AD-A240 263

WL-TR -91 -3073

SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL TESTING

HANDBOOK

Captain Michael G. Alexander

WL/FIMM
Wright-Patterson AFB, Oh 45433-6553

P'>
14- 13
19i

May 1991
Interim Report for Period 1 May 1990

1 May 1991

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

91-10437
Flight Dynamic Directorate
Wright Laboratory
Air Force System Command
Wright- Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433-6553

.4

NOTICE
WHEN GOVERNMENT DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, OR OTHER DATA ARE USED FOR ANY
PURPOSE OTHER THAN IN CONNECTION WITH A DEFINITELY GOVERNMENT-RELATED
PROCUREMENT, THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT INCURS NO RESPONSIBILITY OR ANY
OBLJGATION WHATSOEVER. THE FACT THAT THE GOVERNMENT MAY HAVE FORMULATED OR IN
ANY WAY SUPPUED THE SAID DRAWINGS, SPECIFICAiONS, OR OTHER DATA, IS NOT TO
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WAY BE RELATED THERETO.
THIS REPORT HAS BEEN REVIEWED BY THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (ASDIPA)
AND IS RELEASABLE TO THE NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS). AT
NTIS IT WILL BE AVAILABLE TO THE GENERAL PUBUC INCLUDING FOREIGN NATIONS.
THIS TECHNICAL REPORT HAS BEEN REVIEWED AND IS APPROVED FOR PUBUCATION.

MICHAEL G. ALEXANDER,
Aerospace Engineer
Airframe Aerodynamics

Captain USAF
Group

DENNIS SEDLOCK, Chief

Aerodynamics and Airframe Branch
Aeromechanics Division

FOR THE COMMANDER

DAVID R. SELEGAN

Acting Chief
Aeromechanics

Division

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form Approved

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

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3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

2. REPORT DATE

1 MAY 90 5. FUNDING NUMBERS

INTERIM REPCRT

May 1991
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

MAY 91

Subsonic Wind Tunnel Testing Handbook

6. AUTHOR(S)

WU

Alexander,

2404 IOA2

Captain USAF

Michael G.,

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

WL/FIMM
WL-TR-91-3073

Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-6553

"9.SPONSORING!'MONITORING

10. SPONSORING/MONITORING
AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES1

WL/FIMM
Wright-Patterson AFB Oh 45433-6553

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

12a. DISTRIBUTION 'AVAILABILITY

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

STATEMENT

Approval for Public Release;

Distribution Unlimited

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This handbook is predominantly structured for subsonic (non-compressible flow),

purpose is to provide to the aerodynamic
Its
force and moment wind tunnel testing.
testing engineer equations, concepts, illustrations, and definitions that would
The information in this handbook is an
aid him or her in wind tunnel testing.
By design, this handbook is a
amalgamation of numerous sources and observations.
living document readily expandable to include personal notes and additional
This handbook has not and cannot encompass every wind tunnel testing
sections.
technique or principle.

15. NUMBER OF PAGES

14,. S1BJECT TERMS

Wind Tunnel,

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF REPORT

Unclassified
NSN 1540-0' 29O 5500

Subsonic,

Handbook,
18.

Wind Tunnel Testing

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
OF THIS OACr

Unclassified

19.

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
OF ABSTRACT

Unclassified

306

16. PRICE CODE

20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT

Unlimited
Stardard

t-n,

.'98 ,.v 2 89)

Foreword
This technical report was prepared by Captain Michael G. Alexander from Wright
Laboratory, Flight Dynamics Directorate, Aeromechanics Division, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio, 45433-6553.

This work was accomplished under work project 240410A2, Advanced

Tactical Transport.

This technical report provides the wind tunnel testing engineer a

handbook with useful equations, definitions, and concepts to aid in wind tunnel testing.
The author wishes to thank the exceptional insights, observations, expertise and help
ii01i,

Mr. Tom Tighe, Mr. Jim Grove, Mr. Bob Guyton and Mr. Larry Rogers all from

WL/FIMMC (Wright Laboratory, Airframe Aerodynamics Group).

This report has been reviewed and is approved.

SAcecslon

iii

For

Table of Contents

Section

Description

INTRODUCTION .........

11

AERODYNAMIC DEFINITIONS

Page

...........................

1-1

a) Symbols ..........
...........................
b) Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) .......
..................
c) Center of Pressure (cp) ........
...................
d) Mean Aerodynamic Chnrd (M.A.C.) ....................
e) Neutral Point (N0 or xnp) ....................
f) Static Margin (SM) .......

11-2
11-2
11-2

......................

g) Longitudinal Static Stability .........

h) Directional Static Stability .........
i) Lateral Static Stability ..........

III

11-1
11-2

11-2

................
.................
...................

11-2
11-3
11-3

j) Dynamic Stability .........

k) Trimmed Flight .........

........................

11-3

1) Critical Mach Number .......

.....................

11-3

......................

11-3

FORCE AND MOMENT EQUATIONS

a) General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations ..............
b) Aerodynamic Equations .......
....................
1) Trim, Pitching Moments Equations ................

111-1
111-5
111-5

Conventional Horizontal Tailed Aircraft ............

Tailless ...........
.......................

111-5
111-5

Canard ..........
........................
2) Stick Fixed Neutral Point ......
................
3) Two Dimensional Lift ......
..................
Subsonic .........

111-5
111-9
111-9

.......................

Supersonic .........
......................
4) Pressure Coefficient ..........
..................
Incompressible ......
....................
Compressible .........

.....................

5) Center of Pressure Location ......

v

...............

111-9
111-9
..

111-9
111-9
111-9

111-10

Table of Contents (continued)

Section

Description

Page

6) Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) Determination ...........

7) Mass Flow ........
IV

. 111-10
I1-10

........................

AXIS SYSTEM DEFINITIONS

a) Axis System Definitions .......

...................

1) Tunnel Axis (Inerdal Axis) ......

2) Body Axis .........

IV- I

...............

IV-I

........................

3) Wind Axis ........

IV-l

........................

4) Stabilit, Axis ...........

IV- I

...................

b) Angle Definitions ...........

IV- I

......................

IV-5

1) Aerodynamic Angles ........................

2) Orientation Angles

..

...................

IV-5

3) Angle Transformation from Tunnel Axis to Body Axis

4) Wing Reference Plane ......

..................

IV-6
IV-6

5) Wind Reference Plane .......................

IV-6

6) Plane of Symmetry .......

IV-6

....................

c) Coordinate Transformation Equations .....

IV-5

.............

.IW-8

1) Balance Axis to Body Axis ...................

IV-9

2) Body Axis to Wind Axis ......................

I\V-13

3) Body Axis to Stability Axis .....

...............

IV-14

4) Wind Axis to Stability Axis .....

...............

I\V-15

TRIP STRIPS
a) Boundary Layer Symbols .......

....................-

b) Boundary Layer Discussion .......

c) Boundary Layer Thickness .......
1) Laminar .........
2) Turbulent .........
d) Trip Strips

..................
...................

.........................
........................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

e) Trip Strip Types ..........

.......................

1) Grit...........

..........................
vI

V-2
\--2
V-2
V-2

...

V-3
V-3
V-3

Table of Contents (continued)

Section

Description

Plage

2) Two-Dimensional Tape .......

3) Epoxy Dots ........
4) Thread or String .........
f) Location of Trip Strips ........
1) Lifting Surfaces ..........

VI

..................
.......................
....................

V-4
V-4

...................
....................

V-4
V-4

2) Fuselage ...........
........................
3) Nacelles ...........
........................
g) Determination of Trip Strip Height ...................
1) Method 1 (Atmospheric tunnels) .....
.............

V-4
V-4
V-5

2) Method 2 (Atm. and Pressure tunnels) ..............

h) Application of Grit types of Trip Strips .....
...........

V-7
V-8

V-5

PLANFORM CHARACTERISTICS
a) Planform Symbols .......
.......................
b) Wing Parameters Definitions ......
.................

VI-1
VI-3

c) Planform Parameters .......

VI-5

.....................

1) General Planforms ........

...................

2) Conventional, Straight-Tapered ......

.............
3) Double Delta and Cranked Wing ...................
d) Planform Example .......
.......................
1) Inboard Section ........
.....................
2) Outboard Section .......

....................

3) Total Wing .......

.......................
4) Total Aircraft Aerodynamic Center Location ..........
Inboard Section ........
....................
Outboard Section ........
....................
Total Aircraft .........
VII

V-3

.....................

VI-5
VI-6
VI-8
VI-10
VI-10
VI-I 1
VI-Il
VI-12
VI- 12
VI-i2
VI- 12

DRAG
a) Symbols ............
b) Drag ..........

...........................
.............................
vii

VII- I
VI11-2

Table of Contents (continued)

Section

Description

Page

c) Subsonic Drag ........

........................
1) Minimum Drag .......
......................
2) Profile Drag/Skin Friction Drag .....
.............
Pressure Drag (Form Drag) ....................
3) Interference Drag .........
4) Miscellaneous Drag ......
5) Drag Due to Lift .......

....................
...................
....................

VII-3
VII-3
VI1-3

6) Zero Lift Drag .......

.....................
7) Base Drag ........
........................
8) Internal Duct Drag ........
...................

VIl-3
VI-4
VII-4

9) Wave Drag ........

d) Drag Polar (Subsonic) .......

........................
....................

VII-4
VII-4

1) (CL vs CD) Polar .......

Parabolic ..........
Non-Parabolic .......

....................
.......................
.....................

VII-4
VII-5
VII-5

2) (CD vs CL 2) Polar .......

3) Polar Break ..........

....................
......................

VII-5
VII-5

4) Camber Effects .......

.....................
5) Drag and Performance Equations .................

V\l-5
VII-6

Non-Parabolic Polar ......

Parabolic Polar ..........

..................
....................

6) Analytically Determined Drag Polar .....

...........
Method of Determining a Drag Pola,.. .............
Example ........
VIII

VII-2
VII-2
VII-2
V11-3

........................

.V

I-6
1-6
VI1-7
VII-7
V -S

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING AND INTERPRETATION

a) Flaps ............
............................
1) Trailing Edge Flaps ......
...................

V.I-I
VIII-1

2) Leading Edge Flaps ......

b) Lift Curve (Flaps Up) .........

VI.l-I
V111-2

Viii

...................
....................

Table of Contents (continued)

Page

Description

Section

...................
c) Lift Curve (Flaps Down) .......
d) Drag Curve (Flap Up and Down) ......................

VIII-2
VIII-3

.......................

e) Pitching Moment ........

f) Elevator Stabilizer Power Curve
g) Aileron Power Curve ........
h) Rudder Power Curves .......

..............
.......
.....................
.....................

i) Determine Center of Pressure Shift (cp) .....

...........

..........................
j) C.G. Shift ..........
k) Lift Curve Slope ........
.......................
1) Determining Aircraft Parameters from Wind Tunnel Data. .
......................
1) Static Margin ........
2) Aerodynamic Center Location ....................
3) Aerodynamic Center Pitching Moment ...............

VIII-3
V'IT -3
v 111-4
VIII-5
VIII-5
VIII-5
VIII-5
VIII-6
VIII-6
VIII-7
VII-7

4) Center of Gravity Pitching Moment .................

5) Wing-Body-Tail .......
.....................

VIII-7
VIII-8

..............
6) Longitudinal Static Stability .......
7) Longitudinal Balance .......
..................
8) Trim Angle-of-Attack ......
..................

VIII-9
VIII-9
VIII-9

..............
re)Finding Trimmed Flight Parameters ......
n) Determine any C.G. Location ......
.................

VIII-10
VIII-1I

o) Determining the Average Downwash Angle ..............

VIII- II

p) Determining Induced Drag Factor (K) and Oswald's Wing

Efficiency Factor (e) ...........
...................
q) Base Pressure .........
........................

VIII-12
VIII-12

r) Pressure Transducer Selection ........

................
s) Flow Visualization ........
......................
1) Surface Flow Visualization .....
...............

VIII-13
VIII-14
VIII-14

Yam ..........
..........................
Fluorescent Mini-Tufts .....
.................
Mini-Tuft Installation .......
..............
Surface Plepdic iion Steps.

ix

.....

............

VIII- 14
.VIII- 15
Vill-15
VIII-15

Table of Contents (continued)

Section

Description

Page

Mini-Tuft Attachment Steps .II

.l(
Oil Flow. ...... .....
.....
.....
.....

....
.....
..........-

3) Off-Body Flow Visualization........

.
Laser Light Sheet (Vapor Screen).......
.

Smoke Seeded Flow.................

Tufts.

......

..........

..

........

I7

.....
..
...
.. . . . .
.. ... ....
.. . .
..

.. ..

..........

.......

IllIIl-I
V! l.1 1

.......

VI I I-

4) Deter-mining Aerodynamic Angles from the Model SupptI)(r1

(sting) Angles...................
.
. .
.....
.
.
....
.. . .
IX

STRESS ANALYSIS
a) Symbols.

.. ........

..........

..........

b) Definitions...

.....

........

c) Stress Formulas.

....

..................

d) Ang~e-of-Twist ....

.....

.....

....

.........................

..........

e) Polar Moment of Inertia ..

....

I-I
. I X-

.....

.....

..........

........

..........

.....

......

I-5

. .....
.....

IX-5

......

IN-

f) Radius of Gyration

..................

g) Bending, Stress

....

..........

..........

.....

.....

......

I-6

......

..........

..........

.....

.....

......

I-6

h) Shear Strcess

i) Torsional Formulas ..

jCcmbincd

Stress . ..

k) Principle Stress.....
I) Factor of Safety.

.. ........

.....

........

..........

.. ........

.....
..

..

..........

n) Example: Stress Analysis.........

..

.....

..........

.....

.....
.....

.....
..

. .

...........

..

m)Calculate Centroid of' a Planform Area .. ....

Ill-1

...
.....

! -

IX-()
.

.....

..

I-7

....

I-S

......
.....

I-8
....

IN-

.. . . .

IN-)

T'RENDS
a) Flap Characteri st ics

..........

...

......

..........

........-

b) Effect of Vertical Location on C.G. PitchiM2 Moihicii~......

.. . ..c0 Typical Longitudinal Stability Breakdown .. ..

........

d) M-,ich Number Trends (Effect). ..

..........

.. ........

e) Reynolds Number and Aspect Ratio Effect. ..

x

..

....

.....................-

2
3
4

Table of Contents (continued)

Page

Description

.,ectliol

X-5

.................

f) Effect of Wing Sweep on CD

0

X-

g) Aft and Forward Wing Sweep Comparison ................

h) Wing Pressure Distribution in the Presence of a C'ouplCd

X-9.)

..........................

Chine Forebody ........

i) Reynolds Number Effect on C1

m .-!.x'

j) Reynolds Number Effect on Drag ......

XI

................
............
k) Drag Rise Characteristics (Wing alone) ......

X-1 I
X-12

1) Mach ELfect on a Airfoil Pressure Distribution .....

X-13

........

INTERNAL STRAIN GAGF RALANCES

a) Symbols

. ..............

......

b) Strain Gages .........

Xl-I
XI-2

...........................
..

