ioad is caJculated after estimating a turbulence
intensity, by a "gust factor" metbod[2J.
-...-.-./.-r- y
-..-rL--
./ --./
or
and Appendices
built up terroin
?pen counlry
l.S
1.~
1.3
sea cOil$l
1.2
1.1
1.8
3800
600 300
60
30
--+- t
(secs)
Fig. C3.2 - Relationship between windspeed

and its averaging time
Table C3.1 - Relationship between commonly quoted
windspeeds at 10m height above grade for
"open ground" situations
mean
1.0
1.5
1.45
1.45
1.4
1.05
1.0
0.7
0.75
3-second
0.95
1.0
1.05
5-second
gust
1O-minute
gust
0.95
0.65
0.7
1.0
Hourly
mean
1O-minute
mean
5-second
3-second
gust
Hourly mean
C3.1.1. Basic wind-speed

Tbe basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-Ioads is tbe wind-speed
averaged aver one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at
the chimney Iocation, which has a probability of exceedence of once
in 50 years.
Tbe value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be
obtained from data collected by meteorological stations.
When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than 50
years, tbe value of tbe basic windspeed must be extrapolated using
tbe Fisher-Tippett Type l expression for tbe statistical distribution of
extreme values, as follows:
P(V)
= exp {-exp [ -:-Q(V
- u)))
Where:
P(V)
probabiIity of excedence of velocity V during

the relevant period
sIope of curve in Fig. C3.1
intercept on vertical axis of curve in Fig. C3.1
For a probability of exceedence, once in 50 years, P(V) = 0.02
1
In some cases lower values for u and -
are found (see lit. [3] ).
The relationship between the wind-speed

given in figure C3.1
-,/./
--
f-'"
hurrJc.ne lOnas
nOrmal wind condition

(no hurrieaneJ
I..
0.1
lO
SO
100
C3.1.2 Wind Maps

When no results of wind-speed measurements are available an
indication of tbe basic wind-speed is given in the figures C3.3, C3.4,
C3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and C3.8 for Europe, USA, Asia, Australia, Africa
and BraziI.
Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing
instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind ve10cities at specific
locations. In such cases the customer should specify tbe wind
velocity (Vb) to be used in the designo The map showing isopleths for
Africa is unofficial and should be used with cantiano
C3.1.3. The influence of the height

Tbe increase of tbe wind-speed with height is in accordance with tbe
powerlaw:
and the return period is
If the averaging time of tbe measurement is shorter than one hour, the
hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using figure C3.2. In
this figure tbe ratio between tbe hour1y mean and shorter averaging
periods of the wind-speedis given for various types of terrain. Table
C3.l gives a quick reference for "Open country" terrai n situations.
..-::
......"
Note:- To convert "Fastest mile" windspeed to the above timeaveraged windspeeds, use tbe relationship (velocity = distance /
time) to deterrnine the time taken to traverse one mile. This time
should then be entered in fig. C3.2.
SOD
lODO
_iinveart
Fig. C3.1 - Relationship between wind-speed
and its return period
Vb is tbe basic windspeed (Le. measured at 10m above open, level
terrain, without obstructions). The scale factor "kp,zo" and exponent

"Q" depend on tbe terrain roughness around tbe chimney. Tbe values
= 1 and Cl = 0.14 have been chosen in tbe Model Code. This is
kp,zO
assumed to cover the most common case when the chimney is not in
the centre of cities and not at tbe sea share, but somewhere in
between and c1ear above tbe surrounding buildings.
When structures such as buildings are being designed, it is normal to
assume different values of Ci. and kp,z" relevant to the terrain
considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in
town centres than in open country. When tali structures, such as
chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity gradient
continues to be intluenced by the terrain over which it previously
travelled. In some cases, tbe previous terrain continues to be of
influence after tbe wind has travelled by as much as 5km over
rougher terrain. In addition, the gust factor is a function of the
turbulence, so tbat in town centres, even tbough tbe wind velocity
may be Iess than in open country, tbe gust factor could be
considerably higher, partially cancelling out tbe reduction in dynamic
pressure. As a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep
tbe Model Code simple and lise just one terrain category.
page9
and Appendices
o
O
0-500 M.S.L
ma", JlXlOm.
JISW
3DlXl",. H.S.l.
Mean
Qbcp".
SOOm-1500mH.Sl..
5P"d
io>
open t.nan.
M.S.L
mlS
cl
Dm
R.tun p..-cxI 50~.
10 min. mean
\
.J
...
Fig. C3.3 Wind speeds in m/s for Europe (10 min. mean)
(note - to convert to Vb - hourly mean, divide by 1.05)
l,
!Il
'6
c::
8-
c.
90{4O)
"O
c:
l'Il
100(40)
!Il
or:
l'Il
'E
Q)
E
E
Cl
Q)
"8
90(40)
G
G5
"O
::::!:
z
C3
C3
t:.J
w
-~.
(65)
(mls)
(47)
(76)
(56)
110{49} 120{54}
100(45)
130(58)
Guam Islands
American
Samoa
Virgin
90(40)
Puerto
Rico
Location
145
170
105
125
Vmph
Hawail
~
Special Wind Region
100(45)
110(49)
Notes:
1. Values are nominai design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour
(mls) at 33ft (10m) above ground. To derive Vb divide by 1.5.
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Island and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind
speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind
regions shall be examined for unusal wind conditions.
o..CI>
Cl
l'Il
C.
Fig C3.4 - Wind Speeds in USA
CIC/ND
ModelCode- CommentariesandAppendices
i:-
Fig C3.5 - Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)
page11
~
'6
c
a.
~
REGION C
Tropical
Cyclones
0.
Q)
uc
ca
III
.~
c
smoothed
Insels trom coastline
tf 100
50 km
Q)
E
E
O
I
Q)
U
o
REGION D
uo
Severe Tropical
Cyclones
O
Qi
~
Z
Cl
(3
(3
'2.00
250
Maryoorough
300
Basic windspeed
Vb
(hourly mean)
Regions
mls
25
29
34
41
'\)
REGION A
Normal
C\I
,Gl
g>
a.
Fig 3.6 - Basic Windspeeds
for Australia
QICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
page 13
- --- - -
Tropical
storm zone
'
Fig C3.7 - Basic wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa. Isopleths shown dotted should be used with caution. Far final designs local
regulations should be used in ali cases.
crCIND Model Code - Commentaries
page 14
70
50"
45'
40'
35"
I
O
10'
____
--l
15"
20
----
25"
Fig. C3.S - Windspeeds in mls far Brazil (3-second gusts)

Note - To convert to basic windspeed (hourly mean), divide by 1.5
and Appendices
,P=-
page
and Appendices
C3.2 The gust factor

The proposed method for the calcuIation of the bending moments in
the chimney is based on the gust factor method (see lil [4])
=G
- The second term {l - [(Jy/(aL .d)J2} gives the positive

aerodynamic damping - important for large amplitudes and
ensuring that the response is self-limiting.
wrn(z)
where:
(z)
Wg
= the
load at level
G = the gust factor - a function of wind turbulence and the

chimney's natural frequency, damping and height
Wm(Z)
= the
load due to the mean wind velocity
An extension of this method has been proposed by Eol Vickery (see

]it. [5]) to account for the inertiaI response of a chimney and give
more accurate values of the bending moments at levels above the
baseo This method has been adopted in the CICIND Model Code for
Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where
steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often over the
chimney heighto In the case of steel chimneys however, which are
lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inerti al
response) and for which there is less scope for changes of thickness
with height, it was decided to use the simpler conventional methodo
C3.3 Vortex shedding

Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicular to the wind direction
may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a
natural frequency f of the chimneyo This occurs at a mean wind
velocity "V" equal to the criticaI wind velocity "V cr" determined by:
V
= V cr = f d / St
in which d is the predominant

and St is StrouhaI numbero
response induced by the chimney's own motion. The aerodynarnic

parameters K" and aL incorporate the effects of the motion-induced
response by means of aerodynamic damping:
- The first term {Ka op' tfl/1llo} introduces negative
aerodynamic damping
This conventional approach is:

Wg(Z)
15
For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the

aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurateIy by the first
term onlyo
It can be seen that, when the structural damping t is much greater
than the negative aerodynarnic damping, (Jy is quite small. As the two
vaIues converge, however, the increase in (Jy becomes dramatic, until
the self limiting amplitude is approached and increases become
smaller (see Fig. C309).
The maximum value "y" of the top deftection amplitude is calculated
by multiplying the standard deviation (J y with a peak factor kp'
Leo y = kp olTyoFor small amplitudes below approxo 1-2% of the
diameter, the peak-factor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochastic
type of vibration. For large amplitudes, the peak-factor is equal to
about 1.5, corresponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant
amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases
gradually with decreasing amplitudeo However, for the sake of
simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of
lTy= 4% of diametero
(J'y
..o(C303ol)
chimney diameter over the top third
Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of

the chimneyo The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton
number Sc defined as:
41To{01llo
Sc
..o(C3.302)
poa-jJ
in which { is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effective mass

per unit height of the chimney as defined in the model code and p is
the density of air.
The risk of large vortex-induced vibrations depends on a combination
of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the
incorning wind field. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or high
Scruton numbers reduces the risk of large vortex-induced vibrations.
A structure with a given Scruton number may be stable in the kind of
turbulence f10w normally encountered but become unstable in rare
cases with low turbulence occurring under stable atmospheric
stratificationo
Fig. C3.9 - Relationship between O'y and Structural Damping (9

for given values of Ka, mo and d
Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that the
maximum value y of the top deflection amplitude (Leo zero to
maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 709):
"o
where the constants
Cl
and
Cz
(C303.4)
are equal to:

..o(C303.5)
C3.3.1 Structural Amplitudes

The standard deviation
by, see ref. [6]:
"(Jy"
of the top structural deftection is given

cz
p tflo CaZ d
K. mo . St4 . h
QLZ
"o
(C3.3.6)
~=_l_.
d
StZ
Ca
{-{Kaopotfl/mo}o{l-[lTy/(aL'd)]2}
.ptfl.!i
mo h
In smooth f10w conditions, aL = approximate!y 0.4 (see table l),

which gives the foIlowing expressions far Cl and C2 (see Mode! Code,
7.2.402):
... (C3.3.3)
Cl
in which Ca, Ka and aL are aerodynamic

parameterso The
aerodynamic parameter Ca is found from the generaIised vortexinduced wind load on structures without any significant additional
= O.OS{l- [~mo/(Ka p'd2)]}
C 2-
0.16 p.tf3, C.2

Ka 'm,. 8(4. h
CICIND Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices
page 16
For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scruton numbers less

than 4'lTK", the influence of the constant ~ s negligble and the
amplitude of the structural deflection (O - max.) can be found from:
y/d = kp.(2'C1P5 = OAkp {I-
[Sc/(4'lTK,,)]}O.5
... (C3.3.7)
In the present simplified and approximate approach, the aerodynamic

damping parameter Ka is estimated for smooth flow cases as a
function of Reynolds number <Re) only. A function of longtudinal
turbulence intensity, "f' gives the reduction in turbulent flow, Le.:
... (C3.3.8)
The aerodynarnic damping parameter,

various values of Re is given in Table 1.
Ka,max
for smoothflow
Re = lO
0.30
0.15
0.00
at
lO
15
20
25
20
25
Scruton number, Se.
The function Kv may approximately be determined by:-
Re,;= IO
KJl)
= ]-3]
for O ,,;;],,;;0.25 and
KJl)
= 0.25
for l> 0.25.
0.30
For terrain category 1 (Le. within 5km of open sea), the minimum
turbulence intensity, lmin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities
less than or equa! lOm/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than
10m/s. Far alI other terrain categories the minimum turbulence
intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than
or equal to 7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 7m/s.
Further studies are needed to clanfy the influence of turbulence more
accurately.
0.15
0.00
IO
15
Scruton number. Se.

Table C3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth flow. For
Reynolds numbers between the Iimits given, the aerodynamic
parameters are determined by Iinear interpolation using
In(Re) as argument
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.4
Re>
1lJ6
interpolation
Re
=0.01
5 .105
parameter
Aerodynamic
0.4
1.5
Re 0.02
< 1()5
Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced

turbulence
intensity
for Reynolds
and 106, respectively.
vibrations as a function of
numbers
equal to 105
C3.3.2 Bending Moments
... (C3.3.9)
ni
= relevant
The amplitude should be limited to ensure that stresses are within

permissible lirnits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue
life. In addition, the amplitude should not be large enough to alarm
bystanders. This limit is difficult to define in generai terms as
bystanders' a!arm is subjective, depending upon how often the
response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the
bystanders' perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting
amplitude for this aspect is, therefore left to the owner and the
designer to agree for each individuai case. Some guidance for highly
visible chimneys with low values of V cr 1Om/s within 5km of sea
or lalee-shore, < 7m/s in inland locations) is given below:
Criticai Chimneys - Top double amplitude (peale to peale)
should be not more than 10% top diameter
The bending moments in the chimney can be calculated from the

inertialload per unit length (Fw) corresponding to the relevant mode
shape (~i)'where:
where
Figure C3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations as function of

turbulence intensity and Reynolds number. It is assumed that
mol pd2 = 50 and h/d = 30, which influence thelow amplitude
part of the curves shown.
Normal Chimneys - Top double amplitude (peak to peale)

should be not more than 25% top diameter
These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys andJor
those with higher values of Vcr (Le. those which rarely see large
amplitude response).
natura! frequency
C3.4 Movements in the second mode

Ymax
= maximum
amplitude at the relevant natural frequency
or from the bending moment due to a force at 1/6 of the chimney

height from the top, causing the same deftection Ymax'
Just as in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode,

a response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplitude
exceeding about 4% of the top diameter, triggers an increased
response, initiated by the chimney's own movement.
page 17
In the case of fundarnental mode movements, response is only

important to vortices shed over a length near to the chirnney top, equaI
to abour 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11.
857
tIO..
2r r~iam~tlr
top amplitude in tbe first mode. The stresses, however, will be about
the same in each case.
l' mode
2' mode
1/
-- --
2.0000
top-deflection 2~""1
[MIS r.m.s.p
H<
REAL
0.0
10.000
HZ
100.00
J7
top
top deflection
21t=O.15xl'"
Vcr = 5;9 m/s, Scr = 4.8, f = 40 hz
\V
enerqy 1",. enerqy 2-
Fig. C3.13 -Stresses
)1
IO
stress
2" u
stress
l"
and energy levels in first and second mode
This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a fulI-scale

chimney - see fig. C.3.14. The measured values in this trace are of
stresses at the base and it can be seen that many of the stress cyc1es
in that part of the response in the second mode are much the same as
those in the first mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however,
only about 15% of the first mode amplitudes.
0.0
10.000
HZ
100.00
top
La
.H
Vcr = 4.2 m/s, Scr =18.7, f = 29.5 hz
!~
~'f
Fig. C3.11 - Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal

(velocity signal), measured at Vcr in the wake of the model,
measured over top half
00
di -B.D
CQ
-.2
-.
The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur at the top (see
fig. C.3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H /4.
This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex
shedding is iinportant will be much smalIer in the case of second
mode response.
<
-.6
-.
FirsIMo(J.
-1.0
B.1SE:+aa
1.61E'+61
z."6E:+atJ
4'---llme
1, = 0.7 Hz
/"
3.~at+011
1.1et+6I'
(secs)~
12 = 2.6 Hz
Fig. C3.14
The proPOSaIfor determining the top amplitudes in the second mode is
given in fig. C.3.15. The stresses in both the first and second modes
should be taken into account when deaIing with the effects of fatigue.
Fig. C3.12 - Mode shapes, first and second mode
, 0'1.
In the second mode, the energy due to f1uctuating wind pressures will
be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a
chimney responding in the second mode will never be as great as that
reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode. This
is because much more wind-induced energy would be required in the
second mode. This is iIlustrated in Fig. C.3.13, which shows the
bending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode as
in the first mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the
other hand, the energy required to cause the same base stress in the
second mode is almost the same as that in the first mode, even though
top deflection in 2nd mode is much smaIler.
The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that
more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the
chimney is in the first or the second mode. It therefore follows that
the top amplitude in the second mode would only be about 1/6 of the
-- ....
---- -""~---""----l
Re < 3.105
IO
Sc-
15
Fig. C3.15 - Relationship between Scruton Number

and top amplitude
2.0
paga
18
horizontal seetions of an unstiffened shell due to the total wind
C3.5 Ovalling
The static as well as the dynamicaIly fiuctuating pressure causes a
varying pressure over the circumference of the chimney. The varying
wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a "static" ovalling
defonnation of the cic1e. The dynarnics in the wind, including vortex
shedding can cause a vibration of the circular shape, the lowest order
mode and most likely to occur being that of ovalling.
distribution, involving mainly the cos<\>and cos2<\>terms (fig. C.3.18)
A major part of the stresses on horizontal seetions is due to the

transition from a crcular shape at the base to an ovai shape.
C3.5.1 Static ovalling load

The distribution ofthe wind pressure around the circurnference ofthe
shell can be written as:
p
= Po'
{-0.823
+ 0.448cos</J + 1.l15cos2</J + OAOOcos3</J
- 0.113cos4</J - 0.027cos5</J}
... (C.3.5.1)
-
where: Po
the wind pressure
Wmd
Direction
0.5 . p . v2
</J = Ang1e between wind direction and point on

crcumference under consideration
The first term (0.823 Po) is an overall suction and causes a small
uniform tensile force on vertical cross sections of the shell.
The seeond term (0.448 Po . eos</J) is the pressure in the wind
direction (fig. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the foree
coefficent (shape factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. It causes no
departure from a eireular cross-section.
Fig. C.3.18 - Circumferential wind pressure and deflected shape
Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fairly straight-forward,

as the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam flexure and
restraint of ovalling deformation oeeur at the base at 180 to the wind
direetion (Le. on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code
gives the expression:-
{tensile sheli stress
Fig. C.3.16 - Wind pressure and deflected

shape due to Pocosepterm
The third terrn (1.115 . Po . cos</J-
fig. C.3 .17) causes ovallng.
= tensile
beam sress
(1
{6 / [(l/r)2. (t/r)]).
Therefore, for t/r = 0.008 and IIr = 50, the increase in tensile
stress = 30%. This is probably unimportant in the design of ehimney
shells, which are usually governed by compressive stresses, but it is
important in designing the base joint and holding-down bolts. The Model
Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) to be
used for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio < 25.
The position regarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8)

Iimited itself to consideration of stresses at the base, at 0 to the wind
direction. Bere, the compression due to beam flexure is reduced or
even reversed by the shell stresses induced loeally by restraint of
ovalling deformation. However, increases in compressive stress are
possible elsewhere. Inereases in compressive stress are due to either
of two effects:
Fig. C.3.17 - Wind pressure and deflected

shape due to Pocos2epterm
The remaining terrns have little infiuence.
C3.5.1.1 Unstiffened shells

C3.5.1.1.1 - Effect on vertical moments
(stresses on horizontal sections)
An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened sheli
(assurning a rigidly fixed cireular base) due to the ovalling load has
been given elsewhere in the literature[8J. This considered stresses on
l)
At the base and between values of <\>about 60 and 120 to the

wind, the redueed compression stress due to bea.rn flexure (function
of <\has to be added to the compressive shell stress due to restraint
of ovalling (function of2<\ - see fig. C3.l9. Significant increases
in total compressive stress only occurr at relatively small values of
tJr for l/r ratios less than 30 - see table C3.5.1
2) For relatively thck shells at low l/r ratios, increases of

compression stress occurr on the down-wind side at 0 to the wind
direction, at heights about 6 diameters above the base - see table
C3.5.2. This is due to contrafiexure effeets, associated with
restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height.
CICINO. Model Code - Commentaries
r'"
Stresses
Ur
20
0.0
4.06.0
2.06.0
4.070
0.03.3
1.42.5
3.23.7
1.990
1.73.7
4.8
6.070
0.07.3
MPa
MPa
1.690
shell
4.870
I/r
9.270
2.390
beam
stress
11.570
beam
stress
degrees
cjl stress
Base of Unstiffened Chimney
page 19
and Appendices
max.
MPa
rafio
total stress
atcjl
at cjl
MPa
at
7.3
1.2
.4
11.0
MPa
20
1.43
1.04
761.3
.8
11.4
0.4
111.8
1.32
1.03
.6zstress
0.9
23.1
8.8
1.5
.2
at
1.57
1.10
ratia
atz
0.8
1.8
.7
IIr
beam
height
(z)
1.11
24.0
1.64
22.2
total
.3
stress
9MPa
max.comp.
(x
dia.)
about 6 diameters above base of an unstiffened
Ur
3.18
8.0
1.35
10.0
0.87
4.8
2.63
5.4
1.13
6.9
0.75
3.3
2.13
3.9
0.98
chimney.
side),
3.0
Ovai
1-=20
R
2.0
~Wind
<TCT
<TCB
1.0
Circle
Flexure
.004
.006
Down
Wind
Fig. C3.20 - Increases in compressive

diameters of an unstiffened chimney,
.01 .011
R
stress over lower 6

due to shell effects
0<
Upwind
-l
TOlal Ten";on
C.3.5.1.1.2 - Effect on horizontal moments (stresses on

vertical sections)
The distribution of ovalling pressure
Fig. C3.19 - Stresses
at chimney
base
Therefore, combining both tables it can be seen that consideration of

shell stresses leads to significant increases in compressi ve stresses,
either at the base or at a height about 6 diameters above the base for 1/r
ratios
.ooa
ti
Compression
-=30
Ovalling
Nel
< 30. Guidance
regarding these increases is given by fig. C3.20
= 1.115
PO' cos2<jJ
Where Po is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds.

Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened
bending moment at position <jJis mo, where:
1.115
R2. PO' cos 2e!>
ma = -4-'
and
mo (max)
= 0.07
Po' d2(NmJm)
shell, the consequent
h.
(C3.5.2)
page20
(Note: 0.07 increased toO.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), to allow

for effect of initial curvature)
The associated deftection of an unstiffened
where:
Wo=
12R4.1.1I5po
16. E. t3
shell at point <I>is wo,
... (C3.5.2)
. cos 2<1>
wo (max) = 0.06 Po' d41 (E t3)
and
C3.5.1.2 Stiffened
This must be much less than Wo,say IIS.

Therefore, Ir must be, say, greater than 5 times (0.06' dl.5 . t2.5).This
will ensure ovalling stresses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of
those in an unstiffened shell.
i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be "" 0.56 d (d/t)O.5
and the moment of inertia CIr)of the stiffening ring (including
particpating shell (see Model Code Fig. 7.4) should be:
Ir> 0.3 d1.5. t2.5 when L = 0.56 d
shells
The addition of correctly sized circumferential stiffeners at the top and

at the correct spacing will reduce shell stresses due to ovalling to
negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following
approach is used:
Based upon the theory of shells[9], the deformation (w) at a distance
(height) x from the stiffener is (with a small approximation) given by
the following function:
w = wo' {I - e-kyxJ2 . [cos('yxl2)+sin(:yxl2)]}
and Appendices
(df1)5
Ir > 0.3 dl.5 . t2.5. L/ 0.56 d . (dft)O.5

when L < 0.56 d . (dft)O.5
C3.5.2 Dynamic
component
C.3.5.2.1 - Unstiffened
...
(C.3.5.7)
... (C3.5.8)
of ovalling
shells
The resonance frequency of the fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for

an unstiffeneq cylinder is given by:
... (C3.5.4)
f1 = 27l"
rp:-
... (C3.5.9)
7.2EI
t
P . A . R4 = 0.49 d2 . ..; ~
where: :y12 = (3)0.25. R . (tIR)0.5

Substituting
"{12= 1.52 (t)0.51 (R)1.5, the deformation of the
stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at a
distance 1.58 R (R/t)0.5, or 0.56 d (d/t)O.5The deformation of the
shell above and below the stiffener is shown in fig. C3.21.
where
E = Young's modulus of the shell

p = Density of the shell
A = Cross-section area of shell (= t m2/m)
I = Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis
t3
(= -12 m4/m)
1.2S
;:j Li:
R, d and t = Radius, diameter and thickness of shell
1.0
In the case of steel:
o.n
0.25
f = 2560 . t I d2
... (C3.5.11)
Defonnation with rings
The frequency of vortex shedding relevant to ovalling = 2 . St V I d
at dlstances
Therefore large scale resonant movemements can occur if:
x = 1.32R{~"
2560 tld2
= 2
St V/ d
o
For St = 0.2, therefore, Vcr
.-
...
Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)
Fig. C3.21 - Ovalling deformation of a cylinder

with a stiff ring at x = O
f=2StVcr/d=-
It can be seen that the ovalIing deformations and, therefore stresses,

remain low (about 0.03wo) if the distance between stiffeners of
infinitely high stiffness is smaller than 0.56 d (dlt)O.5.
The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is
obtained after integration of the shear forces in the shell:... (C3.5.5)
In order to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this

moment must be much smaller than Wo - this requirement being
more important than its strength.
The deformation of the ring (with spacing = L) is obtained by
integration of the bending moment M. The result is:
w=
... (C3.5.6)
1 fi!lJ.2.E.I
pAR4
27l'
Giving:
pAR4
... (C3.5.13)
7.2E
For Vcr > 30rnfs, St = 0.2, P = 7850 kg/m3 and

E = 210 . 109 N/m2, therefore
I> 7.4.10-6. A R2 = 1.8.10-6. d2. t (m4/m height)
For an unstiffened sheIl, this means
t3/12
> 1.85.10-6
d2. t
... (C3.5.14)
i.e. tld must be > 0.004, otherwise stiffening rings will be required
to avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations.
C.3.5.2.2 - Stiffened
When L = 1.58 . R . (R1t)O.5:

0.19 Po' R5.5
E.Ir.(t)O.5
cos2<1>
... (C3.5.I2)
To ensure that ovalIing vibrations do not occur, it is necessary to

increase the moment of inertia of the shell to give a value of Vcr
sufficiently high to avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming
that Vcr = 30 rnfs is high enough to achieve this, the required value
of I is then given by:
M = 0.028 Po' d3 . (d/t)0.5 (Nm)
= 6500 ti d
shells
Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a ring satisfying

equation (C3.5.8), ovalling vibrations can still occur at lower levels
if the t1d ratio is < 0.004. These vibrations are defined by:
page 21
and Appendices
Literature
w
= __
E_t3_
[_iJ_2+_iJ_2
l2(1-v2)
ilx2
ily2 ]4 w + _E_
R2t_il_4w_
ilx4 +
+pt.
-+-
a2 [il2ilx2
iI'f2
a2 ]2
ily2
... (C3.5.l5)
w=O
Where w = defonnation
x = coordinate along the shell (Le. vertical direction)
y = coordinate alongthe circurnference
T=Time
The solution is approximated
w=
Where
L
Wo
Wo'
by:
cos wt cos (2y/R)
COS
(1T'
x/L)
= distance between stiffening rings

= deformation of unstiffened shell
00=
gives:
L2
R)]}
= (1T/2)z. {[(R/ 21T' f). (E/
p)O.5] -
RZ)
Assurning that V cr > 30mls is high enough to avoid oscillations and

f=O.2,Vc/R
and substituting E=2IO109
N/m2 and p=7850
Kglm3:
L< 18R, or9d
... (C3.5.l9)
From equation (C3.5.I4), we have seen that the rninimum value ofl
per unit height to avoid oscillations is:
(m4/m height)
Assurning the stiffener to provide the equivalent I of a Iength of
shell = 9 . d, Ir of stiffener (including participating shell - see Model
Code, Fig. 7.4) ) must be:
Ir> 1.75 . 10-5. d3. t
C3.6
[2]
A.G. Davenport "Wind structure and wind climate"

Seminar on Safety of Structures, Trondheim, 1977.
[3]
P.J. Rijkoort and J. Wieringa "Extreme wind-speeds by

compound Weibull analysis oJ exposure-corrected
data".
Journal ofWind Engineering, no. 13,1983.
[4]
A.G. Davenport "Gust loading Jactors" - Proc. ASCE

Journal Struct. Div., VoI. 93, No, ST 5, June, 1967.
[5]
B.J. Vickery - "Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete

chimneys" - Nat. Seminar on Tal1 Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys,New Delhi, 1985.
"Vortex lnduced Vibrations oJ Line-Like
CICIND REPORT, VoI. 15, No.1, March 1999
H.van Koten :- "Structural analysis oJ shells" University of Deift.
is:
(E/ p)05. {li [R + (4 U)/(1TZ,
Therefore
H. van Koten - "The Stress Distribution in Chimneys due to

Wind Pressure" - CICIND REPORT VoI. 11, No.2, 1995
Et2 {('ll'/L)2+ (2/R)2}4+ {'ll'4/(R2.l4)}

= 12 p .
{('ll'/L? + (2/R?F
An approximation
"Wind loads and Design Jor Chimneys"

CICIND REPORT, VoI. 14, No.2, 1998
Shoei-Sheng Chen "Flow-induced vibration of circular

cylindrical structures". Hernisphere Publishing Corporation 1987.
= frequency
Substituting in equation (C3.5.l2)
wZ
B.J. Vickery -
S. O.Hansen
Structures" -
w =21Tf
f
[Il
... (C3.5.20)
Interference Effects
In considering the effect of aerodynamic interference by an upstream

cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is
generally accepted that the value of lift coefficient increases with the
localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buffetting[l].
In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2
that this does not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He
states that: "Across-wind response of the downstream structure is
enhanced but the mechanism is not completely clear". He assumes
that a second contribution
comes from reinforcement
of the
movement by buffeting at a similar frequency to that of vortex
shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement
can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping.
Unfortunately little research data is yet available to define the way in
which the increase in negative aerodynarnic damping is affected by
spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence.
Therefore, for spacings between chimney and interfering structure
less than lO diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition
of structural damping to increase the chirnney's Scruton Number to
more than 25. At this point it is unlikely that excessive response will
be experienced. When research data is available, more definite design
guidance can be given.
Technical
page 22
COMMENTARY
No.4 - FATIGUE
and Appendices
Aachen
C7,
'a
102.7 N/mm*
When we consider the long terro history of movement ofa chimney

subject to cross-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we
must take iuto account the following phenomena:
(1) Movement is subject to a "start-up" and a "wind-down"
phase at
the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4. J)
(2) The stress at a point on the chimney tcnds to vary, reducing as the
wind direction changes and itsspeed departs from its critical
value, ali due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction
depends upon the level of turbulence.
"1-1
B = 28 m
Ve< B m/s
H '" 35 m
Ve: 2.5 m/s
93 days
TlM(
D!=ITf\-polts'"
'::
i..i
489G
rUNCTICtl
-CHRN
264
nAxlvALuc]-B.914E-sz
Pirna
01 -
11,6
N/mml
f-=~.~:S:~:::::::):::::::T:.~:::r::::::~
O. 2
-.'
-1.0
..... ~...... ~..... "
0.0 ..... :...... :
-----~------c-----~ ~----~
j~
e
R(!Ckiinghausen
::rt~t~!l~'~
I
.
-.' j
-.61
a, = 17.1 N/mml
t- t.
1.0
-.: 1
-.2
days
IO'
lO'
~ ..... ~..
_..~..... ~
lO'
la'
IO'
: .. \
;.... ,'"
101
10'
B.\5E+es
1.61(.01
2.<t6( ..~u
3.Z8t.~al
';.t3(-tOI
S,
B = 60
8 m/s
322 days
H = 38 m
Ve. 3.5 m/s
Ve>:
152
days
Fig. C4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations

Fig. C4.2 - Histograms of long term response of
four .full-scale chimneys
Further, in inland locations ami at relatively high criticaI windspeeds,
atmospheric turbulence is high enough to ensure that the maximul11
amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long
term measllrements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the
response of four steel chimneys in Germanyll! - see fig. C4.2. It can
be seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceedng 90% of
maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about la cycles during
93 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles during 264 days at Cologne.
Tbe method in tbe Model Code takes these facts into account and
develops a spectrum of response, using the Miner Rule lo determine
fatigue life. The Miner sllm is:
... (4.1)
~og n
Where
CT
the maximum stress. per sectioll 7.2.4 of the

Model Code
max
Fig. C4.3 Loadlcycle collectives far various values of
To deterrnine the number of load cycles(n), it 1s first necessary to

know thc number of occasions the wind will blow at its criticaI
velocity (V cr). This is detennined l'rom cOllsiderations of the
probability of their occurrence - P(V cr):
the stress causing cracks after n cycles

(per WohJer curve)
CTwn
3 in the case of fatiglle in steeI
a function (dependent lIpon Ver) dellning the

shape of the load/cycle collective curve
(Fig. C4.3) as follows:-
P(Vcr)
Where Vo
= umax'
= (Ver
(l - (log n flogo j) l)..