...................

1) Temperature Effects ......

2) Deformation Theory and Calculation ..............

3) Measurement of AR/R .......

...

XI-5

c) Balance Calibration (interaction) Matrix ..................

XI-6

.........................
.

d) Calibration Body

XI-7

..................

e) Check Loading .............

........................

XI-S
XI-8

1) Checking Lo ading, Procedure .....................

2) Dead-Weight Loading System .......

...............

XI-9

3) Axial Force Check- Loading ........

................

XI-')

f) Sensitivity Constants

XI- I)

....................

.............

g) Obtaining Force and Moment Datai from Raw Balance I)al a....

X.I- I I

h) Balance Calibralion l'qualion L'vxample ...................

XI-12

i) Balance Placcenctit in the NModel .......

Xl- 14

. ) Balamce ('alibratitm

k)
RIi'REN.('J."

XI-3
XI-4

...................

1) Example ............

XI-I

13al'ti

llwc

................

X;aiple. ...................

LItji)

, nit iin
l the
ic Mlodcl

.-..

. . . . . . . . . .

X.I - I I

X I-14
I

....................................

'l

Table of Contents (concluded)

Section

Description

APPENDIX A ..........

Page

................................

Dynamic Pressure Determination .....................

..

A-I
A-1

Reynolds Number Determination .....................

A-2

Standard Atmosphere ...........

A-3

.....................

Compressibic Flow Pararmeters ......................

Conversion Factors ...........
APPENDIX B ................

A-4

...

.....................

..

A-8

.................................

B-I

..........................

B-I

Tid Bits ..........

Wind Tunnel First Aid Kit ..........................

13-2

Geometric Equations ..........

8-3

APPENDIX C.............

......................

................................

..

Powered Testing .........

........................

Symbols ................

............................

Power On Aerodynamic Equations .....................

Incremental Coefficients

..........

Aerodynamic Coefficients .....

Induced Force Coefficients ......

xii

..................

...

C- 1

C I
...

C-3

...

C-3

.....................
..................

C-I

C-3
...

C-4

List of Figures
Figure

Description

Page

111-1

Force and Moment Vectors; Aft Tailed Aircraft ..............

111-6

111-2

Force and Moment Vectors; Tailless Aircraft .....

111-6

111-3

Force and Moment Vectors; Canard Aircraft .................

111-7

111-4

111-8

IV-1

Positive Angle, Moment, and Body Axis Definition ............

Body Axis System .........
.........................

IV-2

Wind Axis System .........

IV-3

IV-3

Stability Axis System ...........

IV-4

Angle Definitions ...........

........................

IV-7

IV-5

Rotation Order .............

.........................

IV- I1

IV-6

Balance Axis.

..........................

IV- 12

V-1

Boundary Layer Thickness .........

....................

V- 10

V-2

Streamwise Grit Location .........

....................

V- I I

V-3

Grit Height ...........

V-4

Carborundum Grit Number .......

V-5

Minimum Grit Size (method 2) .......

VI-_1

Airfoil Nomenclature ...........

VI-2

General Planform Parameters .......

VI-3

Conventional, Straight-Tapered Planform ......

VI-4

VI-8

VI-5

Double Delta and Cranked Wing Planform ...................

Planform Example .........
.........................

VII-I

Drag Tree ...........

Vii-9

VII-2

(CL vs CD) Drag Polar; subsonic .......................

VII- 10

Vll-3

(CL vs C D) Drag Polar, supersonic ......................

VII-10

VII-4

(CL vs CD) Subsonic Drag Polar........................

VIl-Il

VII-5

(CD vs Co-) Drag Polar ........

......................

VII- II

VIII- I

Downwash Determination ........

......................

VIII-20

VIII-2

Trim Determination Plot ..........

IX- I

Stress Analysis Example 1 (centroid determination) .............

Stress Analysis Example 2 (wing tip missile) .....
...........

IX-2

...........

.........................
......................

.............

...........................

IV-4

V-12

.....................

V- 13

..................

V-14

......................

VI-4

...................

VI-5

..............

.............................

......................

xii1

IV-2

VI-6
VI- 10

N111-20
IX-9
IX-15

List of Figures concluded

X- 1
X-2
X-3

Page

Description

Figure

X- 1
X-2
X-2

X-4
X-5

Flap Characteristics .............

........................
Effect of Vertical Location of C.G. on Pitching Moments .........
Typical Component Longitudinal Stability Breakdown ............
Mach Number Trends (effects) ........
....................
Reynolds Number and Aspect Ratio Trends (effects) ..............

X-6

Effect of Wing Sweep on CDD

X-5

X-3
X-4

.....................
0

X-7

Aft and Forward Swept Wing-Fuselage Effects .................

X-6

X-8

Wing Pressure Distribution in the presence of a Coupled Chine. ...

X-9

X-9

Reynolds Number Effect on C1

X-10
X- 11

max
Reynolds Number Effect on Drag (Wing alone) .................
Drag Rise Characteristics (Wing alone) ......
...............

X- 11
X- 12

X-12
X- 13
XI- 1

Mach Effect on Airfoil Pressure Distribution .....

............
Typical Weapon Separation Data ........................
Basic Wheatstone Bridge ...........
......................

X- 13
X- 14
XI- 15

XI-2

Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge .......

XI-3
XI-4
A-1
A-2

Example Balance Calibration Sheet ......

..................
Raw Balance Data ........
..........................
Dynamic Pressure Determination .......
...................
Reynolds Number Determination .........................

A-3
A-4

Standard Atmosphere .........

.........................
Compressible Flow Parameters ........
....................

A-3
A-4

A-5

.........................

A-8

B-i

Conversion Factors ...........

Geometric Equations .........

.........................

B-3

C- 1

Powered Effects ..........

(Wing alone) ...........

..

....................

...........................

xiv

X- 10

XI- 15
XI- 16
XI- 17
A- 1
..

A-2

C-5

List of Tables

Table

Description

III-1

Force and Moment Definitions .......

V-1

Nominal Grit Size ........

Stress Constants ...........

IX-1

Page

..................

.......................
........................

xv

111-4
..

V-8
IX-7

.ubsonic
Wind
Tunnel

Testing
:Tandbook

By

Captain

Michael

xvii

G.

Alexander,

USAF

INTRODUCTION

I Introduction
The aerodynamic engineer who participates in wind tunnel testing often has a need for
reference material to aid him/her in his/her testing. It is nearly impossible for the
engineer to recall every equation, concept, definition, and to carry reference material to
the wind tunnel site. This handbook, Subsonic Wind Tunnel Testing Handbook, attempts to
provide to the testing engineer in one reference some of those equations, concepts, and
definitions that he or she might find helpful during testing. This handbook is a quick
reference for the testing engineer and is an amalgamation of information from numerous
reference materials and personal observations. It is designed to be a living document
readily expandable and to fit in a briefcase to accompany the testing engineer to the test
site. Also by design, this aid has not encompassed every wind tunnel technique or
principle, but offers enough information to facilitate and help ease wind tunnel testing.
This handbook is predominantly structured for subsonic (non-compressible flow), force and
moment, wind tunnel testing. For compressible flow testing, an excellent reference aid
is the NACA 1135 (ref. 1). However, it is no longer in print by the government, but,
reprints of the NACA 1135 can be procured from reference 2.

I- 1

II

AERODYNAMIC DEFINITIONS

II

II

Aerodynamic Definitions

Symbols
a.c.

Aerodynamic Center

cg

Center of Gravity

CL

Lift Coefficient

Cn

Yawing Moment Coefficient

CM

Pitching Moment Coefficient

CM

Pitching Moment Coefficient at zero angle-of-attack

0

cp

Center of Pressure

MAC

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Neutral Point

SM

Static Margin

Xnp

Distance from the MAC leading edge to the aerodynamic center

Xcg

Distance from the MAC leading edge to the center of gravity

aC m

Pitching Moment Coefficient slope

acc
aC

mcg

L
AC
n
ap

Slope of the cg pitching moment and lift curve

Slope of yawing moment coefficient and the yaw angle

a Cn

Slope of yawing moment coefficient and the sideslip angle

aC1
aC
1

Slope of rolling moment coefficient and the sideslip angle

ap3
Y

Angle-of-Attack

13

Sideslip Angle

(P

Yaw Angle
TI-I-

Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) - The point where the pitching moment does not vary with tile
angle of attack.
Center of Pressure (cp)- A point where the pitching moment vanishes. The cp location
varies with angle of attack and Mach number.
N'Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) - The chord of an imaginary, untwisted, unswept, equal span
non-tapered wing which would have force vectors throughout
the flight range identical with thobe u," the actual %,
ing or
wings.
Neutral Point (xnp or N0 )

As the cg is moved aft, the slope of aCmcg / aCL becomes

less negative. When there is no change of the pitching
moment with lift coefficient (aCmcg / aCL = 0), that Xcg
position is the neutral point (No =

Static Margin

xcg).

The distance from the center of gravity to the neutral point expressed as
a fraction of the mean aerodynamic chord. The 'X' position
of Xnp is measured positive aft from the c.g..

X
np

SM =

-X

a
cg

mcg

aCC
+SM =

mcg < 0

(Stable; N

aC L
-SM - aCCmcg > 0

is behind c.g.)

(Unstable; N 0is ahead of c.g.)

L
Longitudinal Static Stability - Is determined by the sign and the magnitude of the slope
aC
of C m versus a curve.
positive
stability.

m must be < 0 and C

aam
a~t

must be
0

for
trimmed,
positive
longitudinal
static
Also, Cm versus CLcan be used to determine

11-2

positive longitudinal stability.

Directional Static Stabiliiy -

Is determined by the sign and magnitude of the slope of C

versus P3curve, where 03 is the sideslip angle.
be positive (> 0) for directional stability.
known as weathercock stability.

aC

a13

must

This is also

Also, Cn versus (p can be

dC

used where p is the yaw angle.

n must be negative (< 0)

for directional stability.

Lateral Static Stability

It is determined by the sign and magnitude of the slope of the

8C 1
C1 versus 03curve,
must be negative (< 0) for positive

a0

lateral
effect.

stability.

This

is

also known

as the

dihedral

An increase in lateral stability causes dutch roll;

too little stability causes spiral instability.

Dynamic Stability - Is the time history of the movements of a body in response to its
static stability tendencies following

an initial disturbance

from equilibrium.
Trimmed Flight

For balanced flight, the aircraft flies at a given elevator angle and
angle of attack that produces Cm = 0.

Critical Mach Number

Is the Mach number where there is a sharp increase in drag (drag

divergence, approximately Mach = 1.0).

11-3

This page was intentionally left blank

11-4

NOTES

11-5

NOTES

11-6

NOTES

11-7

NOTES

11-8

III

FORCE AND MOMENT EQUATIONS

III

III Force and Moment Equations

General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations
A

Axial Force (lbf) -- (A = Dcosot - Lsinct)

Speed of Sound (f/s)

--

Speed of Sound (mph)

a

Lift Curve Slope

--

(yRo

33.42

f--;

494'

= 4(yP/p) ;

9-= R

-- CL

CA

Axial Force Coefficient (CA = -CLsina + CDcoscc)

CD

Drag Coefficient (CD = CNsinoc + CAcosa)

CD.
1

Induced Drag

CD

Zero Lift Drag; Parasite Drag (profile, friction, pressure)

0

CL

Lift Coefficient (CL = CNCOSot - CAsinax)

/

CL

Lift at minimum drag

C1

Rolling Moment

CL

Lift Curve Slope

(generally zero)

--

8ot
Cm

Pitching Moment

Pitching moment curve slope -- -

8C

CN

Normal Force Coefficient

Cn

Yawing Moment

Yawing moment curve slope

CT

Thrust Coefficient

cp

Center of Pressure

(CN = CLCOSci + CDsinot)

6C
n

--

Thrus t

q S
x

cp

CN
CN
III-1

7= OR

General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations (continued)

Cy
Y

Side Force Coefficient

Drag Force (lbf)

--

(D = Nsinca + Acosot)

Drag Polar-- CD = CD

+ [CL

Oswald's wing efficiency factor

Gravity Constant

Induced drag factor

CL'2
iteAR

1
ireAR
L

Lift Force (lbf)

Normal Force

Neutral point

Load Factor

-- (L = Ncosa - Asinc)
--

--

--

(Lcoscx + Dsinot)

8C
m
8 CL

(lbf)

cg

L + T sinatT
-

L
-

Mach number

PM

Pitching Moment (dimensional)

(for ccT small)

Pressure

Gas Constant

T
7

Thrust
Temperature; (Rankine)

2
Dynamic Pressure -- 0.5pV 2 or 0.7(Ps)M

RM
S

Rolling Moment (dimensional)

Surface Area
Side Force (lbf)

Tail/Canard Volume Coefficient .....

111-2

General Aerodynamic Symbols and Equations (concluded)

X Neutral point

--

8C-m

np

CLc

Yawing Force (side force)

YM

Yawing Moment (dimensional)

oxT

Thrust vector angle

aX

Geometric angle of attack (measured from V. to the wing chord)

oXa

Absolute angle of attack (oa - (aZL)

a ZL ; "o

Zero lift angle of attack (measured from the wing chord to the wing zero lift
line)

13

Angle of sideslip

11

Angle of roll
Tail efficiency factor (qt/q.)

(P

Angle of yaw

Downwash angle

local angle of inclination of surface to V

Subscripts
np -- neutral point

--

wing

t -- tail

s -- static pressure

--

Thrust

c -- canard

cg

ac

inc

---

center of gravity
incompressible

--

o --

aerodynamic center
freestream conditions

111-3

Table 1
Force and Moment Definitions
Forces

Body Axis
Force
N

Wind Axis

Stability Axis
Coefficient
Force ICoeffic ient
CL = L/qSw
L
CL = L/qSw
CD = D/qSw
D
Co = D/qSw

Coefficient
Force
CN = N/qSw
L
CA = A/qSw
D

A
S

Cs = S/qS

= Y/qS

Y/qS

Moments

Body
Moment

Axis

Wind

Coefficient Moment

Axis

S tabili ty Ax is
Coefficient Moment
Coefficient

PM

Cm = PM/qSwc

PM

= PM/qSwc

PM

CI

PM/qSwc

RM

C1

= RM/qSwb

RM

CI

= RM/qSwb

RM

CI =

RM/c
1 Swb

YM

Cn

= YM/qS wb

YM

Cn

= YM/qS wb

YM

Cn =

YM/qSw b

Parameter legend

q = Dynamic pressure

Span

Sw = Wing area

111-4

c = MAC

Aerodynamic Equations
Trim Pitching Moment Equations (ref. 3)

Conventional Horizontal Tailed Aircraft (figure 111-1)

CM

cg

CC CL[w] [TZTV
=[M1

[ac]jw

TjJ - CLt)'t
C(Vw

+ CD [lz +

[c

Ccgl inlet

For an all flying tail....

CLt = at (a + Acx)
=

,ao

at[(la .O8__
-

)a
cx+ + ,Aal
a

= a created by control column input

For fixed stabilizer and a movable elevator...