/8)1.2
11.
... (4.2)
... (4.3)
Number ol' load cycles due to cross-wind excitation

during tbe lifetirne T
= 2
Vcr
'
--, . e'-(Vcr/vot
Vo-
'" (4.4)
wind velocity averaged over one year

= approx. V b(h) /4
hourly mean velocity at chimney top, with
exceedance probability of once in 50 years.
It is assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities between

UVcr and O.9Vcr.
Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the

wind direction, so that the point of maximum stress is moved away
fram the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is
proportional to cos2<1> and the tota] effect is raughly:-
(1 /2'IT)'
rCOS2<l>d<l>
()
= 0.5
Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on

relatively few chimneys, a modelling safety factor = 1.4 is
introduced in the expression for the Miner Number.
[l] W. Langer,
= 3.15.107 Tf4 2 0.50.1 Ae-A2

= 1.26.107
Where A
f
The load/cycle collective predictions over 20 years, calculated by

equations (3) & (5) are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. C4.2.
Literature
As a result,
il
page23
and Appendices
f A . e-A'
... (5) (see Model Code 8.5.2)
= 4 Vcr Nb(h)
= Resonance frequency
H. Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe - "Untersuchungen

des Querschnittverhaiten von OriginaI Stahischornstein" Forschungsbericht P. 230
[2] H. van Koten - "A Calculation Method for the Cross- Wind
Vibrations of Chimneys" - CICIND REPORT VoI. 14, No. l,
lune 1998
page 24
COMMENTARY
No.5 - OPENINGS
Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of:

Strength
Resistance against -
fatigue
instability
The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the

strength of an undisturbed section if the section modulus is the same.
This equaIity of section moduli is sufficient to fullfill tbe first
condition of strength.
and Appendioes
CS.2 & CS.3)
placed normaI to the shell {see Figures

concentrated aIong tbe edge of the opening.
However, sudden ending of of tbe reinforcement above and below tbe

opening can cause stress concentrations. These can treble stresses
locally and lead to fatigue damage such as 10caI cracks. To avoid this,
in tbe case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney
diameter locally, tbe verticaI stiffeners should connect at each end
with a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference
(see fig. CS.2).
The moment of inertia of a circIe with an opening subtended by tbe

angle 2<f>is:
1= d3 X t/8 X {'!T-
<P -
~'
sin<f>cos<f>
- [(2sin2<f/('!T- <f]}
t
Derivation forrnulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both

unreinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more tban one
opening at the same elevation are given in Table CS.I
lf 13 is small then tbe value of I is cIose to that of the complete circle
(0.12S X '!Td3X t). As 13 increases, however, tbe value of I drops
rapidly (see Fig. C.S.l). The same holds for section modulus. To
replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners are welded verticaIly
to the chimney on each side of the opening. To be effective, tbe crosssection area (A) of each of the reinforcing stiffeners should be at least
eqUaI to A = 1.25 X R X t X (sinl3)O.5.
A cross section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling.
This is due to the stiffness of the weakened cross-section being
reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges
of the opening. To prevent tbis tbe reinforcement stiffeners have to be
and
1
R"t 1
!!!J.
2
R2t 1
R't 1
'!TL7T~
.:E.
2
'TI'
(!:):~'
/= :,
,--,"0' =.M..
W1
-~'
"
7T~.R
~ltr
~1T'
2
"2
---JIo- W
'lT
Fig C5.1 - Reduotion of inertia at openings

When tbe width of opening is less than 40% of tbe chimney's diameter
locally, it is not necessary to provide a horizontaI stiffener extending
around the full circurnference and a more 10caI arrangement may be
used (see fig.. CS.3). VerticaI reinforcement should be continued
above and below the opening to a point where the added stress is
unimportant. The code deems that continuing the reinforcement
beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance
at least O.S times the width of the opening will suffice.
G
A
= 2tr
('TI"
- 2f3)
A = 2tr ('TI"
- 2f3)+ 4a
A = 2tr ('TI"
- f3)
e = rsinf3/ ('TI"-f3)
A = 2tr ('TI"
- f3)+ 2a
e=--~---
tr2 sin[3 - arcos[3
tr ('!T-l') + a
100
IGG= 2tr3 (7T/2-f3-sinl3cosf3)

ZGG= IGG/ rcosf3
IG'G' = 2tr3 (7T/2-f3+sinf3cosf3)

Ze'G1 == IG1G1/r
IGG= 2tr3 ('TI"/2-f3-sinf3oosf3)

+ 4ar2cos2f3
~G = IGG/ rcosl3
IGG= tr3 {7T-I3-sinl3cosf3

-[2sin213/('TI"-I3)]}
Z1GG = IGG/ (e+rcosl3)
Z2GG = IGG/ (r-e)
IG1G'= 2tr3 ('!T/2-f3+snf3cosl3)
IG'G1= tr3 ('TI"-I3-sinf3cosl3)

ZG1Gl= IG1G'/r
+ 4ar2sin213
Z"PG'
==
IG1G,!r
IGG
==
tr3 ('TI"
- f3- sinf3 COSI3)
+ 2ar2cos2f3
100 -
Ae2
Z1GG = IGG/ (e+rcosf3)
Z2GG= IGG/ (r-e)
IG'G1= tr3 (7T-I3-sinl3cOSI3)
+2ar2sin2f3
ZG'G1= IG'G,/r
Fig. C5.1 - Oerivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a = reinforcement area)
page25
and Appendices
L = 0.5 opening
width
SectionAA
Section
AA
Fig. C5.3 - Suggested detail of reinforcement

narrow openings 0.40)
Fig. C5.2 - Suggested detail of reinforcement

wide openings (> 0.40)
far
If the vertical height of the opening is morethan twice its horizontal

width, a stability check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given
in the chapter on bending of plates under lateralloads in "Plates and
shells", by Timoshenko.
When the duty of-the chimney requires fiue gas inlets whose width
exceeds two-thirds of the structural shell's diameter, a possible
solution would be to provide a large number of small circular
openings, giving a total area equivalent to that required.
Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and
around the whole group, as required.
far
Even though it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with

strength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally
the stiffness of the chimney and affect its natural frequencies. This
reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when
deriving the chimney'sdynamic response. This isdoneby taking
account of the reduced local stiffness at the opening when calculating
"x" for each section-in equation 7.16 of the Model Code.
page 26
COMMENTARY 6 CHEMICAL EFFECTS ANO INTERNAL

CORROSION
C6.1. Chemical effects
C6.1.1. Attack due to sulphur oxides
The most cammon form of internaI chemical attack is due to acids
formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides in the Hue gas. Sulphur
is found in al! solid and liqllid fuels to varying degrees ancl can also
be founcl in gaseous l'uels. Dwing the combustion process, nearly alI
sulphur in the l'el is oxidised tosulphur diox,ide (S02) which can be
absorbed by condensing water vapour to fonn sulphurous acido
Asmall quantity (jl' sulphur clioxide (S02) is further convetted to
sulphur trioxide (SO)). The quantity depends in a complex manner
upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount 01' exeess air
avanable cluring combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber
and the presenee of catalysts sueh as iron oxicles. This small
eoneentration of S03 Cusual1y measurecl in PPM). gives rise to most
of the acid eorrosion problems encountered in ehimneys. This is
beeause on eondensation, the S03 ions combine with water vapour to
form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%.
Conclensation of these aeids takes pIace when the temperature of the
fIue gas fa11s below their respective acid dew point temperatures
(ADP). or when the ftue gas comes into contaet with a surface, at or
below the relevant acid dew point temperature.
C6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and fluorides

Chlorides are found in most solicl fuels, inclucling refllse and in many
liquid fuels. lt is also sometimes faund as a pollutant in some FGD
processes. Upon combustion chlorides are transformed into free
ehloride ions which, on eontaet with water vapollr are transformed
into hydrochloric acido The highest condensation temperature at
which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60C, Thus, when any flue
surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will
occur. This dew point is cIose to the water and sulphurous acid dew
point. Even very small amounts 01' chlorides in combination with
other condensed acids can cause seI10us corrosion problems.
Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluori do. and free chlorine in ftue gases
also become corrosive in their vapour stage, Stainless steels are
attacked at temperatures above 320QC. Fluoride vapours arecorrosive to stainless steels al temperature above 250C.
C6.2. Internai Corrosion

The intemal cOITosion allowances in table 8.2 of the Model Code are
based upon limited exposure to condensing slllphurie acicl per Fig
C6.1. They are derived l'rom the relationship be.tween "Peak
corrosio!1 rate" and "S03 concentration" shown in figure C6.3. This,
in turn, was clerived l'rom the upper bound 01' a family 01' curves
which show the same relationship observecl in practical situations.
See It. [2] and [3]. A safety factor 01' 4 has been used in arriving at
the corrosion allowances.
Gas
240
The acid dew pointtemperature

of sulphuric acid depends upon the
concentration of S03 in the ftue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the
temperature 01' the tlue gas and the surfaces with which it can come
into contact are maintained loec above the acid dew point estimated
from Fig. C6.I, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause.
200
Alternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to

protect the steel. Guidance on suitable coatings and their
performance is given in "CICIND Manual far Chimney Protective
Coatings".
()
The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65C, a little above
the water dew point. If the fuel is contaminated, other acids, such as
hydrochloric and nitric aGid can be expected to con dense in the same
temperature range. Thus, even il' fuel and combustion processes are
chosen to minimi se production of S03' or if ftue gases are scrubbed
to remove most of the SOo and S02, severe cOITosion can be expected
if the temperatures of tlle tlue gas or the surfal~es with which it can
come into contact fall below 65C, or the acid dew point temperature
relevant lO the reduced S03 concentralion, if this s higher. Again. a
safety margin is recommended of IOeC above the acid dew point
temperature estimated from figure C6.1.
C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)

Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides dwing FGD, a
severe corrosion risk remai ns. This is because, downstream 01' a
scrubber, the ftue gas is uSllally very wet and its temperature is often
very low - low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew
point temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide
content. Fig. C6.2 shows the relationship between temperature and
acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that flue gas
condensing at temperatures as low as 80C can end up as guite
concentrated acido Also the Uue gas often contains chlorides, carried
over l'rom the serubbing materials.
AlI steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and ttanum
wOllld deteliorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the
expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets al'
al10y or titanillm to the inner faee of carbon steel or other vllinerabie
Iiners. Some organic coating materials have aiso been developed l'or
this duty.
and Appendices
160
Mixture 01
gas and condensate
::I
F!
Cl
Q.
E
120
80
40
Condensate
o
O
20
40
60
80
100
H2 804: Gew %
Fig. C.6.2 - Phase diagram: sulphuric acid - water vapour
C6.3 Guideline to choice of Iiner metallic materials