CL = a

_O8_F )c' - (atZL)t]

8t a
Tailless Aircraft (figure 111-2)

CMcg = [CMac] w

CL[

+ CD [+Lq [

--- j

[CMc

injlet

Canard Aircraft (figure 111-3)

CMcg = [CMac]

CL[

+ CD[a] + KSwJ
.

111-5

CLc[

"] C

Sign
Convention

Fumelage Reference line

vact

it

ZT NT
T

ENGINE

w
Aft Tailed Aircraft
Figure

III-i

Force
Aft

a ~

Fgr

11-

Meg

Force

and
Tailed

Moment
Aircraft

&V Momlaet

111-6

Vectors

Vefeectrsn

do

NWB
LwB

Nc
LcDc
ac

McDB

'acM "C-0./

-ZieWB

Meg
Ic

ca
J-7

XW

NT

ZT

Canard Aircraft

Figure

111-3

Force

Canard

and

Moment

Aircraft

111-7

Vectors

Fuselage.

Wind Reference

Win' Refrence
Plane
(Moment

+ C

+ a

Positive Pitching

+C+U

Positive Yawing

Symmylng

"CN

Up; vertical

+ Cn

"+CA Aft
"+Cy

Out rt.

+ CM
wingj

+ CI

Nooe rightme

Nose up

+ CI

Right wing down

+ Z
Positive Rolling
Moment

Figure

111-4

Positive

Angles,

Moments,

1l1-8

and

Body Axis

System

Stick-Fixed Neutral Point

No = Xcg
N0 = X

;when (8CM / &CL) = 0

-

(CM

/SCL] + (at

x
_g
SCM/SCL

aw)VT1t[1 - (

/a&x)]
8

N
0

Two-Dimensional Lift
Subsonic
ain (Cxa)
- inc
a
2
1 - M
inc

CL

(cx in rads)

Supersonic
CL2D
CL _
2D

M2
m

4c
CL

inc
-1

2D

M2

-1

(flat plate)
((xin rads)

Pressure Coefficient
Incompressible
F
Ci =1
Pinc

7J

pC

p
q

Compressible

Sp = y2

YMO
Cp

[ 22:
I + .5(y -

nc

C-

P
c

Cp.

M2]Y

1)M

111-9

(thin-airfoil
theory)

20

C=p
2

SM

0 = >0 compression
= <0 expansion

_0

(0 in rads)

Center of Pressure Location

Xcp3

CM
CN (units of length)

=-

Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) Determination

Assume the moment reference center is at a distance 'x' from the L.E.
and then take moments about the a.c.
CMacqcS = [CMx qcS] + [CLqS](xac- x)cosCC + [CDqcS1(xac- x)sincU

Solving for Xac...

x

CM

-CM

ac

-c

-c CLCosat

ac

ac

+ CDsina

for a << 1

cL

CM

CM

ac

CL

Mass Flow (ref. 27)

Mo = pAV

I11-10

NOTES

111- Il

NOTES

III- 12

NOTES

1I1- 13

NOTES

III-14

NOTES

111-15

NOTES

III-16

IV

AXIS SYSTEM DEFINITIONS

IV

IV Axis System Definitions

(Ref. 6)
Tunnel Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect to
the tunnel in pitch, roll and yaw.
Body Axis

An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect to

the model and rotates with it in pitch, roll, and yaw (figure IV-l). All
forces, moments, and axis systems are referenced from the Body axis.

xb

Longitudinal body axis in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft; positive

forward.

Yb-

Lateral body axis perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the aircraft,

usually taken in the plane of the wing; positive toward right wing tip.

zb

Vertical body axis in the plane of symmetry of aircraft, perpendicular to

the longitudinal and lateral axes; positive down.

Wind Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which is obtained by rotating through
pitch and yaw, but not roll with respect to the Body axis. This system
defines lift as perpendicular to the relative wind, drag as parallel to the
relative wind, and side force as perpendicular to the plane of lift and
drag (figure IV-2).
Stability Axis - An orthogonal, right-handed axis system which remains fixed with respect
to the relative wind in pitch, but rotates with the model in yaw and roll.
Lift is defined as perpendicular to the relative wind with drag and side
force yawing with the model (figure IV-3). The only difference between the
Stability axis and the Body axis is a.
xs - Longitudinal

stability

axis,

parallel

to

the

projection

of

the

total

velocity vector (V) on the plane of symmetry of the aircraft; positive

forward
Ys-

Lateral stability axis, coincident as the lateral body axis; positive out
the right wing tip.

zs

Vertical stability axis in the plane of symmetry of the aircraft,

perpendicular to the longitudinal and lateral stability axes; positive down.
IV-1

Side View

+xB

CC

Rear View

+'tri+

+zX

FigreIV1
RearIV

nun-le

od
2iw

AisSyte

urnQ

Side View
+X

CLw

RearVie

clww

+ X+-

Top View

Fiur

CY wI

I-

Rear View

CL
WidAisSse

CW

Cy w -- _+:Yw

+zW~
+Z B

Figure IV-2

+Y B

Wind
I V-3

Axis

System

Side View

+X B

Sz

Tear

++

Sy

View

Fiue"V3StbltyAi
+IV-4

Sse

Angle Definitions (figure IV-4)

Aerodynamic Angles

cx - Pitch angle-of-attack, angle between the xb axis and the projection of (V)

on the plane of symmetry.

A positive cX is pitch up or rotates the

zb axis

into +xb axis. a = tan- (w/u)

angle, angle between the projected total velocity vector (V) on the
xbYb plane and the +xb axis.
A positive direction rotates the + Xb axis
into the +Yb axis (positive nose right). p(= tan-'(v/u).

-Yaw

Angle-of-sideslip, angle toetween the total velocity vector (V) and

its projection on the XbZb plane. A positive rotation rotates the +Yb axis
into +xb

Orientation Angles

axis (positive nose left).

f3

sin- I(v/V).

(looking from origin; figure IV-4)

0 -Pitch

angle, positive clockwise about the +Yi axis direction (+ nose up; +zi
into +xi).

p-

Yaw angle, positive clockwise about the +z. axis direction (+ nose right;
+xi into +yi).

S- Roll angle, positive clockwise about the +x. axis direction (+ rt wing down;
+Yi into +z.
(p, 0, and 0 form a system of three angles which defines the orientations of the
Body axis with the respect to the Tunnel axis system (inertial reference system). Any
orientation of the Body axis system is obtained by rotationally displacing it from the
Tunnel axis system through each of the three angles in turn. The order of rotation is
important (figure IV-5) and is defined to be yaw-pitch-roll.
A long discussion ensued over the definition of yaw ((p) and sideslip (13).
IV-5

After many

arguments and three dimensional velocity box drawings, yp = -i3 (after yawing and pitching
the model. Roll = 0). When the model is yawed, pi.ched, and rolled, then yaw does not
equal minus sideslip (q * -03). The difference is obviously roll.

Angle Transformation form Tunnel Axis (Inertial Axis) to Body Axis

(figure IV-4; +Z down, +X out nose, +Y out rt wing)

Xb

cosOcos(P

Yb=

-sinsin0cos(p 1 rsinsin0sinp1 sinocos0

-cos~sin
IJ[+cOsOcOs(P
J

"7

cos0sin(p

cososin0cosqp I rcososinOsinlp
L-sinocos(p
L+sinsin,

b = body

-sinO

cosOcosO

Xi
Yi

i = inertial

Wing Reference Plane (ref. 4)

It is the plane which passes through the wing tips and is parallel to the longitudinal
axis.
Wind Reference Plane (ref. 4)
It is the plane that passes through the relative wind vector and intersects the wing
reference plane along a line which is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry.
Plane of Symmetry (ref. 4)
It is the plane that passes through the fuselage axis and is perpendicular to both the
wing and wind reference planes.

IV-6

XB

B
S

VX

Orenato

V-27

--

Coordinate Transformation Equations

Most external balances measure about the wind axis system and most iniernal balances
measure about the body axis system. Thus it becomes necessary to transfer from one axis
system to another. If the model and balance are fixed to the sting, with no relative
motion between the model and the balance, and the sting is capable of movement in yaw,
pitch, and roll then body axis coincides with the baiaice axis. Therefore, all forces and
moments indicated by the balance are body forces and moments.The axis can pass through
either the balance moment reference center or the desired model c.g.. However, if the
model and balance axes do not coincide, additional transformati',s must be considered.
The coordinate transformations below assume data have been transferred to the desired
c.g. location. Also, at is Cbody and has not been corrected for the wind tunnel upflows
and wall effects.

IV-8

Balance Axis to-Body Axis

(Ref. 28)

Order of rotation: yaw, pitch, roll (See figure IV-6)

Note: a~ and 13are balance to body axis angles and not aerodynamic ang!es.

Forces (roll

=0)

b = C NblCosax + C Ablcos~s;a
CAU

CYba cosf3

Forces (roll

Al cosf~coscL
+

-CYblsnsn

C Y blsinl~cosa

asince

C A blsinf3

0)

CNb

Cosar

cosfpsincz

sin13sina

C Nbal

CA b

-sincL

coscccos13

coscasin13

CA a

-sin13

cos3

-CYbal-

CYb_

L0

Forces (roll # 0)
CN b

cosczcoso

CA b
CY
b

sincacos13cos4,
-sin13sino

sincxsinfpcosap
+cos13sino

CN

-sina

coscacosp

cosa s 1no

CA a

-coSsczin4

-sincxcoslpsino
-sinp3cosp

-sincasinfosino
+co s Pco SO

CY

IV-9

bal

bal

Moments (roll * 0)
(Note: Body c.g. is located +X, +Y, +Z from balance c.g. See figure IV-6)

Clb

cocc

(CB)ccasf3

-so

-(BC)sacfoso
-(BC)spco

-saspso
+c cO

-(BC)ccaso

Cnb

sac Pcp-s Pso

(CB)sasp3cO

(ZB)

(ZC)

cacO

-(YB)

(YB)

CI bal

-(XC)

-(XB)

tubal

Cnbao

+(CB)cf3so

CAb
CYb

CNb
Legend

(CB)

(BC)

z
(ZB)

(YB)

=b

= b

(ZC) = Z

c
Y
= b

c
(XC)=

Xx

(XB)

b = span

s = sin

c = M.A.C

X,

Y, Z = body

c =cos
transfer di stances

Generally, roll (4) is considered as zero in the balance to body transformation.

IV-10

ROLL-PITCH-YAW

PITCH-ROLL-YAW

xx

YAW-PITCH-ROLL

ROTATE -900

ABOUT X
(ROLL)

2f
Y

ROTATE 900
ABOUT Y

ROTATE +900

(PITCH)

ABOUT Z
(YAW)

ROTATE *900
ABOUT Y

TY

(P ITCH)

ROTATE -900

ROTATE

ABOUT X
(ROLL)

ABOUT Y
(PITCH)

ROTAE, +90

+900

Nz~z

ABOUT Z
(YAW)

ROTATE +90

ROTATE

ABOUT Z

ABOUT X

(ROLL)

z(YAW)
zz

Figure

IV-5

Rotation
IV-1l

Order

900

CN

--

Model Body Axis

-%X
bal
CmXbal

CA
Ibal

Moaci/

NF
N

+Y

+X

Balance CL

Reference
PoiPonnt

Balance

SMoment
Reference
Center

+Z
+X

+Z

Figure

IV-6

Balance

IV-12

Axis

Body Axis to Wind Axis (ref. 4 & 8)

Note: a and p are aerodynamic angles
(c/B) or (B/c) is used to add moment coefficients together (apples to apples).
Forces
CL

= CN cosa

CD

= CA COSaCOS(P

CA bsina

CYw = C ybCosy

C Ybsin(p

- CA cosasingp

+ CN sinacos(p
-

CN sinasin(p

Forces
CL

cosa

-sina

CD

sinacosqp

cosacosqP

sin(p

CA

CYw

-sinasinqp

-cosasinqp

cosq

CS

CN

Moments
C

Cmbcos(

+ (B/c)CIb cosasinp( + (B/c)C nbsinasinwp

Cl cosacosp

Cl

=CCnbCosa - Clsinca

(c/B)Cm sinp

+ C nsinacos(p

Moment

B = wing
span
_n
c = M.A.C.

Cm

cosqP

-(c/B)sinp

(B/c) c osasiny

(B/c) s inctsiny

Cm

cosacosqp

s inccosy

C1I

-sina

cosa

C nb
b

IV-13

Body Axis to Stability Axis (ref. 4)

Forces
CL

= CNbCOSa

- CAbsina

CD = CN sinch

+ CA Cosot

CYs = CYb

Forces

CL "

cosot

-sina

0-

CN

csD

sin.

cosoa

cAb

cys

-0

c b

Moments
C m =C
s
mb
C,

C1 Cosa

Is
Cn

C~ siII

b
nb
C Cn oa - Clsino

Moments

C1

cosc

sinc

C b

-sino.

cosaX

IV-14

Wind Axis to Stability Axis (ref. 4 & 8)

Forces
CL =CL
w

CD s =CD CoS(P

Cy

+ CD singp

-Cy

Cy singf
w

cosq

Force
IL

cosq

CL

-sing

CD

CD

=
S

Cy

"-

sing

cosq

Cy

S"

Moments

Cm = Cm cosy - (B/c)C 1 sing

S

C1 = C1 cosp + (c/B)Cm sing

s

Cn

=C n

Mcments

Cm

cosp

(B/c)sinp

0-

Cm

C,1

(c/B)sinq

cosg

Cl

Cn

0
B = wing span

c = M.A.C
IV-15

Since all of the fore mentioned coordinate transformation equations are orthogonal
matrices (square matrices), one can obtain the 'other' axis transformation by simply
transposing the matrix.

IV-16

NOTES

IV-17

NOTES

IV-18

NOTES

IV-19

NOTES

IV-20

NOTES

IV-21

NOTES

IV-22

TRIP STRIPS

V Trip Strips

Boundary Layer Symbols

Rk

Reynolds number based on roughness height, velocity, and kinematic viscosity at

top of roughness (Vkk
uk)

Rx

Reynolds number based on freestream conditions and distance of roughness from

leading edge (VOx / Vc,.)

Roughness height

Distance of roughness from leading edge

Local streamwise velocity component outside the

uk

Local streamwise velocity component inside the boundary layer at the top of the
roughness particle

"V.

Freestream velocity

Distance from leading edge to roughness strip (trip strip)

Boundary layer thickness

"ik

Kinematic viscosity at top of the roughness particle

1000

Freestream kinematic viscosity

Tt

Total temperature (OF)

VI

boundary layer

Boundary Layer Discussion (ref. 7)

Due to the effects of viscosity, the velocity near a surface is gradually slowed from
the freestream velocity, V., to zero velocity.
The region where this velocity change
occurs is called the boundary layer.

A boundary layer in which the velocity varies

approximately linearly from the surface is called laminar and a boundary layer whose
velocity varies approximately exponentially from the surface is called turbulent.
Generally speaking, the upper Reynolds number (Rn) limit for a laminar boundary layer is 1
X 106 per ft.

However, transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary layer most often

occurs at a much lower Reynolds number (5 x 105 per ft).