Guidelines on the sttability 01' various metals and alloys l'or the
range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be gven in
CJCIND's "Metallic Materials Manual" (to be published in 200 I).
Literature
[l]
"Desulphurisation S:vstems and their Effct 011 Operational

Conditions in Chimneys". Henseler, E, CICIND REPORT,
VoI. 3, No.2, 1987
[2]
"lnjluence offuel oil characleristics Clnd combuslioll

conditions 011 the gas properties in. water tube boilers" Bunz
G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. - Jnl 01' the lnstitute 01'
FuelSept 1967
[3J
"Prevention olcold end corrosioll in industriai boilers". Lech

ami Landowski - "Conision" - March 1979
('
page27
and Appendices
10-1
1.000
i1l>
-d:..
1
. 1
c.
c.
:;
'"
.S
100 :E
K
'S
.2
IO
:;
li>
E r.
o'
..
by valume
_.,:'1 a.
1-_==1== J
-lO'U20
I o~
~
5
"
.1
.,L .......
l-~l '.:
101,
IO
..
90
I
IUO
110
I
110
O.wJloill.1.
lO"
130
'~'I:t;l:I'l:l;I:f:-t'~"
'r.~ ."~. I ::.:.l'li'"A.,;+I.t
120
1_1
U! UrTll
150
140
160
Dcvvpoirl1, "c
LTU
130
I
140
'0.1
ISO
in 11TTTITTJIIT-IrUlJ IO
110
100
190
Fig. C6.1 - Relationship between ADP and 503 concentration
peak corrosion
rates
(micranl
1000 hours)
".
"
..
so, concentration (ppm by voi) ,
1 ppm
= part per miflion (1O~
Fig. C6-3 - Relationship between peak internai corrosion rates and 503 concentration
CICIND ModelCode
page28
APPENDIX 1-
- Commentaries
The maximum
expression:
DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES

This appendi x is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate
details. In thc following calculations, base plate bearing stress (0"*c)
and maximum boll teasion (Pb *) are calculated for factored load and
overtuming momento In thc case of bases with a compression ring
andlor gussets tbc values of 0"*c and Pb* are calculated using elastic
ana1ysis as a reiaforced concrete ring assuming the modular ratio of
12 11l.l21.Thc area of stecl bolts istak.enas
the thread root cross
section area of the bolts. In chimneys requiring an increase in design
tensiJe. stress at the base 011account 01'c1ause 8.2 of thc Mode! Code,
the value or Pb* should be factored according1y.
side
baseplate
A - March 2002
stress (0"*) is givcn by the following
0"*=131'0"*c,P/tb2<fk/U
... (A1A)
where 131is given by:
A.1.1 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression

rings (Fig. A.1.1)
T ension
Amendment
and Appendices
anel
l/b
131
O
0.2
3.00
2.68
0.3
2.30
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1,25
1.5
1.85
1.25
0.83
0.51
0.30
0.22
1 = the outstand of the basplate from the chimney sheJl

b = distance between gussets
p* perboll
+ -----
The baseplate stresses (cr*) on the tension side muy be calculated using
thc method described in !it [1]. For the particular case of 1= 4 O:
-- -- -- -----
tb
er*e
... (AJ.5)
Where 132is obtained as follows;

l/b
Fig. A1.1 - Simple Baseplate

On the cOl11pression side, the vertica1 shell foree is distributed over a
strip of width (2.13 + t,), where 13 is chosen to limit the pressure on
the grOtit (O"*c)to no greater than fkg I ].5.
The maximum baseplate stress (o-*)is then given by:
... (ALl)
where
ti,
characteristic
The height of the gussets (h) should bc sufficient to maintain

acceptab1e shell stTesses. Thc stress in the sheJl (O"*s)is givcn by the
following expression:
thckness of shell
eharaetel;stic
compressive strength of the graut
rr*,
On the tension side, the values al' Il and 14 should be adjusted to give
vertical and rotational equilibrium. Thc active circumferentiallength
of the buseplate may be taken as :I ./2 or the bolt spacing, whichever
is the lessero
Thc bolt tcnsion (Pb*) then = p*.
(lI
+ 12)/1,
...
(A1.2)
Where:
= 2
p* IlbZ
< fk/l.l
... (A1.3)
A1.2 Baseplates with Gussets (Fig. A1.2)

Rodius Rs
ts
Side
and
Gussel spocing b.
equoll y spoced
cbout bolts.
and
ex
133
2.50
3.20
3.83
100
with gussets
'" (AJ.6)
0.53
0.26
0.20
0.16
0.13
4.47
0.11
S.IO
6.37
9.55
12.74
0.098
0.079
0.052
0.039
15.92
0.03.1
= shelJ radius
w* = the radiai foree
011the sheIJ per unit height of gusset

at the top of the gussets, given by the following
expression:
= 3. M*lh2
Where M* is the bending moment al the base of each gusset

plate due to out of balanee forces under the basepJate.
M*
Fig. A1.2 - Baseplate
fk Il. l
R,
w*
erO
1.00
16
24
28
32
40
60
80
+ (133' Rslt}):s
are given by:
1.93
2D
[(exI t,)
J2
20
Both equations A 1.1 und A 1.3 have to be satisfied.
Compression
= w*.
No. of gussets
(equally spaced)
6
Where p* is the verticaltensile force in the sheJl per boll.

Assuming a distribution al' baseplate stress over a length al' 3 .12:
0-*
2.38
2.28
2.07
1.87
1.65
1.33
1.06
0.81
0.62
Both equations A lA and A 1.5 must be satisted.
strength of the botto m plate steel
pressure on the grout
fkg
132
0.2
0.3
OA
0.5
0.6
0.8
l.0
1.25
1.5
= p* , 20
= O"*c. 6 . 1)2. b
per gusset on the tension sidc

per gll~set on thc compression side
CICIND Model Code-
Commentaries
Amendment
and Appendices
Allowancc should be made for stress concentrations

at the top of thegussets.
that may occur
A - March 2002
A 1.4 Grouting
COMMENTARY
A1.3 Baseplate
(See Fig. A1.3)
with gussets
and compression
page 29
ring
NON SHRINK GROUT

OF' THE SAME STRENGTH
AS THE CONCRETE BASE.
BASEPLATE
ts
Compression
Side
Tension
Slde
Gusset spocing
05 above
2D
2D
----------------a'c
Fig. A1.3 - Baseplate with gussets & compression ring

Tbe baseplate stresses are calculated in the same way as in section
Al.2 above using equation AIA.
The compression ring bending stresses (a*) are calculated in tbc
same way as in sectiol1 A 2 above, using equation A 1.5, substituting
t (tbickness of compression rillg) for tb (baseplate thickness). Aclded
lO this is a direct crcumferential stress arising from the out ofbalancc
l1lomenl caused by le eccentlicity 01' the bolts, giving a total stress:
1.
where N
= number
PACKER
Fig. A1.4 provides guidaoce 00 the grouting procedure to be

used under chimney baseplates.
of bolts
References:
Notes regardillg tbe derivation of
[I]
Brownell & Young Chapter lO
[2]
Pinfold, C.M. -
131
and
[32
NEXT TO BOLT
Note - If the chimney is intially levelled using a nut placed on the

holding down belt under the basep late , this nut should be loosened
after packers are introduced.
A gussel plate thickness of O.25D wil! suffice il' it is of a steel whose

yie.lelstrength at least equals that of the bolts.
Stress coetTicients
PLACED
~1
and
~2
were obtained as follows:
is tbe coefficient applicable to the compression side anel is derived

l'rom Timoshenko's work on a rectangular plate fxed 011three sides
and l'ree on the fOllrth. This is a reasonable assumption because
pressure under the base inside the shell will produce fixity. At the
gussets there is fixity by virtue of thc continuity of tbe basplate.
~1
132 is the coefficient

applicable lo the tension side. In tl1e literature [l]
this is taken from a model comprising a rectangular plate simply
supporled on ali sides, with a patch load at the centre representing the
bearing of the nu!. This is not a (fue reflection of the boundary
conditions which are more truIy fixed on two opposi te sides (at tbe
gusstes), one side being pinned (at tbe shell) and the fourtb side free.
Neither is t!le effect of tbe holding down bolt hole consielered. ln this
Appendix, therefore, tbe values of 132 have been derived from plale
element FE analysis. using tbe more realistic above boundary
conditions anel allowing l'or the bolt hole in tbe plate.
"Process bquipment Design",
"Re~forced Conaete Chimneys and Towers"
page 30
('" I
4.0
50mm
0.35*
4.5 (m2
2.3*
0.5*
0.7*
1.15*
25mm
100mm
150mm
thickness
6mm
1Bmm
airgap
air K)
gap
values 75mm
W
of insulation
APPENOIX 2type
- INSULATION
ANO PROTECTIVE
aluminium
mineral wool
woo/
minerai
minerai
wool
expanded
minerai
aluminium
LlNINGS AND COATINGS
A.2.1
and Appendices
overall average U
1nsulation
A2.1.1 Generai
In order to minimise loss of heat from a chimney and to maintain the
temperature of the sheU or liner(s) above flue gas acid dewpoint
level, insulation may be fied. But it should be appreciated that,
however effective the insulation, acid will condense if the fiue gas
temperature entering the chimney is at or below its aeid dewpoint
temperature.
Even if metal in contact with fiue gas is generally at temperature,
above its aeid dewpoint, rapid local corrosion can oceur at cold spots.
In arder to eliminate cold spots careful attendon should be given to
the following details:
Potenti al air leaks should be eliminated by properly sealing
flanged joints, inspeetion/cleaning doors, expansion joints and
instrumentation apertures. The long-term effeetiveness of sealing
materials at the relevant service temperatures
should be
demonstrated ..
Direet metal/metal contaet between steelliners and the stmctural
shell shollld be avoided. Liner support should incorporate a
tbermal isolation devic:e.
Attachments such as guy ropes, aerodynamic stabilizers, ladders,
platforms and pipes can aet as cooling fins. Their attaehment to
metal in contact with fiue gas shouId incorporate a tbermal
isolation device.
A2.1.2. Insulation
design
lnsulaton should be designed to maiutain the surface in contad with

the tlue gas above aGid dew point temperature everywhere, when tbe
fiue gas is at normal operating conditioo and at abnOlmal conditlons
if they can last for more than 25 hours per year (see table 7.1 of the
Mode! Code). Far design purposes, the following parameters shollid
be used:
Theoretical acid dewpoint, calculated taking aecount of sulphur
content and excess comhustion air should be increased by a
safety margio of IO"C. lf data is not available to permit
calculation of the t1ue gas acid dew point temperature, the
followiog values ShOllldbe used for minimum metal temperature
in contaet witb fiue gas:
When l'uel is oil andlor gas, containing more than 0.5% by
weight of sulphur, 175"C
When fuel is coal containing more tbau 0.5% by weight of
sulpllllr, 135"C
When fuel contains less than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 100C
* These vaiues apply for
il mean
insulation temperature
of 40oG. They ShOllld be
increased by 5% for each 500e increase in mean insulation temperature.
Table A2.1 Typical insulation conductivities