Boundary Layer Thickness
The boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the surface to a point
where the velocity in the boundary layer is 99% of the velocity of V\.. The boundary layer
thickness can be approximated by
Laminar
0
6 = 5.2 (12/Rn)

Turbulent
6 = 0.37 l/(Rn)

where

02

distance from body leading edge

Rn = Reynolds number = (pVl / pt)

p = air density * 32.1741 (ft/sec)
V

= freestream velocity

I
1t

some reference length

absolute viscosity
(1.2024 X 10- 5 lbm/ft-sec)
(3.7373 X 107 slugs/ft)

\2

Trip Strips (ref. 8)

A trip strip is an artificial roughness added to the model to fix the location of
transition from laminar to a turbulent boundary layer.

The reason a trip strip is added

to a wind tunnel model is to increase the local effective Reynolds number and to
scale test

"duplicate" the boundary layer to that of a full

Some general

article.

guidelines that are applicable to all grit-type trips are listed below (ref. 25):
1)

The roughness bands should be narrow (0.125 to 0.25 inches).

2)

The roughness

should be sparsely

distributed.

According to reference

8,

approximately one grain per every 2mm (.080 in) along the trip strip is the
closest desirable spacing;
(.200

in)

apart

grains could possibly be spaced as far as 5mm

and still cause transition.

However,

if the

trip strip is

either too high above the surface or is too densely packed with particles, it
can affect the model drag, maximum lift and not fix transition.
3)

Two-dimensional trips are unsatisfactory because reasonable heights do not fix

transition at the trip location.

4)

Care should be taken no: to build up layers of adhesive which can form spanwise
ridges at the edge of the trip.

These ridges also tend to make tile trip act as

a two-dimensional step.
Trip Strip Types (ref. 8)
Grit
The traditional trip strip is a finite width strip of grit.

Two commercially

available grit materials that are used are Carborundum and Ballotine micro beads
or balls.

Trip strip width is usually 0.100 to 0.25 inches.

Clear lacquer or

double sided tape can be used as a gluing agent.

Two-Dimensional Tape
These consist of 0.125 inch height printed circuit drafting tape or chart tape.
Also, cellophane type tape can be used.
layers of tape.
V-3

The trip strip is built up by multiple

Epoxy Dots
A vinyl tape of varying thicknesses that has holes of 0.05 inch diameter and
0.10 inch center to center displacement is used. This tape is applied to the
model surface and an epoxy compound is forced into the holes. Once the epoxy
has harden remove the tape.

Thread or String
Thread or string is glued to the model.

This technique is not used much any

more.
Location of Trip Strips
Lifting Surfaces
This includes wings, tails, and fins. The trip strip is applied to both sides
of the lifting surface. For four and five digit airfoils and conventional wing
constructions, the full scale transition will occur approximately 10% of tile
chord at cruise conditions.

Fuselage
The trip strip is often located where the local diameter is one-half of the
maximum diameter. Care should be taken to ensure that the flow has not
reattached or that laminar flow has been reestablished aft of the trip strip.

Nacelles

For flow through nacelles, the trip strip is placed inside the nacelle and is
located approximately 5% aft of the inlet L.E. Also, additional trip strip is
located on the outside at 5-10% aft of the inlet L.E.
From reference 8, testing of models through a range of Reynolds and Mach numbers, it is
desirable to eliminate the need for changing grit sizes for each condition.
This
elimination is accomplished by using a grit (roughness) size determined for tile

V-4

combination of test Reynolds number and Mach number which require the largest grit size usually at the smallest Reynolds number and largest Mach number condition. For tapered
wings (ref. 10), apply grit at a ccr.aA percer...;: of t,',,e local chord (nominally 5%).
In order to permit the use of a single grit size across the span, the grit size is
calculated for the largest chord.
For wings with a sharp supersonic leading edge,
calculate the grit size using the Mach number and unit Reynolds number based on the flow
outside the boundary layer on the upper surface at the maximum test angle of attack.
Apply grit to both upper and lower wing surfaces. For sharp subsonic leading-edge wing or
round leading-edge wing, whether or not swept behind the Mach line, the freestream Mach
number and unit Reynolds number are used to determine the grit size. Using the above
criteria, there will be test conditions when grit particles are larger than the minimum
required to cause transition. However, careful application of a sparse distribution of
grit particles on a narrow strip will minimize the drag contribution of the grit itself.
Determination of Trip Strip Height
Grit height
of boundary
high q), can
don't forget

determination is a black art. The testing engineer, having an understanding

layer build-up/profile (at low q, the boundary layer height is larger than at
make a determination of the grit height based on a proven method. Also,
the helpful hints from the the "old guard" that has determined grit height

many times previously.

The correct method in determining the grit height for establishing

boundary layer transition is to accomplish a drag study based on grit height. But reality
(money and time) dictates the test and the use of reference 25 is generally adequate. If
the test has variable dynamic pressure (q) runs, the proper method is to have a new grit
height at each q.
However, economics ($) will dictate if a grit study will be
accomplished.
Two methods of determining boundary layer and grit heights based on experimental data
are presented. The first method is for atmospheric tunnels only. The second method can
be used for either atmospheric or pressure tunnels.
Method 1 (Atmospheric tunnels; ref. 11)
This method of determining boundary layer and grit height is for wind tunnels whose test
section is roughly at one (1) atmosphere. In other words, there is no control over the
total pressure or total temperature and consequently Reynolds number per foot is a
V-5

function of velocity or Mach number. This method is based upon reference II (flIa
plate) and each figure (figures V-1 thru V-3) is represented by two total temlperature
curves, Tt= 40OF and Tt= 120 0 F.
The effect of increasing the temperature is to increase the boundary layer thickness at
each Mach number. Also by increasing the Mach number (Reynolds number per foot), the
boundary layer thickness decreases at any station (on a flat plate).
It is desirable to prevent the transition point from moving on the model during the
test.
By applying the correct grit at the correct distance, the boundary layer will
transition from laminar to turbulent near the grit grains at a fixed position.
The
conditions which these grains cause transition and remain fixed at subsonic speed, are
generally dependent upon the length Reynolds number, RX., and the height Reynolds number,
Rk'
Reference 25 (using ref. 11 as a reference) points out not to try to cause artificial
transition below a length Reynolds number of approximately 100,000. The first restriction
is line "A" on figure V-1.
This restriction has the practical effect of moving the
transition strip aft of the wing leading edge to a fixed dimension rather than a fixed
percentage of the chord. Using the lowest Mach number on figure V-i, the minimum distance
is approximately one (1) inch. Another restriction based upon the length Reynolds number,
R x, is the location on the surface where transition from laminar to turbulent first starts
to occur naturally. Natural transition occurs on a flat plate at an approximate length
Reynolds number of 680,000 and the corresponding distance is represented by line "B" ont
figure V-1.
Since transition starts naturally at line "B", it's desirable to place the
trip strip ahead of "B" at a given set of test conditions.
This action precludcs the
possibility of the natural transition point moving ahead of the trip strip which could
possibly be attributed to an adverse pressure gradient.
A curve of grit height verse Mach number is shown in figure V-3. Also shown is a curve
of boundary layer height at a length Reynolds number Rx = 100,000. The critical grit
height is shown to be well within the boundary layer at each Mach number. Reference 25
has shown that transition may be achieved by the range of grit size above the minimum.
However, when the grit protrudes from the boundary layer, measurable drag is created.
Satisfactory artificial transition of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent may be
caused at a given Mach number by grit sizes which lie between the two curves in figure
V-3.

Shown in figure V-4 is a curve of Grit height verses Carborundum Grit Number. This
figure can be used to determine the use of nominal grit sizes that will provide enough
grains to cause transition provided the spacing of the individual grains is correct.

V-6

In order to satisfy the condition for minimum influence of the particles, some
consideration must be given to particle density and to the width of the grit strip. It
has been demonstrated experimentally in reference 25 that approximately one grit per every
2mm (.080 in) along the transition line is the closest desirable spacing; grains could
possibly be spaced as far as 5mm (.200 in) apart and still cause transition (sublimation
chemicals can help determine the transition point). The width of the trip strip should be
on the order of 1mm (0.04 in).
The maximum forward location of the trip strip required to cause transition is shown in
figure V-2 at two (2) different total temperatures. Figures V-2 and V-3 are used to
determine the trip strip grain size and trip location.

Method 2 (Atmospheric or Pressure tunnels)

This method for determining the height of the trip strip originated from reference 10.
Figure V-5 is derived from reference 10 and is included in this report.
Below is an example using Method 2 to determine the grit height required to start
transition and the corresponding carborundum grit number.
Example
Wing (2-D curves)
X = 0.5 inches (position of grit from LE)
M=3.0
RN/FT = 4 x 106
R
X*

/ft
6o
x 106

1 x

___/_ft-

6
I x 10

(.5)(4) = 2 inches

From figure V-5 (2-D, Mach 3.0) at 2.0

R

/ft
00

106

/ ft

R
X *

_X,4 X 106 -4X

6
1 x 10

-0.0264

V-7

K,4 X 106 -4K=0.0264

1 x 106
K = 0.0066 inches

From figure V-3 or table V-1 at K = 0.0066 a grit of 90 is to be used.

Table V-I
Nominal Grit Size

Grit Number
10 ......................
12 ......................
14 .. ..............
16 .. ..............
20 ......................
24 ................
30 ......................
36 ......................
46 ......................
54 .. ....................
60 ......................
70 ......................
80 ......................
90 ......................
100 .....................
120 .....................
150 .....................
180 .....................
220 .....................
320.....................

Nominal Grit Size (in)

0 .0937
0 .0787
. ..... 0 .066 1
...... 0 .0555
0 .0469
...... 0 .0331
0.0280
0.0232
0.0165
0 .0138
0.0117
0.0098
0 .0083
0 .0070
0.0059
0.0049
0 .0041
0 .0035
0 .0029
0.0017

Application of Grit types of Trip Strips (ref. 8)

.A,,-

t_
-

.,

;,,

--illy used to lay out the trip strips (at a certain width apart).

Then shellac, lacquer, artist's clear acrylic, or even superhold hair spray is painted or
sprayed over the trip strip area. Once the adhesive material has covered the surface, ihe
grit material is dusted or blown on the wet adhesive. Grit usually is difficult to apply
V-8

to vertical and lower surfaces. To aid in applying grit to those surfaces, a piece of
paper or cardboard can be shaped into a 'V' and with skill can be blown onto the surface.
If the grit is too densely packed, use a tooth-pick to pick off selected grit particles.

V-9

..

TT

46-0

..

.........
.
..... ...

f'"

T=
."
-120

-.. -;,.

Z~

rZ

R1=100"000
A

L)120

..

..............

.j -

..

..

o.2o

Ln

Rr~0T--B4--

o'a
C0

MfiCH- NO

0.20

0)

mn

-0 S
0.50
'0.95

S'"
0.0

0.4

0,8

1.2

1.6

OLstonce oLong

I'

2.0

2,4

2.8

3.2

surFoce,

x,

Lnches

Figure V-1 Boundary Layer Thickness

V-10

3.6

1.0

CD

oc

..
.

~~

.....
.. .....

ccc

. . . . . ..
..

V--c

CD

120 0 F

....
.T.T.
I.........

..
... ......... .......
g ...
.. . ..

.. ..

.. .. ....

0.00050.0
0200.5

.~

.1
.

03

..
....................

... .. .. ........ ...

0400.5

.5

Nom inal

............

Gr i

.....
.. .... ......

.
......
....
. ... ... .....
.....
..
. ..
... .
.... ...... ...
....

0.

T7 .. ......

. . ..... .....

0550..00.5

~ .......
~...~......
~ .......
c N....u....
........
..........

V-110

...

... ......

..
7
.. 0.0

080.

0.9

.00

.0
7

...

0.

oD

.. . ...

. . .. . .

..

..

. .. . . . . ..

. . . . . . .. ..

.. . . . . . ..

0.

.. . . . . . . .

...

C0
0D
0.

.0 . . .

4-

...

.. . . . ..

. .

...

. .. . . .

..

...

Co0
CD

CD

.0 . . . .

CD

0,0

0000)0

.1

006

000

.2

.2

002

006

.4

GrtHih,5,i~e
Fiu
zV

eV4

Croun

u
13

rt

.4

GRIT

MINIMUM
RX

-U

(NACA

.0
008
1

~~

SIZE FOR

600

'rN-4383)

Based

Use for Wing

Based on 3-D Curves.

Use

and Naoa Ilee.

et.

on 2I-D Curves.
and Tail Surfaces

.24

u slae

for

1.25

'M

fiH

-rr

0.

11.

il7

;71

8.-

2741

INC0E5

.01

z
(1.t2~~~)(')P

0.15

CJ2

!I5si

0.026

-----------

0.0--

0..2
0.02

0----

-------

0.016

- --

- -- - -

- --

'0.0106

/l
0(H~f3.............
q

---- -- ---

MINIMUM
r

GRIT SIZi: FOR

TN-4:363

0.45:NACA
----

Rx

Based on 2-D Curves. use tor

Tail Surfaces, etc...

---

600

16irig and

0.044

0.036

S0.0326

007-~

t.

H1
2
0.71

M-.

028__

0.0

I.7

5.

7.-4:

.0.024___
.. .. ..

0.020

... .

.....

0.052

NACA

TN-4363

0.048

0.0404

0.030

0.012
_.00

0.008

7710O6

X\
F

77

..

0.064-

f--

3.50

.-

I~M

-<-

{----

i~-

7b

0.050

0.054

__/

0.05-

M 300

------

-~

t-~----

~277V1

L4d

-4-~

0 .04 06

0.032-

0.032~~
a

MINIMNTM

-7-

GRITr SIZE FOR

NA( A

___02

TN -1

- ----I~~d

0.020

25

600

Rx

16'

''ur'es,

Us

f.or Wing an d

4--'t

--

--t7-----

[0.015-

24

-1~-I

vl III

''2

14

15

NOTES

\"-!9~

NOTES

V-20

NOTES

V-21

NOTES

V-22

VI

PLANFORM CHARACTERISTICS

VI

VI

Planform Characteristics

Planform Symbols
AR
a

Aspect ratio
Cutout factor

b
b/2

Full wing span

Half wing span

b/(21)
bi
bo0

Wing-slenderness parameter
Span of inboard planform formed by two panels
Span of outboard planform formed by two panels

Chord (parallel to axis of symmetry) at any given span station i

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

cB

Chord at span break station

c r or C r

Root chord

ct or Ct
1
m,n
p

Tip chord
Over-all length from wing apex to most aft point on the trailing edge
Non-dimensional chordwise stations in terms of c
Planform-shape parameter

Wing area

Si
S0

Total area of inboard panels

Total area of outboard panels
Wing urea affected by trailing edge deflection

SW
AS
x
Xcentroid

Incremental wing area

Chordwise location of leading edge at span station y
Chordwise location of centroid of area (chordwise distance from apex to
c/2)

x MAC or x

Chordwise location of mean aerodynamic chord

YMAC or y

Spanwise location of MAC (equivalent to spanwise location of centroid of

area)

X.
ALE

Taper ratio
Sweep angle of leading edge

ATE
An ,A

Sweep angle of trailing edge

Sweep angles of arbitrary non-dimensional chordwise locations
Non-dimensional span stat'lon

T1

VI-I

Angle-of-attack

1 i'rio

Non-dimensional span stations at inboard and outboard edges of control,

respectively

TIB

G
B

Non-dimensional spanwise location of leading edge break in wing

Ratio of chordwise position of leading edge at tip to root chord length
Chordwise location of break in leading edge sweep(s) in terms of chordwise
distance to leading edge at tip = xB/xt

Subscripts
B

Refers to span station were leading/trailing edge change sweep angle

MAC
io

Mean aerodynamic chord

Inboard and outboard panels respcctively

ZL

Zero lift

VI-2

Wing Parameters Definitions (figure VI-1)

Chord Line

A straight line between the leading edge and the trailing edge of the
airfoil in the streamwise direction

Mean Camber Line A line described by the points which are equidistant from the
upper and lower wing surfaces.
Camber

Is a measure of curvature of an airfoil and is measured as the maximum

distance between the mean camber line and the chord line and is
measured perpendicular to the chord line.
Camber is typically
measured in % chord. Positive camber is when the camber line is above
the chord line and negative when the camber line is below the chord
line.