Minerai wool or foa111 insulation exposed to weatber ShOllId be
protected by weather proofed c1adding. Design of this cladding and
its fixings should ensure its integrity under tbe actioll of wind at a
velocity of 1.5 X basie wind-speed at the relevanl height (per
paragraph 7.2.2.of the Model Code). The design should take account
of the variation of wind pressure around the surface 01' the chimney
at a given elevation.
A2.1.3 A1uminium cladding

Aluminium c1adding enclosing a narro w airspace is an effective form
of insulation, due to its high tbermal reflectivity. (Note - Sheet steel
or otber fonl1S of cladding may be sLlitable in certain cases.)
The exterior of tbe steel shell beneath the cladding should be couted
with heat resisting paint.
The cladding should consist of aluminium sheet not less than LOmm
thick with symmetrical fiange eovers made in haives from aluminium
sheet which also shal1not be less than l.Omm thick.
The cJadding should be made in strakes, using il number of equal
plates per strake. AH seams shollld be connected by aluminium alloy
rivets at not more than 100mm centres. Vertical seams of each stTake
should be se! at tbe midpoint of thc. strake beneath.
The eladding should be fitted with its il1temal face the required distance
away from the extemal face of the chimney shell, this distance being
maintained by continuous circumfercntial spacers of tbe reqtred
thiclmess low conductivity tape coiucident with thc horizontal joints of
the aluminium. The tape should he eemented into position by means of
sodium silicate or otber suitable adhesive. The ends of the horizontal
rivets in the alunnium sheets serve lo retain tbe tape in position after
erection. The circumferential spacers divide the airspace between tbe
stecl shell and tbe aluminium cladding into sections not more than
.I.5m high, tbus reducing convection heat losses.
Ambient air temperature shouId be the minimum winter air

temperature at the chimney location, obtained by averaging the
mc.an temperature each night over a period of one month.
When the Iength of the prefabricated sections of shell between

tlanges is not a whole multiple of tbe strake widtb, only one make-up
strake per section of chimney should be used.
Wind velocity shouId be assumed to be 5m/s.
AH projections shouId be elad. Cleaning doors ami other points

where access is required shollld be "boxed in" with removabie
aluminium panels.
The temperature of the metai in contact witb fiue gas shouId be

checked for the condition of highest anticipated fiue gas temperature.
Far this eheck the following design parametcrs should he assumed:
Ambient air tempermure should be maximum anticipatcd air
temperature at the chimney location.
Zero wind velocity.
The design or insulation thickness lO satisfy the requrements 01' this
clause should be based upon the eonductivity value of the insulation
materia l, provided by the insulation manufacturer. ]f such data is not
available, typical values listed in table A3.1 may be used.
The airspace at the top of tbc chimney should be completely sealed to

prevcnt ingress of moisture between tbc stce] shell and the cladding.
Each upper strake or aluminium should lap over the lower strake by
a minil1lum of 25mm, The vertical seams similarly shouId have a
minimum lap of 25mm.
To permit examination of the steel shell of the chimney without
removing the cladding, 150 mm square openings, [ocuted at careful1y
seiected points and covered by removable panels approximately
230mm square, may be provided. Suitable positions are:
C/CIND Model Code - Commentaries
- diametrically opposite any inlet

- approximalely
page 31
andAppendices
To aet as insulation to maintain the fine gas temperature above its

acid dew point.
Reduce potenti al for aerodynamic instability.
l,25m from the top of tbe chimney
Greal care should be taken lo ensure tl1at dissimilar metals do nol

come into contact with each olher. lf it is essential in the design that
two dissimilar metals have to be connected, a suitable non-conductive
and impervious film or agent should be placed between tbem.
Chimney Iinings may be:
A2.1.4. Minerai wool or foam Insulation
a) Separate !iners, with a space between the liners and tbe outer
structllral shell. More than one liner may be accomodated within
the structural shell, to form a "mlllti-flue" chimney.
Wrapping thc sleel shell with a suitable grade insulation material 01'
sufficient thickness provides
more effcclive insulation tban
aluminium cladding with thc usual 6mm air gap.
b) Attached continuously to the inner face of the structural shell.

Snch Iinings may be either cast againsl thestructural shell, or be
applied by spray, trowel or brush. Sueh Iinings may be:
Thicknesses of over 50mm are applied in two separate layers, the

outer layer being filted so that the vertical and horizontal joints are
staggered from the joints of the inner layer. Ifa stiffener or f1ange of
the chimneysectiol1 projects past th outer face of the insulation, it
should be wrapped with an additionallayer of thc same thickness for
at least 75mm on each side ofthe f1ange or stiffener. Insulation has to
be protected from the weather, a convcnient way of doing this is to
cover it with metal cJadding. designed as descibed above.
The insulation should be fixed to the steel shell by wrapping it around
so that the ends butt. It can be seenred in pIace by steel strapping. At
least two bands of strapping should be used for each strake of
insulation. lnsulation tends to compact and slip down the surface of
the steel during ti-ansportation and erection thus leaving bare patches
of steel which are potential "cold spots". The slipping of the
insulation may be prevented by wclding steel pins to thc shell. On
low chemical load chimneys the pins can project through the
insulation and have spring retaining washers fitted.
On medium chemical load chimneys it is advisable to use short pins
which only project half the thickness of the insulation so as to prevent
"cold spots" forming.
- castable refractory
- soJid grade diatomaceous concrete
- chemical resistant coatings
- libregJass reinforced pJastic (FRP)
A2.2.2 Design of separate Iiners

A2.2.2.1. GeneraI considerations
For information on the design of separate liners see the "CICIND
Model Code for Concrete Chimncys, Part C - Steel Liners".
Latera] support should be provided between the Iiner and the
structural shell as near as possible to the top of the chimney.
Additional lateral supports may be require.d at inteonediate elecations
between the top of the liner and its base, depending npon cOllsiderations
of stability and dynamic response, but their nllmber should be
minimised as far as possible. The lateral restraints should be. designed
to pem1it the linings to expand freely both vertically and radialJy.
A2,1,5. Lined and multiflue chimneys
A gap between the'liner and its lateral restraint(s) of between 3mm

and 6mm (the larger gap being appropriate for larger diameter liners)
wHI ensurc that impact damping enhances the structun damping
sufficiently to avoid problems of cross-wind oscillation in most cases.
The sapce between the outer shell and the lincr of a double skin
chimney can be i.lled with mineraI wool, expanded mineraI, or other
suitable insulator.
The liner shollid be designed to resist stresses due 10 loads imposed

by the latera] restraints, as thc structural shell moves under the effect
of wind or earthquake.
When expanded minerai is used as insulation, the design and

fabrication of the chimney must ensure that there are no voids or
openings out of which the expanded mineraI can leak.. A suitable
drain off position must be provided at the lowest point of the
expanded mineraI area to ensure that the expanded mineraI ean be
drawn off if access lo the interior of the ehimney shell is required.
The presence of horizontal restraints between the liner and structural

shell may prevent tbc liner from adopting a distorled shape in response
lO differenti al expansion. As a result, bending stresses may be
introduced in both the liner and the structural shell, These stTesses can
be very high when a single Iiner carries flue gases fTom two or more
sources with different temperatures.
In addition, the resnlting
differentialliner temperature will introduce secolldary thermal stresses.
Usually an interval of 600mm is nsed between the pins.
Notices should be fitted to the exterior of the chimney warning that

the chimney has been filled with expanded minc'ral.
After 6 to 12 months, expanded mineraI insulation compacts by about
10% thus leaving areas of the liner exposed. It is essential that this
void is "topped up" with more expanded mineraI and that adequate
provision is 1eft in the cap plate for topping up to take piace.
Sometimes a seeond "topping-up" is necessary after a further 12
month periodo
A2.2 Protective linings

A2.2.1 Generai
Linings may be require.d in steel ehimneys for one or more of the
following purposes:
To maximise the stre.ngth ofthe structural shell by keeping it cool
As fire proteetion
-
To proteet an externally
insulated struetural shell fra m
excessively hot fiue gases. These could be generated by an
operational upset or occur when an energy conservation system
is by-passed.
Corrosion protection
A cover should be provided at the top of the structural shell to give

weather protection to the airspace between liner and shell. The design
of this cover should pennit free expansion of the linee Sufficient
radiai clearance should be incorporated to pelmit any relative
movement, between liner and shell, that may be aIJowed by the
latera! restraint system. In the design of this cover, speciaJ attention
shonld re paid to the integrity of its fastenings, bearng in mind the
risk of acid cOlTosion, stress corrosion and fatigne cracking which
may be caused byaerodynarnic "fiutler".
A2.2.2.2 Steelliners
Unprotected steeJ liners should not be used in eonditions of high
chemicalload (see table 7.1 of Model Code). In eonditions of low or
medium chernicalload. internai eorrosion allowances listed in table 8.2
of the model code may be lIsed. In conditions of high chemical load
(such as downstream 01' FGD), unprotected steel can be replaced by (or
protected by "Wallpapered" coatings of) high nickel alloys, titanium or
other metals. Guidance on choice of these materials is contained in
CICIND's "Metallie Materials Mannal", to be publishe.d in 2001.
Liner supports and lateral restraints should incorporate thermal
insulation so as to avoid formation of localised cold spots on the
lining surfaces due to conduction of heat to the structural shelI.
page 32
Consideration should be given to the risk 01' fire andlor high

temperature excursions described in paragraphs 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 ofthe
model code. 11' the risk is significant, consideration should be given
to the provision 01' fire protection.
and Appendices
when wet and when dry. Only coatings should be used that have been
proved capabie of retaining their protective properties in these
conditions throughout the life of the chimney. AIso, the chosen
coating material should have expansion characteristics compatible
with those of the shell throughout the relevant temperature range.
A2.2.2.3. Plastic liners

Plastic and FRP Iiners are suitable for conditions 01' "high chemical
load" (see tabJe 7.1 of the Model Code), combined with low
temperatures. In order to prevent material degrading, the temperature
01' these linings should not be allowed to exceed 100C. Short term
excursions to 150C can be tolerated if the right type 01' piastic is
chosen, but the life is reduced.
In order to ensure liner temperature is maintained below 100C, an
automatically
conlrolled quenching
system may be installed
upslream 01' the chimney, which is aetivated when the fiue gas
temperature exceeds IOQoC.
A2.2.3 Design of linings attached continuously to the shell
The start-up procedures ShOllld follow the refractory manufacturer's

instrllctions. If none are available, thefollowing procedures may be
used:
-
Hold gas temperature