Angle-of-Attack

Angle between the relative wind (V.) and the chord line.

Zero Lift Line

A line parallel to the relative wind (V.) and passing through the
trailing edge of the airfoil when the airfoil is at zero lift.

Effective Angle
of Attack

otZL

The angle of attack of the zero lift line measured from the the
relative relative wind.

Approximately equal to the amount of camber in percent chord for

airfoils and untwisted wings with constant section.

VI-3

Tangent

to Mean Camber Line

~c) max
c

rI.E

L.E.
x

1.0l

=distance along the chord

measured from L.E.U

Yu

Y = ordinate at some X

mx
Ly d

max
tmna

lower surface

=no-iesnazd

chord

chord length

0 =slope of i.e.r

l.e.r. = leading-edge radius

aiu
oiino
a

X (,

ordinate of upper surface

yl=ordinate

VTh

trailing-edge

angle

xt =position of maximum

camber
maximum ordinate of
mean camber line
maximum

thickness
(reference 12)

Zero Lift Line

aX eff

Re lat ivelo
Wind

Figure

VI-i

Airfoil
VI-4

Nomenclaturc

thickness

Pianform, Parameters
General Planforms
(ref. 12 & 14)

'centroid

E'/2

YMA4

Figure VI-2 General Planform Parameters

S =2

0 c dy

c ~fo2 c dy

9 /cx dx

XLE

(2 yj

T1

~f/c

Sx 2
S~

centroid

cRIS
C

Vl-5

f
Tc(x
+
So2

Itc
r

F
RMS

(-b/2)

fCCr

SCJ

dv

Cunventional, Straight-Tapered
(ref. 12 & 14)

XEALE

"O

cr

C-HA

Figure VI-3

Conventional, Straight Tapered Planform

b
AR2b

= C((I

4(1 - X)
- a)(l + 4)tanALE

S = (b/2)C (1 + X) =

AS

b
2 C r [2_(lX)(l1+T]2)]
c=2Cr
2
1 +I +
X 4.
+

bl [I + 2X

"AI 6

XLE

2-] rtanA LE

tanA

Tr

I-+

7,911

C1-0M=X)

atanA LB

(b/2___]

4(l X
AR(1 + 4)Fa-nALE

r0
cb2tn

fa-

Tj=

ytanA LE

+2),b1
ARIT-+-C

1 b1S2)/
tjA- 1

Setrid7

A E /2)aALBE

(2y)/b

tanA~ =tanA

FI4]

4jj(n-m)

n> m

taflA m= tanA LE[l-(l-a)m]

taA
tALE
tanAE

I1a
ta ATEB
4

=AR

4tanAc 4

_ anAT

-+

(X

1 + X)tanALEHi

%IT

,7

tanAL

Double Delta
and
Cranked Wings
(ref. 12 & 14)

XLE
XB

Xcentroid

Cr

Xt

ALES

I-

Figure VI-4

Double Delta
and Cranked Wing Planforrm
b2
-

b2

2b

A=S=

r[i1

S i +oAR

X)1lB + ,ki + X.]

(b/2)Cr[(1 - X)rlB + Xi+

C -c

+ CSo
1

VI-8

= x LE

c/I2

Yis i +

YB+

~S.

+ S0
1

YitanA LE]Sis

[YB tanA LE + y0 afA LEO]So

Si +so
+

x LE

b-7

ljs

0bi+b

iii+ 1

b..

Wib

Y]S

+s

=[TIX] [F&
2S

IZB

botanAL
0

1+

b. tanA LE.

CC/C = XIXO

x. cB/Cr
0

=C/cB

VI-9

Planform Example
This is an example using the equations for a cranked wing to determine the MAC, c/4, and
other items of interest.

Inhadea
'

Tre-wition

,040
3 5"L

OUUXmrd
Ct

Ct= 36.51 i
X.=C t~
b /2

=26.96

C ri = 36.5 1/50.45 = 0.724

in

TE + 3651)(26.96) = 1172.2 in 2
(50.45
C =

50.45)(1.30)

43.86 in
V1-b

8.14 ft2

i=

[1

+ 2Xi

2] 1][i 1+2i

x=

=(26.96)(0.473)

1 XjtanALE

= 12.76 in

(12.76)tan35

8.93 in (from LE of C d
I
Outboard Section (o)
=

C r = 24.58 in
0

Ct = 7.51 in
0

X = 7.51 / 24.58 = 0.306

bo/2 = 33.15 in
531.89 in =3.69 ft2

s = 24.58 + 7.51 (33.15)

- =
2

co o 32(24.58)(1.072) = 17.56 in
Measured from LE of Cr

Y= [b

I1 [j

+ 22 0 ] =(33.15)(.4114)=

x0= YOtan35 = (13.64)(0.7) = 9.55 in

Measured from LE of C
r.1
Yo = 13.64 + 26.96 = 40.6 in
x = Ytan35 = (40.6)(0.7) = 28.42 in
Total Wing
S = 8.14 + 3.69
Si/S

= 0.688

11.83 ft2
So/S =0.312

VI-1I

13.64in

y = 12.76(0.688) + 40.6(0.312) = 21.45 in (1.79 ft)

c = 43.86(0.688) + 17.56(0.312) = 35.65 in (2.97 ft)

Total Aircraft Aerodynamic Center Location

hboa:d Section
xc/4 = xi + Cc/4 = 8.93 + (43.86)/4 = 19.9 in
Yc /4 = 12.76 in (measured from Cr.)
1

Outboard Section
x%4 = x + bi tanALE + c0
= 26.96 tan 35 + 9.55 + (17.56)/4 = 32.82 in
Yc/4 = 13.64 + 26.96 = 40.6 in

Total Aircraft
Measured from LE of C
1

Xc/4 =

19.9(0.688) + 32.82(0.312) = 23.93 in

Measured from Cr.

Yc!4= 21.146 in

VI-12

NOTES

VI-13

NOTES

VI 14

NOTES

VI-15

V T
r-

NOTES

VI-17

VII DRAG

VII

VII Drag
List of Symbols
AR

Aspect Ratio

CD

Total Drag Coefficient

CD

Zero Lift Drag Coefficient (parasite drag)

0

CD

Minimum Drag Coefficient

ACD

Minimum Drag Coefficient change due to camber

CD

Drag Coefficient at (L/D)max

CL

Total Lift Coefficient

CL

Lift Coefficient at minimum drag

CL

pb

Lift Coefficient at the Polar Break

CL

Lift Coefficient at (L/D) max

Span efficiency of actual aircraft drag polar

Span efficiency of a parabolic drag polar

Gravitational constant

Induced Drag factor

(L/D) max

Maximum lift-to-drag ratio

Rn

Reynolds number

V00

Freestream velocity

VII-1

Drag (ref. 13)

Drag is a part of a resultant aerodynamic

force produced

friction) and normal (pressure) forces acting

relative fluid motion.
in

along the vehicle's surface duc to the

This resultant force is resc!ved into the lift and drag components

in the vehicle's plane of symmetry.

motion

by the tangential (skin

the equilibrium

flight

Drag, the component of the total force that opposes

path direction,

variation with lift and the angle of attack.

approximately

follows

parabolic

Total drag can be resolved into various

components (figure VII-1).

Subsonic Drag
The

aircraft drag, when taken below

the divergent

Mach

number, is traditionally

decomposed into lift-induced and minimum drag.

Minimum Drag
Minimum drag can be divided into profile (skin friction, pressure, and base drag) and
interference drag (figure VII-l). In general, about two-thirds of subsonic minimum drag
may be attributed to profile (skin friction) drag (figure VII-2).

Profile Drag/Skin Friction Drag (ref. 7)

The skin friction drag is due to the momentum transfer between the fluid particles
adjacent to the vehicle surface and the vehicle.
It (in inco" pressibe flow) can he
established for a laminar and turbulent boundary layer. This drag is based upon the
"wetted" surface area of a flat plate, on ONE surface.
Laminar
CDlam =Dlam / (q S

1.328 / (Rn)0

I X 103 > Rn < I X 106

VII-2

Turbulent
0.455 / (log

CD turb = Dturb / (q Swet

I

Rn) 2 ,5

9
X 106 > Rn < 1 X 10

Turbulent

CD

_~

cone - 2

*C
CDflat plate

Pressure Drag (Form Drag)

Pressure Drag at subsonic speeds is due to boundary layer displacement effects and
separation effects on aft-facing slopes.
Interference Drag
This drag is the result of mutual interaction of the flow fields developed by the major
configuration components (ie... wing-body).
Miscellaneous Drag
Miscellaneous drag is caused by aircraft protuberances and surface irregularities (ie...
gaps, fasteners).
Drag Due to Lift
Drag due to lift is almost entirely the result of the lift-produced circulation as well
as the vortex shedding from the wing tip.
Zero Lift Drag

Zero lift drag, CD

curve.

, is the drag at CL = 0 and can be easily found on a drag polar

0
The primary contributor to this drag is from skin friction. From figure X-6, the

effect of wing sweep and Mach number on zero lift drag (CD ) can be seen.
0

VII-3

Base Drag
Base drag contribution to minimum drag is caused by a rapid expansion of the flow into a
base region which causes significantly reduced pressures to act upon a finite base (area).
Internal Duct Drag
This drag is associated with a momentum loss in a flow through nacelle. This drag is
measured by having a nozzle pitot static pressure rake (assume inlet conditions are at
freestream conditions) measuring the momentum loss within the nacelle (duct). Once a
ACD
is obtained, subtract it out of the total aircraft CD'
Dduct
Wave Drag
Wave drag is primarily due to the lack of pressure recovery on the surface due to a
total pressure loss through the shock wave.

Drag Polar (Subsonic)

A drag polar can be represented by two curve types, CL vs CD or CD vs CL-. Both types
reveal aerodynamic parameters that are important to the performance of an aircraft
configuration. These two drag polars can be seen in figures VII-2 through VII-5. Figures
VII-2 & VII-3 display some of the major contributors to the overall total drag.
(CL vs CD) Polar
This drag polar, as seen in figures VII-2, VII-3, VII-4, is parabolic (a quadratic
function) by nature. The eccentricity of the parabola and its origin is affected mainly
by wing camber, twist, and flow separation. A few performance parameters that can be
established by this curve are CD
, CDO, (L/D)max' CL , CL
A drag polar has the
min
o
pb
.

characteristic equations listed below.

VII-4

Parabolic
C2

CD = CD

min

rARe

NON-Parabolic (camber, twist, etc.. effects)

+ (CL - CL)
CD = DCD
ntARe
Dmin

(CD vs CL 2 ) Polar
14,
From figure VII-5, the slope of this line is K, the induced drag factor. And
Oswald's wing efficiency factor, e, can be obtained. Also, from figure VII-5's cutout,
the intersection of the CD axis and the curve reveals CD
0

Polar Break (ref. 14)

(Subsonic)
When the wing leading edge suction has lost its force (separation has occurred), the
polar shape departs drastically from the typical parabolic shape. The drag polar is said
to "break" at this point (figure VII-2). The break point is sensitive to Mach number,
Reynolds number, leading edge radius, and wing geometry.

Camber Effects (ref. 14)

Camber (and twist) essentially shifts the drag polar. The effect of camber (and twist)
The parabolic extent of the
can be seen in ACD minresulting in a higher CD and CD
polar is increased and its shape is improved through the use of camber (and twist).

VII-5

Drag and Performance Equations (ref. 14)

'2

CD =CD

C
Dmin parabolic +ACDmin

CDmin

CL

AC "Dmin

min

+ K(CL - CL)

(1- e

e=

2
CL
Lpbb

[e
[tcARe
p2

CLpb

)2

-CL

(CL

nAR (CD

CL 2
AR ep-

CD)
0

NON-Parabolic Polar

CL

CD *2(CD

-C LY
0

1
(L/D)max =
2 (CD

CL

TKiP

PRrabolic Polar

CL

CD

2 CD

(L/D))max

0
VII-6

2__D

e)

Analytically Determined Drag Polar (ref. 15)

Aerodynamic wind tunnel data (drag) is never exactly parabolic. But, the data can be
approximated by a parabolic relationship. The approach is as follows.

C D= C Dmin + K(C L- C L )2(1)

I

t2

+ K(CL )2
CD =CD
min
o

where CDm, K and CL are unknown; expanding equation 1

mi n
CD =CD - 2 KCL CL + KCLC
0

CD = a + bCL + cCL2

Method of Determining a Drag Polar

Assume "N" matched points of [CL(i), CD(i)]

aN

N
I C L (i)')
ai

N
bI
CL(i)
I= 1 L)
N

N C L i 2 +)
aE
= L()
+

b= +

N
CL(i)'+

N
+

c'= i CL

N
YCL(i)
CL(i)
= L )=

N
Y-

3 +

ii)2

i CL(i

N
YCL-i
C
D

N
X ICL(i)CD(i)
N
i=CL(i)*CD(

N
N
Once ZCL(i)s
F
&
CD(i)'s are determined, use a Gaussian Elimination technique to solve
for the coefficients a, b, c where a = CD

b = -2KC, c = K

VII-7

Example
N=5

CL

CD

0.0

0.0190

2
3

0.1
0.2

0.0202
0.0234

4
5

0.3
0.4

u.0313
0.0456

Resulting augmented matrix

10.13951

[1

.3

.1

1.3

.1

.0354 10.112511

a =0.01945
b = - 0.02398
c = 0.2207

= 0.0194

CD
0

= 0.2207

CL

= 0.0543

VII-8

0.03433

TOTAL DRAG

Zero Lift Drag

Drag Due to Lift

(Induced Drag)

Profile Drag

Interference Drag

Skin Friction
[Drag

Figure

Pressure
EDrag

VII-1
Vi [-9

Drag

Base Drag

Tree

Subsonic

Ski
CL

CLpb

\N

pm,: abolic

Pressure (Form)
Drag

'~~

aircraft

Drag
~

/~

Imsmmam/'

CO

MCi

Figu~~~~Re

X11\0

VI-

ra\oa

Supersonicn

MIN

SO

Figure VII-3

Supers1-10

CD

(C L

vs

CD)

Drag

Polar

CL

Hand drawn
Tangent

line

CL

CD

Figure VII-4

CD~l

(CL vs CD)

Subsonic

Drag

Polar

.08
.06

S7TreAR

__

.04

.02

.2

.4

.6

.8

.9

1.0

1.2

CL 2
CL2
Figure VII-5

(CD VS

VII-I

CL 2)

Drag

Polar

This page -was inientionally left blank

VII- 12

NOTES

VII- 13

NOTES

VII- 14

NOTES

VII- 15

NOTES

Vii- 16

VIII

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING AND INTERPRETATION

VIII

VIII

Experimental Testing and Interpretation

(Ref. 8)

For each wind tunnel test accomplished, the items of interest for the engineer will
vary. Below is a list of items and facts that are usually of interest to the engineer.
Referenc,
testing.

is ani excellent aid for tinding those items and for subsonic wind itui1il
This handbook and reference 8 should be the two reference materials that

accompany the testing engineer to the wind tunnel site.