3 hours.
in the range of 70C-90"C
for at leasl
ContraI subsequent increases in temperature und gas fiow so that

nopart of the Iiner is exposed to a gas temperature. im:rease
exceeding 50CIhr. AH parts 01' the lining should be exposed to gas
temperature at least 75% of design temperature for at least 6 hours.
These requirements also apply lO old refractory linings which have

been left exposed to weather and have become soaked with water.
A2.2.3.1 Generai
Llning or coating selection criteriu and qualilY standards to be used
dllring slIrface preparation and Iining installation are detailed in the
crCIND "Chimney Protective Coatings Manual".
A2.2.3.2 Castable refractory linings (including

diatomaceous concrete linings)
Castable refractory should be inslIlating type with a minimum bulk
density, after drying, 01' lOOOkg/m3 Diatomaceous concrete should
be of the "solid" grade. They shouId be single layer cOl1stTUction,
installed without vapour stops. They may be cast against thc inner
face of the steel shel1 or they may be applied by a gunning processo
Mxing procedures
and water quantities
sha11 fo11ow the
.manufacturers' recommendations.
The minimum thickness 01' lining sha11 be SOmmo Linings 50mm to
65mm thick shall be reinforced by eIectric welded wire mesh. The
mesh should be 50 X 50mm with wire of minimum diameter 2mm, or
il may be 100 X IOOmm with minimum wire diameter 3mm.
The mesh shouId be positioned 20mm from the surface of the steel shell
and should be anchored to it by steel studs, welded at 450mm spacng.
Linings thicker than 65mm shall be reinforced by arc welded "V"
studs, randomly orientated and at a minimum spacing of 1.6 per
square metre.
A corrosion resistant meta! cap should be provided at the top
refractory to protect its horizontal sUlt"ace from the weather.
01'
the
Providing its surface in contaet with flue gas is above acid dew point.
this type of lining provides corrosion protection to the steel chimney
or Iiner to which il is applied. Application of such a lining would
convert a steel chimney, c!assed as being under "High chemicalIoad"
when unprotected, to a "Low chemical load" classification.
A2.2.3.3 Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) linings

The use of plastic and FRP for Iinings applied to steel chimneys is
severly restricted by their tendency to separate from the steel, due to
differential expansion. To minimize this problem, lining temperatures
should not exceed the following vailles:
- epoxy resins, SODC
A2.3 Recommended start-up procedures for new

castable refractory in steel chimneys or Iiners.
- polyesters, 60C
Il is essential that the FRP linings aclbere lrmly to tbe inside face of
the chimney shell so that tbe surface does not crack or spalI. lf tbc
acd fiue gas penetrates the FRP il wiU attack the steel shel!.
A2.2.3.4 Chemical resistant coatings

Guidance on the selecion and application of chemical reisistant
coatings is given in the CIClND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual.
In the selection of a coating for internai use. consideration should be
given to the maximum temperature lo which it will be subjected, both
A2.4 Protective and decorative treatments

Treatmenl selection cliteria and quality standards to be used during
surface preparation and coating application are detailed in the
CIClND "Chimney Protective Coatings ManuaI".
Stainless steel is nornlalIy supplied in its mill finish condition, which is
a matt, light grey. Polishing to achieve a shiny tnish involves extra COS1.
Weathering steeI, unless gril blasted, may 110toxidise evenly.
APPENDIX
No.3 -
page33
and Appendices
GUYED CHIMNEYS
Mm
overtuming momentproduced by dead-weight or otber

permanent loads which may act to increase combined
mornent
Steel chimneys are subject to therrnal expansion when tbe shellis

heate<! by the flue gases and, to a small extent by strong sunlight and
by large variations in ambient temperature. The vertical expansion
can be considerable on tali chimneys with reasonably high tlue gas
temperatures, especal1y if tbey are extemally insulated.
Me
overtuming moment produced by permanent loads which

act at all times to reduce combined moment
Ma
restoring moment producedby tbe foundation (including

guy rape anchorages) without exceeding allowable material
stresses or tbe foundation allowable bearing pressure.
For example, thevertcal expansion of a steel chimney witb a guy

band 80m above ground level and witb a shelt temperature of 250C,
would be 280mm.
In determining tbe support provided by the windward guy ropes, the

relative stiffnesses of tbe chimney (acting as a cantilever) and the guy
ropes, including tbeir non-linearbehaviour,
should be taken into
account. Many modern structural computer programs have routines
for analysing guyed structures, which do this automatically. If
calcuiations are made by hand, however, guy rape tensions should
fust be calculate<l,assumingtbe.chimn(lyispjnned
at itsbase.
Horizontal deftections at tbe rope attachment points sbould tben be
determined. Tbe stak shell should tben be analysed as a cantilever,
propped by springs at tbe rope attachment points. The stiffness of
tbese springs is determined by the deflections and horizontal
components of tension in tbe ropes, previously calculated. Second
order effects should be considered.
A3.1. Thermal expansion effects
This vertical expension expansion can greatly affect tbe tellsion in the
guy wires and tbe consequent compressi ve load on tbe chimney sbel1.
Tlle stresses in gUy ropes arld shel1 should be chec;ked under both
"hot" and "cold" conditions. For instance, if th guy wires are
correctly tensioned when tbe chimney is "cold", tbe vertcal
expansion when the chimney goes on 10ad will increase the tension
in the guy ropes, it wl1 also increase the vertical component in the
shell plate, when it could in extreme cases produce buckling.
However, if tbe guy wires are tensioned when the chimney is "hot",
when it goes off load the chimney will reduce in height and tbeguy
wires williose part of their tension. This could cause more movement
under wind load tban is desirable. In order to avoid tbese problems,
a compromise initial guy rape tension under cold conditions may be
necessary Le. a tension that allows some lateral deftection of the
chimney under design wind and "cold" conditions, while increasing
the verticalload in thc chimney by a significant but safe margin under
"hot" conditions.
Alternatively, if a chimney is used on a constant load 24 hours a day
for long periods and maintenance resources permit, tbe guys can
initially be correctly tensiom:d when the chimney is cold. When the
chimney starts up and is heated to its operating temperature, the guys
can be readjusted to the correct tension after tbe chimney has
expanded. As soon as the heat load is reduced and the chimney
resumes its "cold" hcight, however, the guys must be retensioned.
A3.2.2 Abnormal conditions

ThestabiIity of tbe chimney should be checked at 0.1 X Design
Windspeed, assuming one of tbe guy ropes to be broken.
A3.3 Guy ropes

Guy ropes should be provided in at least 3 vertcal planes. T he angle
between any two planes should not exceed 130. Guy ropes should
not slope more tban 60 to tbe horizontal.
A3.2.1 Normal conditions
Guy ropes shall be of gaivanized steel wire, witb steel cores,

complying witb IS01R346. The wires should have a minimum tensile
strengtb of 1450 N/mm2, A completed rape should be evenly laid and
free from loose wires, disturbed strands or otber irregularities and
should remain in this condition when properly unwound fromtbe reel
or coiI.Fittings
sbould be of galvanized steeI. Prior to erection,
completed guy ropes should be greased and subjected to a tensile
force amounting to 20% of their minimum breaking load for a period
of 30 minutes.
Thc guyed chimneys shall be calcuiated taking into thc considcration

second order effects. The decisive winddirections which should be
taken into accollnt are given in figure A3.1
Guy ropes and fittings should be designed so that tbeir minimum

breaking strengtb exceeds 3 X maximum calcuiated load, due to tbe
sum of pretension, design wind and chimney expansion.
A3.2. Calculations
After erection and while tbe chimney is cold, tbe guy ropes should be
pretensioned sO as to minimise top deflection of tbe chimney. The
pretension may be measured by tbe use of a suitable instrurnent and
should be not less tban 15% nor more than 30% of tbe calculated
maximum tension due to design wind under the hot condition.
Attachments of the guy ropes should be positioned sufficiently far
below tbe chimney top to avoid corrosive effects of tbe fiue gases.
A minimum distance of 3m is recommended.
Fig. A3.1 - Wind directians far guyed chimneys

Thc stability of the structure and foundation as a whole or any part of
it should be investigated.
Weight of anchorage should be provided such that:
M= l.4Mw+
1.35Mm-O.9Me<O.9Ma
in which:
M
cornbined rnomcnt
Mw
overturning moment produced by tbe design wind and

irnposed loads
page 34
No.4 -
APPENDIX
ACCESSLADDERS
A4.1. Generai
This section specifies the requirements for steelladders, permanently
fixed to steel chimneys, to provide means of accesso They are to be
fixed lo the chimney in a continuous verticallength interspersed with
Iandings an<lJor rest platforms as required.
There may be relevant local requirements or standards which are
more stlingent than those detailed below and, in these cases, they
must be followed.
An altemative to the caged ladder system is an open Iadder with a
proprietary safety system, either running beside the ladder or
centraily between the stringers.
Rest platforms as described in A5.8 shmd stili be incorporated at the
relevant levels.
A4.2. Definitions
For the purpose
01'
this appendix the following definitions shall apply:
I) Stringers. The side members of the Iadder to which the rungs

are fitled.
2) Safely hoop. A bar fixed to Ihe slringers to enclose the path of
persons climbing the ladder, to prevent them falling outwards.
and Appendices
Stringers should, if possibIe, re in a continuous Jength. but where they

are in more than one length they shall be joined by lishplates on the
inside.<;of the stringers, either welded or bolted. .lf bolts afe used they
shal! be countersunk 011 the stringer and not Iess than 12rom in diameter.
There shail be not less than two bolts on each side of the joint.
A4.6. Rungs
Rungs shal] be of round bar not less than 20mm diameter. lf the bar
is reduced in diameter at the ends for welding, tbe reduced diameter
shall be 6 mm less than the diameter of the bar and there shaU be a
1.5mm radius at the root of the shoulder.
The rungs in a ladder or ftight of ladders,shall be uniformly spaced
tbrollghout at centres of 225mm minimum to 300mm maximllm. The
top rung sha11 be on the same levei as the platform which shall be
extended. if necessary, 10 limit,.tO not.IDore than 75mm, thegap
between the rung and platform. Alternatively the platform may be
extended to replace the top rung.
Rungs shall be fitted into holes dlled in the stringers and secured by
we!ding. Rungs shaU be welded to the stringers with or without
shouldering. Holes in the stringers shall be drilled to give a 1rom
cIearance and where shouldered rungs are used, holes shail be
countersunk 1.5mm to c!ear the root radius (see figure A4.1).
3) ResI platform. A platfonn provided to enable the person