Aircraft (wing-body-tail)
max
CD

CM0
CD
min

(L/D)max

CL 0

CI

CY

CD

ao

o
CMac

Cnp

Flaps
The purpose of flaps is to reduce the wing area through increasing CL

and thus reduce

max

the parasite (skin friction) drag in cruise.

Flap systems usually generate large negative

pitching moments and require a large horizontal tail to develop adequate down loads for
trim, which reduce the total (wing-body-tail) CL
max
Trailing Edge Flaps (figure VII-9)
Reduce a for a 0 (a zero lift)
Increase CL
max
Increases a

for stall

Leading Edge Flaps

*

Extend lift curve to increase

Extend CL

stall

max
VIII-1

Lift Curve (Flaps Up)

*
*

Used to determine flap-up stalling velocity

CL
range from 0.6 to 1.7 (unpowered)
max
Wing CL
runs 85% to 90% of airfoil values (with no high lift devices)

max

CL

usually increases with Reynolds number (Rn)

max
L.E. slats are insensitive to Rn, but slats reduce the effect of Rn on

CL
0

max
CL
for flaps retracted is less than CL
flaps extended
max
max

Substantial variations of CM often occur at CL

or ((xstall)
max

Model should be as close to trim as possible

Nacelles usually reduce CLmax

To

be usable, CL

must be for trimmed flight

max

is of interest for landing gear length consideration

max
Stall ac should be taken in very small steps so that its share (mion-linear
oa at 0.9 CL

and astall can be determined accurately

max
To increase the span of the wing affected by the flaps (increasing CL
portion of CL curve) and CL

max

the ailerons can be drooped

Lift Curve (Flaps Down)

flaps down range generally from 1.2 to 3.5 (unpowered)

max
Should have approximately same slope (CLo) as flaps up

Should have same location for the aerodynamic center as flaps up

Used to find ACL

CL

due to flap deflection

max

VIII-2

There is usually little need to take the flap- down lift curve as low as
O
I0

Drag Curve (Flaps Up and Down)

Near CD
CD

min

min

step a in one degree increments

(clean fighter) -0

0.0120 (120 counts of drag)

The shape of the drag curve is important for climb and cruise with small
changes in drag due to lift being desired during these portions of the
missions.
The value of CD at CL

is needed for takeoff and landing calculations.

max

Pitching Moment
Cm

must be negative for longitudinal stability.

Generally, the pitching moment curves are used to determine if the aircraft
has static stability through the desired C.G. range at all flight
conditions (trimmed flight).
Elevator or Stabilizer Power Curve
Plotting ACM versus 8e, elevator deflection, (stab. incidence) is made at
several CL'S.

This plot indicates the amount of elevator or

stabilizer deflection is needed to produce a certain moment coefficient.

Stabilizer (elevator) effectiveness (dCM/d~e) is obtained by holding (xwing
constant and varying the tail incidence.
*

Plot CM

cg

versus CL for several elevator angles. The intersections of the

curves with the axis indicate trim conditions (figure VII-7). By

holding a wing constant and varying stabilizer incidence, the pitching
moment about the tail is Mt = -ltqtStCLt. When It, St are known, then
CLt can be found. Use qt = 0.85q.. From CLt and known stabilizer angles,
VIII-3

the slope of the tail lift curve (dCL /datt) can be established.
Elevator power must be sufficient to balance (CM

= 0.0) the airplane at

cg
maximum lift. The critical condition is gear and landing flaps down and in
ground effects.
On low aspect ratio configurations, with short tails, tail effectiveness
varies with a as the local dynamic pressure changes.
*

On swept wing configurations, attention must be paid to pitch-up (reversal

of CM curve) in the CL vs CM curve as it can limit usable CL.

Aileron Power Curves

Aileron criteria are usually determined at (p = 0' and plots of Clvs Cn,
C1 vs Sa, and C1 vs 5a are used.
*
*

Good qualities of ailerons are high rolling moments and low hinge moments.
Maximum roll rate and maximum helix angles are determined from C1
max
Generally, C1
of 0.03 is adequate for one aileron.
max
When yaw (yp) equals 0, and there is a slight rolling or yawing moment or
side force when controls are neutral, be sure to subtract them out before
reporting the data. This delta can be attributed to asymmetrical tunnel
flow

or model asymmetry.

aC 1 /ap = 0.0002 is equivalent to 10 of effective dihedral.

If there is enough time and money (which usually there is not), do the aileron
effectiveness test with tail off (ref. 8).
The first reason to do this is when the
ailerons are deflected in flight, the aircraft normally rolls and the inboard aileron
trailing vortices are swept away from the horizontal tail by the helix angle. In the wind
tunnel, these vortices stream back close to the horizontal tail and induce a load on (he
tail that does not occur in flight.
Secondly, it saves effort in data reduction since
tunnel wall effects on a horizontal tail is then non-existent.

VIII-4

Rudder Power Curves

Rudder power on high-performance multi-engine aircraft must possess
sufficient directional stability to prevent excessive yaw angles (Q).
Rudder power must be able to be balanced directionally at best climb speeds
*
*

with asymmetric power (engine out).

Rudder equilibrium is a plot of rudder deflection, 8r' versus yaw angle
(P.
When doing a rudder study, deflect the rudder and yaw the model only in one
direction. You are allowed to do this due to model symmetry.
Rudder Equilibrium: 8a / 8r ranges from -1.2 to -0.5 (maneuverable to
stable)
Rudder Power: aCn / a8 r= -0.001 is reasonable.

Determine Center of Pressure Shift (C.P.)

To determine the C.P. shift the derivative aCM / aMach is used. The main factor that
contributes to this derivative is the backward shift of the wing center of pressure (C.P.)
which occurs in the transonic range. On two-dimensional symmetrical wings, for example,
the C.P. moves from approximately 0.25c to approximately 0.5c as the Mach number increases
from subsonic to supersonic values.
C.G. Shift
Moving the C.G. forward reduces a trim or CL resulting in an increase in trim speed.
Lift Curve Slope CLot
SCLa ranges approximately
0.110 per degree for thin airfoils
0.115 per degree for thick airfoils
As a rule of thumb; CL

}Rn > 106

is usually < 90% of CL

CCL amakes an important contribution to the dampening of the longitudinal

short period mode.
VIII-5

Determining Aircraft Parameters from Wind Tunnel Data (ref. 29)

Wing-Body wind tunnel data:
- 1.5

(X

CL! 0.0

1.0

CM -0.01

5.0
a = geometric angle-of-attack

0.52

17.88
0.05

CM

CMcgwb

Static Martin
Lift curve slope

8CL
acL
awbaa

_0,52-0_

,5
5-(-1.5)

0.08 per degree

(1)

CMcgwb = CMacwb + awbawb(hhac)

awb " absolute angle-of-attack
at a = 1.00
0.08 (1 + 1.5)(h
-0.01 = C Macwb+Macabwb

hac

(2)

at ax = 7.880
0.05 = CMacwb + 0.08(7.88 + 1.5)(h

Equations 2 & 3 can be solved simultaneously.

(3)

Subtracting equation 3 from equation 2...

-0.06 = 0 - 0.55(h - h aIwb )

VIII-6

hacw)

-006
-0.55

(h - h a
aCwb

(h - hac

0.1"1 (static margin)

Aerodynamic Center Location

h = 0.35c

(h - h acWb ) =O0.11
h aCwb =

0.35 - 0.11

h ac wb = 0.24

(a.c. location % c)

Aerodynamic Center Pitching Moment

Using equation 1 ...
-0.01 = CMacwb + 0.08(1 - 1.5)(0.11)

CM

-0.032

Center-of-Gravity Pitching Moment

For a given wing-body combination, the aerodynamic center lies 0.05 (5%) of a chord
length ahead of the c.g.. The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is -0.016.
If the lift coefficient is 0.45, calculate the moment coefficient about the c.g..
CMcg

(h - ha

awb

0.05

=CMac

CwL

wb

+CLwb(h - hacwb)

= 0.45

CMcgwb = -0.016 + 0.45(0.05)

VIII-7

CMac

(4)

wb

-0.016

CMcgw

0.0065

Wing-Body-Tail
Consider the wing-body data above, the area and the M.A.C. of the wing are 1.076 ft2 and
0.328 ft respectively. The distance from the airplane c.g. to the tail a.c. is 0.557 ft,
the tail area is 0.215 ft2, the tail setting angle is 2.70, the tail lift-slope is 0.1 per
degree, and from experimental measurement,

o= 0.0 and a8/cet = -. 35.

If x = 7.880,

calculate CM
cg
From the information above
C~c
C aw+
CMcg = Ma

aeta [(h - hacb

c

CMacwb= - 0.032

a 1
+Vat~it + Eo)
[ - ac-] + VHa( 1 +

a a = 7.88 + 1.5 = 9.380

(h -hacwb)

awb = 0.08

= 0.11

1S
VH_

-t

cSw

(.557)(.215)

(.328)(1.076)

at= 0.1/deg
i

= 0.34

a/iact = 0.35

2.70

= 0.0

Using Equation 5
CMcg = -0.032+(.08)(9.38)[0.11-.34

CM

cg

.- 1(1-.35)] +.34(.1)(2.7+0.0)

= -0.032 - 0.125 + 0.092

CM

-0065

cg
VIII1-8

(5)
5

Longitudinal Static StabiItv

Does the aircraft (wing-body-tail) above have longitudinal static stability and balance ?
aC
(h

- H

awb= 0.08
VH

0.34

(6)

(h

hacwb) = 0.11

at

0.1 per degree

aclaa = 0.35
aCM
cg= 0.08[(0.11)-

90.34)

(1 - 0.35)]

00.0

aCM

cg_

0.01331

80:

Since the slope is negative, thus the aircraft is statically stable.

Longitudinal Balance
CMo = CMacwb + VHat(it
CMacwb =

CM

e)

(7)

it = 2.70

-0.032

= -0.032 + (0.34)(0.1)(2.7)
0

CM

0.

Trim angle-of-attack
8CM
Remember that

C~ is the slope of a straight line. Therefore by setting CM

to zero,
R 0wb
Cc
e

VIII-9

and writing the equation of a straight line

y = mx + b

(8)

aCM
y

CM

cg

cg
x =

trim

b =CM
0

actrim can be found.

From the above example...

0.0 = 0.06 - 0.0133a trim
(X trim= 4.540

Clearly, this angle-of-attack falls within the reasonable flight range.

Therefore, the

aircraft is longitudinally balanced and statically stable.

Finding Trimmed Flight Parameters (ref. 16)

(Unpowered, No thrust components)
Trimmed flight parameters can be easily found from a CM vs CL and CL vs cx plot. One of
the model test parameters an engineer should always consider testing is the elevator.
From this data, trim conditions can be found.

When testing the elevator

for its

effectiveness,

the angle-of-attack for the model configuration should be he!d constant

while only A change of the elevator deflection angle (5 e) is accomplished. Holding the

configuration

at

constant

angle-cf-attack

manipulating the data for presentation.

is

not

necessary,

but

it

helps

when

Make as many runs as necessary at different 8 's

while the horizontal tail incident angle is held constant.

,i figure VII-7. On the CM vs CL plot, where each

8e

The resultant plot can be see

curve crosses CM = 0, that point is

considered a trim point and the corresponding CL is the trim CL.

To find a trini' a line

(this line equates to a constant CL) is drawn from the CM vs CL plot to the corresponding
8e on the CL vs Ccplot. That intersection on the CL vs ac plot a trinican be found.
series of trim points are found on the CL vs (x plot a C
tL
can also be found.
trim

VIII- 10

If a

Determining any C.G. Location

(unpowered, gliding flight)
To find the trim envelope (where CM = 0) for any c.g. location, a line of any slope is
drawn by rotating that line from CM = CL =0 on the CM vs CL curve to any position on the
CM vs CL curve. The slope of the newly drawn line is equal to the c.g. shift (refs. 16
and 8).
M

6C
M IC
c.g. position

--

old c.g. position

Snew

where
A = [old c.g. position (%MAC) - new c.g. position (%MAC)]

or

A = [(Xcg- Xac)old- (Xcg- Xac)new]

Example:
Move c.g. from 0.35 to 0.2;
aCMI

0.2

aCM
ac M

.2 = 0.2 - (0.35
- 0.2)
L 0.2

aCT

00

S0.2
It appears that to acquire this transfer a subtraction of moment arms (A) was
accomplished. However, in reference 16, a thorough explanation is discussed and it shows
that it is not just subtraction of moment arms but rather a subtraction of moments.
Determining the Average Downwash Angle (ref. 8)
To determine the average downwash behind the wing ,est the model configuration with the
VIII-1 I

tail-off. Then test the configuration with the tail-on at different tail incident angles.
The tail incident angle (it) is the angle between the wing-body zero-lift line (generally
the longitudinal axis) and the tail zero-lift line. If the tail is a symmetric airfoil,
the tail zero lift line and the tail chord line are the same. Also, if the tail is an all
movable tail, the tail incident angle would generally be the same as 8e. Once the tail-on
and tail-off data are acquired, plot the data similar to figure VIII-1 (a w vs CM) at
different it's and then plot the tail-off data. The intersection of the tai!-on curve
with the tail-off curve are points where, at a given awl the tail-on CM equals the
tail-off CM.

Also, at those intersections, the tail is at zero lift.

(For a symmetrical airfoil section)

at

= ccw +it - Ew =0

Ew = wing downwash angle

oxt = Tail angle-of-attack

6w = (Xw + td

Once L

is found then the parameter

can easily be obtained by plotting Lw vs aC.

Determining Induced Drag Factor (K)

and Oswald's Wing Efficiency Factor(e)
Draw a plot of CD vs CL 2 . The slope of this line is K, the induced drag factor (see
figure VII-5). The intercept is Cd
0

Since K =
__
1
Oswald's wing efficiency factor (e) is... e = __ I

Base Pressure (ref. 4)

A base pressure correction is applied to remove the base pressure drag from the total
drag in order to correct the force drag. Such a correction is required because of the
base drag is unknown without the interference or interactions of the sting or a jet. The
measured base pressure is corrected to the reference ambient static pressure which is
VIII-12

considered to act over the entire base of the model. Occasionally more than one static
pressure is measured on the base of the model and averaged to arrive at the base pressure.
This average is multiplied by the area of the base to obtain the base-pressure axial force
correction. IP enation form:
=Cave)) (AB)(q.)
FA = (Cp
Where
FA = Base pressure axial force to be added to the measured
axial force
CPave = Average pressure coefficient on base,
Poo = Free stream static pressure (in test section)
q* =Free stream dynamic pressure
AB = Base area

Pressure Transducer Selection

To determine the appropriate differential pressure transducer, three items are needed.
The first being the maximum expected pressure coefficient (CP), the second being the
minimum expected CP and finally the dynamic pressure (q). If obtaining the maximum and
minimum CP's are difficult, then use +0.5 and -2.0 for the first iteration (these
suggested CP's are good numbers for wing pressures). Then just "plug and chug" the
equation below.
CP

P-_P
1

pv
Ap = (p

0
2

p..) = CP(q)

Differential pressure transducers are usually rated in psi (bf)

1bf may be required.
Conversion of 'q' to psf (l-.)
ft 2

in?2

From the maximum or minimum CP determine the greatest magnitude of Ap and then acquire
the appropriate pressure transducer.

VIII- 13

Example:
CPI = +0.5

q = 2.11 psi

CP2 = -2.0
Apl = 1.055 psi

Ap2

"-4.22 psiI

Based upon Ap2, a differential pressure transducer of 5 psi will be adequate.

Flow Visualization
Flow visualization offers the testing engineer a unique way to observe the local flow
Flow visualization can be separated into two categories, surface flow
fields.
visualization and off-body flow field visualization. Techniques to observe surface flow
fields are tufts and oil flows. Laser light sheet, smoke, and tufts are used for off-body
flow fields.
Surface Flow Visualization
Yam
Tufts do affect the aerodynamic forces.
Yam should be used when the testing engineer is not concerned with the model forces and
moments. Yam has the greatest adverse effect on lift and drag compared to other surface
For yam tufts, use 0.75 inch length of No. 6 floss
flow visualization techniques.
crochet yarn (any color). Have plenty of yam available since it does not last a long
time in the wind tunnel. Before applying tufts on the model, clean the model with naphtha
or other solvents to remove any oils. There are two methods used to apply the yarn tufts
to the model. The first method is to use a tuft board. A tuft board is a piece of
scrapwood with two nails in it. The distance between the two nails is the length of the
tuft (generally 0.75 to 1.0 inch). Wrap the tufts around the nails and then cut the tufts
on the backside of the nail to give you the correct length that is needed. To attach the
yarn to the model use cellophane tape or "super glue" and apply the yarn to the model in a
symmetric pattern (0.75 inch x 0.75 inch). Ensure that at least 0.75 inch of the tuft
material is available for the flow to manipulate freely. The second method in applying
tufts to the model is to tape the yarn at two opposite ends of the item of interest on the
model (ie... leading to the trailing edge) and glue/tape the tuft at the desired interval
lengths (0.75 in) then cut the yarn.
VIII- 14

Fluorescent Mini-tufts (ref. 26)

Fluorescent mini-tufts allow a large number of tufts to be applied to a model surface in

a manner that produces negligible interference with model forces and pressures.
Comparisons of tufts-on and tufts-off from Mach 0.5 to 2.4 showed differences of two to
three drag counts. Mini-tufts are an extremely fine nylon mono-filament fiber that has
been treated with a fluorescent dye that renders it visible during fluorescence
(ultraviolet) photography. There are two sizes of mini-tufts generally used during wind
tunnel testing. Those sizes are 3 denier (0.02mm, 0.0007 inch diameter) and 15 denier
(0.04mm, 0.0017 inch diameter). Free moving length (measured from the gluing point) of
the mini-tufts should range from 0.5 to 0.75 inches.
Mini-Tuft Installation
The procedures listed below have proven to be adequate for most applications. Tuft
application utilizing these procedures are able to withstand many hours of testing at
transonic and supersonic Mach numbers without appreciable adhesion failure.
Surface Preparation Steps
1.

2.

3.

4.

Wipe model surface with a solvent to remove grease and oil. Use clean paper towels
or tissues rather than shop rags. Preferred solvents are naphtha or any chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene or trichloroethane. Methyl ethyl ketone or
Freon are less suitable because of rapid evaporation rates. Do not use alcohols.
If possible, lightly abrade the surface with a fine grit carborundum pad or aluminum
oxide paper. Do not use silicon carbide paper on aluminum. Care should be taken not
to compromise the aerodynamic smoothness requirements for the model.
After abrading the surface, thoroughly clean the surface with a solvent using clean
tissues. Then wipe that area with another clean tissue using that tissue only once.
Wiping more than once with the same tissue redeposits the contaminants. Continue to
wipe the surface with solvent until the tissue shows no stains. Avoid letting the
solvent evaporate completely before it is wiped.
Apply an Alodine solution to the surface with a swab or a brush. Allow it to remain
wet on the surface for three to five minutes. Any areas that resist wetting should
be scrubbed with carborundum pad wet with the Alodine solution (Alodine is a chromate
conversion solution that promotes adhesion of the gluing material to the surface. It
VIII-15

5.

is available from aircraft paint suppliers. In this application, add a wetting agent
such as Kodak Photo-Flo to Alodine to make it a one percent concentration.).
Rinse the Alodine from the surface with clean water and then dry the surface with
clean tissues. Be careful to limit skin contact with the Alodine and to wash
thoroughly after use.

6.

Cover the cleansed area with paper to avoid recontamination until after the tuft
adhesive is applied. Realize that the above procedures are involved and can be
reduced in scope. Steps one through six are the correct way to prepare the model
surface. However, there is a correct way of doing things and the getting it done way
of doing things. Be flexible in this area.
Mini-Tuft Attachment Steps

1.

Lay out alignment marks with a soft pencil (roughly 0.75 inch grid) so that the tufts
can be applied in a symmetrical pattern.

2.

3.
4.

5.

Place oversized lengths of tuft material over the extreme ends of the model (i.e...
L.E. to T.E. if a wing) surface by wrapping the tuft around the model and then taping
it to the lower surface.
Be careful to use only slight tension t. avoid stretching the filament.
Use a "super glue" type of gluing agent to apply the tufts to the surface. Apply a
small drop of glue to the strand of tufting material in intervals of approximately
0.5 to 0.75 inches.
Be sure glue drops are dried before cutting the tuft material.

Cut tufts just ahead

of each adhesive drop with a new razor blade.

Experience has shown that the visual appearance of these tuft results are greatly
enhanced by carefully keeping the tuft spacing uniform.
If the tuft pattern is
asymmetrical, it is still possible to describe the flow, but it is difficult to interpret.
To illuminate the mini-tufts, an ultraviolet light source is required.
The ultraviolet
illumination excites the fluorescent material to radiate in the visible spectrum (i.e..
400-600 nanometers). Video tape or black and white still photographs are the normal
surface flow visualization data medium. It also helps if a fluorescent felt tip marker is
used to hi-lite/outline the model. This will allow the model lines to be seen in the
photograph or video tape.

VIII- 16

Oil Flow
Oil flow visualization shows flow separation lines, vortex reattachment lines, shock
lines, and complete boundary layer activity on the surface. The oil flow runs should be
held for the last runs of the test since the oil will clog static pressure taps and is
generally a messy procedure. The model is painted a flat color with the oil a color that
will contrast the model color (generally a black model and white oil). The oil viscosity
is an important parameter to be considered. If the oil is too viscous it will not display
the true surface flow. If the oil is not viscous enough, it will run off the model and
not display the flow on the surface. There are several formulas that can be used for the
oil.
The formulas will differ from tunnel-to-tunnel and from test engineer-to-test
engineer based on his or her experience. One formula that is used and works well is one
teaspoon of titanium dioxide (a white color), one teaspoon of STP Oil Treatment, and five
drops of Oleic acid. Mix this amalgamation thoroughly and apply it on the model using a
syringe with a 18 or 20 gauge needle. When applying the oil to the model it should have a
logical and somewhat symmetrical pattern.

Off Body Flow Visualization

Laser Light Sheet (Vapor Screen)
The vapor screen technique is a simple, yet effective, flow visualization tool to study
the off-body flows about aerodynamic shapes at subsonic, transonic, and supersonic speeds.
In recent years, this technique has frequently been employed in wind tunnel experiments to
improve the understanding and control of the vortices shed from slender bodies of
missiles, fuselage forebodies, and wings of fighter aircraft at high angles-of-attack.
The technique features the injection of sufficient water into the tunnel circuit to create
a condensation in the test section. An intense sheet of light is generated, usually with
a laser (18-watt Argon-ion laser is sufficient), that can be oriented in any selected
plane relative to the test model. The light is scattered as the water particles pass
through the sheet, which enable the off-body flow to be visualized. However, the tunnel
operator/owner might become perturbed at putting water in the tunnel. To alleviate
his/her fear and to remove the water from the tunnel after the vapor screen runs, pump the
tunnel down to a Ptotal of 500 psf, start the tunnel(subsonic) and turn the driers on. Do
this approximately twice for 15 minutes each time. This will evaporate a majority of the
water.

After doing this have the tunnel technicians enter the tunnel and wipe up wkhat
VIII- 17

little water is remaining.

Smoke Seeded Flow
Flow visualization using smoke is an excellent tool for observing off-body (external)
flow fields that are dominated by vortical flows. If done correctly, superb qualitative
data will result at a Reynolds number that might make it feasible to extrapolate the flow
field to flight conditions.
Typically, smoke is generated by several methods. Such methods include pyrotechnic
smoke devices, chemical (titanium tetrachloride and tin tetrachloride), petroleum products
(kerosene, Type 1962 Fog Juice) and Rosco smoke generating fluid. The technique of
producing smoke will be determined at the wind tunnel site.
A low turbulence wind tunnel is extremely helpful when trying to accomplish a flow
visualization study using smoke. The surrounding air in the test section needs to be as
undisturbed as possible in order that an accurate analysis of the model's flow field can
be made.
Generally, the smoke enters the wind tunnel via a smoke wand that is typically located
in the stilling chamber of the wind tunnel. The density of the smoke emitting from the
wand should range from a mild to moderate fog (qualitatively speaking). The smoke should
then traverse down to the test section and enter as a filament sheet that spans most of
the section. The smoke filament sheet should be set (vertically) in such a manner that
the smoke is "caught up" in the upwash of the wing, chine, or item of interest. It might
be necessary to change the position of the the smoke wand to achieve an optimum smoke
filament sheet position. Once the smoke filament sheet is caught in the upwash, the
external flow field can be observed using a laser light sheet to expose the vortical
systems.
Tufts
To use tufts for off-body flow visualization, a tuft wand or a tufted, framed, wire grid
is used. A tuft wand is a pole with a long tuft on the end of it. The wand is hand held
in the tunnel near the model to observe off-body flow fields. This technique is a
qualitative procedure since the person and the pole create a flow disturbance in ihe
tunnel. A tufted, framed, wire grid gives the testing engineer a planar view of the
off-body flow field. The wire grid contains symmetrical, square (1 inch by 1 inch ) wire
mesh with tufts (usually yam) glued at the comers of each mesh. The wire grid is placed
VIII- 18

downstream of the model and is useful in examining wing tip vortices.

Determining Aerodynamic Angles from the Model Support (sting) Angles
Aerodynamic angles a and 13 are calculated using the model support (sting) angles 7, V,
0, andS.
Where

prebend angle of sting (only in pitch)

p= yaw angle of the support
=

0 = pitch angle of the support

=

Knowing

roll angle of the support

ar tan-t wU3

sin -'[Vi

Where
u = longitudinal velocity component
v = lateral velocity component
w = vertical velocity component
V = total freestream velocity
from reference 28 and 38

[cos~p (cosycosO

V = [sinosin~cos~p

sinysin0coso]

sinysin(Psin(P] V"

cososirnP] V.

W = [cos~p sinycos0 + cosycososin0] + cosysinosinT] V"

Solving for the model angles a and 03

tana

[cos(PIsinycoso

cosycososin0] + cosysirnosin,(P]

[cosy 4cosycosO

sinysin0coso]

--

Vill- 19

sinysinsinqj

sino = [sinosinOcosy - cososinwo]

-00

1w
Tail
off

-12

-4

(+)
Figure

Downwash

CL

+8

(--)

Cm

VIii-i

+4

Determination

CL

--.

Trim

lift curve

Cmcg

Figure

VIII-2

Trim

Determination

VIII-20

Plot

NOTES

VIII-21

NOTES

VIII-22

NOTES

VIII-23

NOTES

Vlll-24

NOTES

VIII-25

NOTES

VIII-26

NOTES

VIII-27

NOTES

VIII-28

IX

STRESS ANALYSIS

Ix

IX Stress Analysis
List of Symbols
A

Area

d
c
E

Diameter
Distance from Neutral Axis
Modulus of Elasticity

ftu

Ultimate (allowable) Tensile Stress

fsu

Ultimate (allowable) Stress in pure shear

fty

Tensile Yield Stress (point)

ftp

Tensile Proportional limit

G
I
J
L

Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus of Elasticity)

Moment of Inertia
Polar Moment of Inertia
Total length of element (shaft length etc...)

1
AL

Length of element (not shaft length)

Change in length after deformation

M
NF

Moment
Normal Force

P
R

Load
Average radius
Distance to point of interest for torsion

r
0r

Shaft radius

As
T
t
y

Change in arc length after deformation

Torque
Thickness
Distance to point of interest for stress

a
03

Constant based on l/t (non dimensional)

Constant based on l/t (non dimensional)

Strain

Stress
Shear

It

IX-I

List of Symbols continued

p.

Poisson's ratio

Angle of shear strain

Subscripts
i-- inside
o -- outside

b
s

---

bending
shear

n -- normal

IX-2

Definitions
Stress

Stress implies a force per unit area and is a measure of the intensity
of the force acting on a definite plane passing through a given point.
The stress distribution may or may not be uniform, depending on the
nature of the loading conditions. Tensile load is considered (+) and a
compressive load is considered (-).

Strain

It is the change in length per unit length. The strain distribution

may or may not be uniformed depending on the member and loading
conditions.

Normal Stress

A unit stress which acts normal to the cross section of the

structural element.
These stresses are created by bending
moments and axial forces.

Shear Stress

A unit stress which acts parallel and in the plane of the cross
section. These stresses are caused by torsional moments and
shear forces.

Normal Strain

Strain ssociated with a normal stress; it takes place in the

direction in which its associated normal stress acts. Increase
in length are (+) strains, decrease in lengths are (-) strains.

Shearing Strains

Those strains related to relative changes in angles.

'Y eld Point

Where elongation increases with no increase in load.

at this point is known as Tensile Yield Stress.

Proportional Limit

Where

the

stress-strain curve

first becomes

The stress

non-linear.

That point is the maximum stress where the strain remains

directly proportional to stress.
Elastic Limit

The maximum stress to which a material maybe subjected and still

upon the removal of the load, return to its original dimensions.

Neutral Axis

When a beam is deflected, one surface is in compression while the

other surface is under tensile stress.
There is a plane
(neutral) where the stress will be zero.
Where this neutral
IX-3

Neutral Axis
(continued)

plane intersects any perpendicular cross section (or plane of

loading) this location is the neutral axis for that cross
section.

Ultimate Tensile Stress

This is the maximum allowable stress of the material.

Factor of Safety

Ultimate load / limit load

Modulus of Elasticity

Ratio of stress to strain; slope

portion of the stress-strain diagram.

of

the

straight

Shear Modulus of
Elasticity

Ratio of shear stress to shear strain at low loads.

initial slope of the stress-strain diagram for shear.

Radius of Gyration
of an Body

The distance from the inertia axis that the entire mass
would be concentrated in order to give the same moment of
inertia.

Radius of Gyration

The distance from the inertia axis to the point where the

of an Area

area would be concentrated in order to produce the same

moment of inertia.

Shear Center

A point where a load produces no torsion on a asymmetric

beam cross section.

IX-4

The

STRESS FORMULAS

Normal Strain

Normal Stress
P

AL

Modulus of Elasticity

Poisson's Ratio
lateral
deformation
axial deforma t ion

E
an
Cn
n

Shear Strain (thin wall,

circular cylinder: twcc)

Shear Modulus of Elasticity

(twcc)

=- Ase

" s_

Cs
ANGLE OF TWIST

Rectangular shaft

Circular shaft

TL

TL

f1 Gt'

JG

Split tube
4, 3TL

2irRt 3 G

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

Tubular, Circular
cross-section

Solid, Circular Shaft

4
J- itdd

n (do4 -d. )4

32

32

IX-5

Tubular, Circular
cross-section

Solid. Circular Shaft

J tr-

Jr--

ri)

S-'r

2
RADIUS OF GYRATION

Area

Body

BENDING STRESS

'b

'b =

Mc
"I

6M (rectangular)
bh

SHEAR STRESS
Circular cross section (beam)

Rectangular cross section (beam)

f='t max

s f=t max -~= 3s

2A

3A
3

TORSIONAL FORMULAS
Tubular, circular cross section

Solid, circular shaft

f=t
s

max

_ 16T

f=t

_Tr

6rd0

max

di 4 )

2nrr
7tr4

7r(r

IX-6

r-r4
1

Split tube
fs="s-2rRt'
3T
Rectangular) cross section
(flat plate)
3T
fs=
Ss 'Es =lT>>
i2'

fs =s s -- x1T t2'

lt1

It

Table IX-1
l/t

Ia

1.0

1.5 1.75

Stress Constants (ref. 31)

2.5

2.0

3.0

6.0

4.0

8.0 10.0

00

.208 .231 .239 .246 .258 .267 .282 .299 .307 .313 .333
.141 .196 .214 .229 .249 .263 .281 .299 .307 .313 .333

COMBINED STRESS
Shafts under bending and torsional loads (ref. 33)

fb

f bl2

fT= 2_-+

+f

+s

Stresses on an incline plane (ref. 34)

G
-aC
=

Ycos0 + t

2-Ysin20 + 'r cos20

2

IX-7

sin20

xy

Principle Stress

amaxCYGx 2+ GyY

rx 2

y)2+
]
(xY)

min

Angle on which principle stresses occurs

(measured from x axis)
tn20

--

1;

xy

tan22 - x - y
Maximum and Minimum Shear stresses

y)

max

-2

min
Angle on which max and min Shear stress occurs
(measured from x axis)
CF
tan20

x + ay
2

xy

FACTOR OF SAFETY

F ftu

SF - stress

SF

ftu

SF =
f)2

IX-8

( f

Calculate Centroid of a Planform Area

Dim ( in)

Elem.
1

1.45

2.3

3
4
5
6
7
8

X
X
X
X

Ay2
(i n 4)

10.3+2.1= 12.4

75.5

937.9

10.3/2 = 5.14

122.0

628.6

8.98
8.98

8.98/3= 3.0
8.98/3= 3.0

26.9
26.9

80.82
80.82

1.66
1.66
1.8
1.8

0.83/2= .42
0.83/2= .42
4.22/3+10.3= 11.7
4.22/3+10.3= 11.7

0.7
0.7
21 .1
21 .1

0.29
0.29
246.4
246.4

6.1

X 4.20
X 10.3

23.7

8.98 X 2.0 X 0.5

8.98 X 2.0 X 0.5
0.83
0.83
0.85
0.85

AY
(i n3 )

y
(in)

Area
( in 2 )

2.0
2.0
4.22/2
4.22/2

' 54.7 in 2'

Y
_

XAy

_ 294.9

A
=

294 .9

2221.5

5.4 in

54.7

4
2221.5 in

7-

-8

5t5

Figure

IX-1

Analysis

Stress

id

(centr

IX-9

Example

determination)

Example: Stress Analysis

Shear and bending at section F-F (figure IX-2)
Assuming a rectangular section of average thickness...
I = base

f 6M
bt I

t = height (thickness)

(fb=

= -)

I= t

( -Mc,

if12

C= !

- (XIt2

fs

T = torsion in beam

(x = constant dependent upon 1/t

1 = 0.84 in

ave

0.044 + 0.030 = 0.037 in

l/t = 22.7 ; cx = 0.333

M = 6.0(0.380) = 2.28 in-lb

6 [0.473+0.84

= 5.358 in-lb

L
Bending
fb

6(2.28)
= 11,896 psi
(0.840)(0.037)2
S.F.

89100

11896

IX-10

7.48

Shear

5.358

f =

13,992 psi

(0.333)(0.840)(0.037)2

S.F.=

= 3.57
+[[139922

[11896]2
[8-+

T5600]j

Shear and bending at first set of attachment holes at section E-E

(figure IX-2)
Assuming a rectangular section of average thickness...
6M

(f

I=

-Mc.

I t, c =

12

Xlt2

T = torsions in beam
a = constant dependent upon l/t

I = 0.840 - 2(0.138)
ave

0.062 + 0.030

0.564 in

0.046 in

l/t = 12.3 ; ax = 0.333

M = 6.0(0.380 + 0.210) = 3.54 in-lb

IX-I1

T= 6[0.473 +0_41

=5.358

in-lb

Bending
= 17,798 psi
6(3.54)
(0.564)(0.046)2

fb

S.F. = 89100 = 5.01

17798
Shear

=5.358
13,482 psi
(0.333) (0.564) (0.046)2

S.F.=

3.23

F1348212

[1779812

Tension in screws at wing tip missile attachment...

Summing moments about A-A
EMAA = 0 = 1.57NF - 0.706R 1

0.558R2

0.154R 3

0.302R 4

Solving screw loads in terms of R,

R2

0.558R

R3
R

0.706

0.154R
0.706 1

0.302R
4-0.7061

Substitute into the MAA equation above...

+ 0.302 2
1.57NF = R1 0.706 + 0.5582 + 0.1542
0.706

IX- 12

1.57NF = 1.31R 1
RI = 1.199NF
From above...
R2 = 0.948NF

R3 = 0.262NF

R4 = 0.308NF

From figure IX-2, NF = 6.0 lbs...

IR1= 7.2 lbs1 R 2 = 5.69 lbsI R3 = 1.57 lbs

4 = 3.08 lbs

ftu for 0-80 flat-head socket screws is 265 lbs

S.F.

= 36.8

7.2
Thread pullout in wing tip missile attachment screws...
For screw R1 (0-80 flat-head screws)...
Shear Area = nt(screw pitch dia.)(screw length)(0.5)
(0.5) is and arbitrary fudge factor for conservatism

= 7t(0.519)(0.58)(0.5)
Shear Area = 0.0094(0.5) = 0.0047 in 2

Shear

f = load / shear area

f = 7.2 / 0.0047

fs= 1532 psi

For flat-head screw 0-80

fsu = 96000 psi

IX-13

S.F.

96000

62.7

1532
For the wing, 17-4PH stainless steel screws...
f=

120000 psi

S.F. - 120000 = 78.4

1532

Screw head pullout in wing tip missile attachment...

shear area = 2r(screw head dia.)(t - head depth)
2
= ir(0.117)(0.058 - 0.045) = 0.00478 in2
Shear force...(for 4130 steel)
f _

S.F.

7.2
- 1506.3 psi
0.00478
89100 -59.2
1506.3

IX-14

1,1.577

0.706

-0.558

-0.332
0.154

R2
EE

.33

2______

8.0~

+ 4~K 1~F

0.0

Section

E-E

0.0.14

0.002

0.030

0.840

Figure

IX-2

Analysis

Stress
(wing

tip
I X-15

missile)

Example

This page was intentionally left blank

IX-16

NOTES

IX-17

NOTES

IX-18

NOTES

IX-19

NOTES

IX-20

TRENDS

X Trends

maxf
mC

Flapped

L.E.

Wing
(L.E. & T.E.)

CL

T.E.

CL

=flap

CL max

CL
0

f
CLa
CL=
a f

CL
a

Wing

CL

A astall4

ZL
aZ
aZf a

ZL

aStall

stall f

(wing alone)
Flaps Extended
Flaps Retracted

CL
CL

CD

CM

ac
Figure X-1

Flap Characteristics
X-1

E fect
0.30
0.25
0.20

of Vertical
on Pitching

Location of C.G.
Moments

0.15
0M10

b.
C.

0.05
0.0

CL
Low Wing

--

E!

1.0

10.05

0.3.5
--

--

-..

--

SMid
--0.25
-0.30

Wing

-High Wing

Figure

0.25

Effect

cf

of

on

X-2

C .G.

Typical

Longitudinal

0.25

0.50

Vertical

Location

Pitching

Stebility

Moments

Breakdown

0.20 0.15

0.10

0.05

-0.10

-0.15
-0.20
-0.25
0.0

0.75

1.0

1.25

1.50

CL

Figure

X-3

Typical

Component

Stability

Longitudinal

Breakdown

X-2

2.00

Increasing

CL

Math

number

0
C L

a
---

cD

SK

Induced

drag

factor
\,
'%

Mact

Fiqur

X-4

Ma;ll

Nu Irlb;r

Nur, Der

X-3

...

.n

nmmmmnmnm

mmummn

mn nn mnmmmmmmmummnummmmmnmn

Trends

(Eff(:t:.:;)

Reynolds

Number

(Symmetrical
6

CL

A ir fo il)

3x1

9 x 10

CL

CD

CL10

AR
4

0(

Figure X-5

Reynolds Number and

Trends (Effeccs)

X- 4

Aspect

Ratio

Double Wedge
t/c = 0.06
X = 0.05

()

04

= 4.0

Ater 27A

.03
A

CDo

45

ave

500

.02

.01

Data points
Conical Flow Theory

SKIN FRICTION
I
I
i
1

Figure

1.4
MOD

1.2

1.0

.8

X-6

Effect

of

Wing

2.0

1.8

1.6

Sweep

on

CD
0

X--5

""
RCH

:0.63

flRCN :0.93

e.g..

.j

I.I
.0.1

0.I.

0.1

SI.,.

0.7-

0.3,

0.t,

00,

0.20.P

0.

ei

-o..

z01

42

0.21-0.

-H

z046
0. t

iil?*JF

"0

0.9..

0-24

0,2.O

0.)9

0.-0.

00.16.

0046

"0.
it

-0.4,

"0.
08
0. 0

M AFTS

6.2

0.04.

AFT SWET

50i

0:011

hi

AR =

F'ORdANO &WEF

a"6

i
0.1?
ZLPMA

I6

0-

'+

-0

-2
0.

-,

1.

(DEC)

3.34

0LP-R

A c/4_

MAC = 5.62

45 0

X = 0.4

b/2 = 7.58
Figure X -7

a01S+A

-16

C=
Cr

6.1

"o

12

0CEO)

S w=257i2

t/c

= 5.5%

C, = 2.45

Aft and Forward Swept Wing-Fuselage Ef fects

(Re f.

IS)
X-6

1,

i'

MACH z0.63

MRCH:0.93

0.0,
e.g.

0.11
e.g.

0.4

0.4.

0..

0.1.

.-41

;4

-0.

12

14

TO

-0.

z
6 - 0.
C
o"C
-0.5"

z
7
W.j-O.
C
0sC -

& FOatmaO swOP!

& FORtAtO lafry

MACH

MACH =O.t.
O.t0

0.29-

0.24

0.24-

0.24

0.24-

0.22

0.22-

"0.'o.

=0.93

00o.
l -

o.i.

a.o..

WO.14.

0. t4.

0. kO

0.I0.

-0 .- . Ii

10

ALPHA (DEG)

AILPHA (DEG)

0.64.;

.Na

a lIft

.0.

'J..

3EPT

rapOAN
O S NEP/

-o o, i

COEAFICIENTCL

Figure

.
0 AFT

.,
LIFT

X-7

0 1

0 .0115f
2-

o,
LIFT

14

0.04.

continued
X-7

COEFFICIETN,CL

SOFT

flRCH -0.9)

10.63
MAOCH

0 .S

I....

-4-

9fFSWP

Is RFI SWEPT
&

1-

-'

FORIRO SWEPTA
t

;Z
14

SIWEP
T

1,

ALPHA (O)

RLPAR IOEG)

-I

K FOhijAlo SM1'
0. is1

ZEL=.15(P

o.11*

0.12

SOil

h.S

0.07

0.1

0.6

0.7

0.0

Figure

0.9

1.0

X-7

X-8

concluded

1"

I'sI

-2.5

-2.0

ti

'

Wing vortex
peaks
suction

CL

0: 9.93

.400

a 12.00

.516

a 161

.72I

i ; : --

o 14.07 .627

-1.o

18. 18= .845 _d

-.

o'20.!!13 .962

0-.4

.5

l
-

.zi

i.-...

I
-

/ 1

.6

: i !i

.7

. ..

.8

1.0

.9

y/s
(a) x/c-0.50

-2.0
o

-1.5

CL

9.93

AM
.400

a 12.00

.516!-

4 18.18

.845

o 201

.6

.4

.5

Wing vortex

....

Li suction peaks
-

Cp-1.5
CPU

-1.0

"

.3

o9

14.7.02

.6

.7

.8

.9

1.0

y/s
(c) x/c.0.62

Figure

X-8

Wing Pressure
the
presence

(ref.

19)
X-9

Distribution
of a Coupled

in
Chine

------

-1.5

Ssuctione
......
- vor
J .
S ..

)P

-1.0
/,,Straitsvortex
C

0.

/....\

.3

//

'

CL

9.93

.400

-a--- 12.00
.516
.

14.07
.627
-" 16.15
.725

18.18
M85
'..... .9 2
- -- 20.13,

L!

suction peaks

.4

.5

.6

.7

.8

.9

1.0

y/S
(e) x/cxO.75

0o1.62521

.0.75

0,50 J,

Forebody

x/c-O.30

0.4o0.40
l

<A-A

Figure

X-8

concluded

X-10

1.6-

1.4

1.2

Cl

1.0

.8

.