climbing the ladder lo rest.
4) Landing. A platform provided to enable access to part of or the
whole of tbe circumference of the chimney.
A4.3. Materials
The materiais used for the construction of ladders. hoops, platforms
and rest platforms shall be of carbon steel and conform to Euronorm
28- 32, except those components within 3 diameters of the clmney
top which, in the case of chimneys carrying flue gas with high S02/S03
content, should be of high molybdenum stainless steel (ASTM 316L or
similar) or should be protected by an acid-resistant coating.
A4.4. Finish
AH burrs, weld-ftash, sharp edges and other imperfections likely to
cause injury to the hands of a person using the Iadder, shall be
removed and made smoothbefore the finishing treatment.
Depending on the situation and atmospheric conditions in which the
ladders are to be lIsed, they shall be given a suitable protective finish.
Hot dip galvanizing is not recommended for ladder components or
connections manufactured by a cold fonning processo Galvanizing
may only take pIace after drilling, bending, sawing, etc.
A4.5. Stringers
Stringers shall be of flat bar of minimum elimensions 65 x IOmm.
The stringers shaU be parallel anel straight throughout the rung
portion anel the distance between the stringers measurcd from the
illside faces shall not be less than 300mm and noI more than 450mm.
Thc stringers shal] extend upwards, to a height of not less than
1075mm above the upper platform and shall be seclIrely fastened at
their extrcmities. Such extension of the stringers shall noI encroach
on thc c1ear width of the platform passageway.
Where, in order to step from the laclder into a landing platfonn, it is
necessary to pass between the extended portion of the stringers. these
shall be opened out from platform leve! to provide a clear width of
600-675mm belween them at handraillevel.
Where access to an upper platform s from the side or front of a
ladder, the ladder itself shail be extended above thc plalform level far
a ctistance of not less than 1075mm or equivalent handholds shall
be provided.
l mm CLEARANCE
HOLE
1 mm CLEARANCE
HOLE
Fig, A4,1 - Attachment of ladder rungs to stringers
A4.7. Safety hoops

lf safety hoops are fittcd to thc ladder, the following
shall apply.
provisions
AUladders sing 2300mm or more from a lower platform or ground

level to the top rung sha11be fitted with safcty hoops, the spacing of
which shail be uniform and at intervais not exceedillg IOOOmm
measured along the stringer. The ]owernlost hoop shall be fitted to the
stringers at a height of 2300 - O + 75mm from a Iower platfann or
graund in order to give sufficient overhead clearance when getting on
to the ladder. The uppermost hoop shall be fixed in line with any
guard rail to the upper platform but in any case shall be at a height of
nOlless than 1075mm above the level of this platform.
A4. 7.1. Size of hoops
Circular pattem. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm,
The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back
of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 760 to
850mm (see 11gureA4.2).
Rectangular pattem. The width across the hoop shal1 be 690 to
760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the insidc of
the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, sha11
be 690 lO 760mm. The ractius of the comers shal1 be noI less !han
150mm (sce figure A4.2).
The minimum dimensions of the hoop and strap mateIial shall
50 X 8mm. AI Ieasl three vertical straps shall be fitted intemally
brace the hoops; one of these straps sha11be al the centre back of
hoop, and thc others spaced evenly betweell the centre back of
hoop and the ladder stringers.
be
to
the
the
The hooks are to be used far the temporary attachment of ladders

only except as noted below.
300mmM1N.
4S0mmMAX,
!; E
oc
",on
A pulley is sometirnes rigged from the top of a steeplejacks' ladder

for the purpose of lifting smallloads for maintenance of the clmney.
It is important that such loadsshall be kept as Iight as possible and in
no circumstance should any single load exceed 50kg. lf a hook is
used directly forlifting purposes, the weights of tbe lifting device
suspended from it and of the load to be Iifted shouId together not
exceed 50kg.
~I({-...
page 35
and Appendices
'"
690mm MIN.
760 mm MAX.
HOOP5 ANO HOOP

STRINGER5 FROM
so mm x B mm MINIMUM
Fig. A4.2 - Ladder hoops

Hoops and straps shall be fixed by bolting or welding. If bolts are
used they shall be countersunk, inserted fr0111the inside of the strap
or hoop and shal1 he not less than 12mm diameter. The assembly of
hoops and straps shall be suitably braced unless secured to the
stringers by double bolting, or welding.
A4.8. Rest platforms and landings

When required, l'est platfofl11s shall be provided at intervals f not
greater than 20m. Landing places, other than working plalt'orms,
which are provided specifcally at l'est plalforms shall re al least
825111m square and shall have a gllardrail at a heght of 1075mm
above the platform level with an intermediate rail and toeboards.
When reqllired, landings shall be provided al suitable levels to provide
access to sampling points etc. These landings are to be adeqllately
supported fTOmthe ehimney shell and shall have a minimum widtb of
825mm. They are to be ftted with a guardrail at1075mm above the
platform level, witb an intermediate rail and toeboards.
A4.10.3. Materials
Hooks shall be made from steel complying with the requirements of
Euronofl11 25-72. In a normalised condition tbe stecl shall have a
minimum tensile strength of 430N/111I112 and a muximum tensile
strength of 500N/mm2 The sockets shal1 be made from round steel
bar complying with the requirements of Euronofl11 25-72.
A4.10.4. Design
The design shall be as shown in figure A4.3 for the welded hooks.
The design shall be as shown in figure A4.4 for the screwed hooks
and sockets.
It is recommended that the screwed type of hook be used on insulated
chimneys Le., those with mineral wool or aluminium cladding as the
hook does not project through the insulation. This projection could
cause "cold spots" on the chimney shelL
An insulating spacer should be attached to the faee of tbe socket to
minimise heat conduction between the face of the socket and the
surface of the aluminium cladding.
6 mm FILlE'T WELD
A4.9. Attachment to chimney
The ladder shall be vertical except where it follows tbe slope of a

cane section.
Stringers shall be attached to lhe chimney by suitable connections
which shall be lirmly attached to tbe stringers and the chimney and
be sufficiently close together to make tbe ladder rigid throughollt its
length. The connections shall be of sufficiellt length to gve a
c1earance of not less than 200111111behind the rungs. Suitable
provision shall be made at fixing points for any differenlial expansion
(except at platforms and landings) .
A4.10. Access hooks
~-~~---\
mm .
A4.10.1. Generai
Fig_A4.3 - Welded ladder hooks
This section specifies requirements for hooks which are intended to
pro vide means 01' access l'or inspection and maintenance only by
steeplejacks and members of similar trades who normally tit lbeir
own ladders.
The hooks may be of two types:
IF ALUMINIUM CLAOOING 15
USED AN INSULATING WASHER
5HALL BE PLACEO BETWEEN
FACE OF BOSSANO THE
ALUMINIUM.
a) Those welded permanently to the steel shell

b) Those which are screwed into sockets welded to the. shell of the
steel chimney
A4.10.2. Use of access hooks

The hooks shall be in a verticalline on the exterior of the structure.
The lise of access hooks inside chimneys exposed to corrosive gases
is not recollllllended. Tbe first hook should be 1.2m + 50 - Omm
above access leve!.
The hooks should be spaced at multiples of l.5m vertical eentres witb
a loeal tolerance of + 50mm which will accommodate the majOlity or
the various length.s of ladders used by steeplejacks.
EXTERNAL 80SS
INTERNAL BOSS
Fig_A4.4 - Screwed ladder hooks and bosses
page
36
A4.10.5. Construction
The hooks shall be hot forged by hand out of solid bar. The hooks shall
pass visual examination to ensure freedom from surface defects and
shall be cleanly forged in 8uch a maoner that the mit:roscopic flow
lines follow tbe body outline of tbe hook. The whole ofthe shank shall
be forged in one piece, integraI with the hooIe. The hooks shall be
normalised after tbe completioo of all forging operations by heating
them uniformly in a furnace until the whole of tbc metal has attaioed
a temperature between 880C and 910C and tben cooled io still air.
A4.10.6. Method of fixing
The welded type hook shall be lxed to thc chimney by means of a
fillet weld of 6mm leg size on each side of the shank and returned
across the top and bottom. Atter welding to tbe structure, a test shall
and Appendices
be carried out by suspending [rom the hook a mass 01' 200kg when no
l'racture, crack or visible deformation shall oecur. Tbe socket of the
screwed-type hook shall be lxed to the chimoey by means of a finet
weld of 6mm leg size for the whole of the perephery of tbe socket.
Por new chimneys
fabtication shop.
t.he welding
should
be carried
out in tbe
lt is normaI practice for the steeplejack firm to supply tbe screwed

type hooks far tbeir own use when they ladder tbe chimney.

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CICIND

Model Code for

Commentaries and Appendices

Copyright CICIND 2000, 2002

Model Code for Steel Chimneys

Linings and Protective

MineraI Wool or Foam Inslilaton

Lined and Multiflue Chmneys

The Influence of Heighl

The GUSl Faetor

Movements in tbe second mode

A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners

Continuously to tbe Shell "

A2A. Protective and Decorative Treatments

Recommended Start-up Procedures

A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations

6 - Chemical EtTects and InternaI

A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached

C6.l. 1. Attack Due to SlIlphur Oxides

Effects or Plue Gas DeslIphurisalion

Anack Due to Chlorne, Chlorides

A4.7. Safety Hoops

Simple base plates

A4.8. Rest PIatforms and Landings

Base plates wtb gussets

A4.9. Attachment to Chimney

A4.1 O. Access Hooks

Baseplates with gussets and compression rings

CICINO Model Code - Commentaries and Appendices

Cravat (2.19) - An upstand fixed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate

The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the

Damping device (2.20) - A device fitted to the structural shell to

the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices

Donbling plate (2.21) - A plate fixed to the shell to reinforce it

Double skin chimney (2.22) - A. chimney consisting of an outer

The numbers in brackets are given in figures C.1.l

Drag coefficient - see wind force coefficient

cbirnney - A chimney supported by a boiler and its

Bracket (2.10) - A construction providing resistance to lateral

- see inlet (2.28)

Drain pipe (2.23) - A pipe which connects a tundish to a point

Jointing f1ange (2.30) - A steel section fitted to the end of a chimney

Cleaning door (2.13) - A door, normaIly at the base of the chimney,

Liner base (2.33) - A suitable support positioned at a convenient

Compression ring (2.14) - A steel plate welded to the sheIl which

Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) -Amaterial applied to the internai

Multiflue cbirnney (2.35) - A group of two or more chimneys within

CICINO Model Code -Commentaries

Safety system - Proprietary fali arrest system fixed to ladder rungs

Stayed chimney (2.40) - A chimney in which not alI externally

(2.37) - A chimney in which externally

Stiffening ring - Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to

Splitter plate (2.38) - A vertical plate welded to the interior of the

Stringer - Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.

Stay (2.39) - A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive

TOP CONE 2.42

CICINO Model Code - Commentaries

Structural shell (2.41) - The main extemal structure of the chimney,

Vanes - See Aerodynamic stabiIizers

Weatherhood (2.44) - A hood designed to shed raio water clear of

Tundish (2.43) - A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided

Thned mass damper - A forro of damping device which employs a

Typical generaI arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys.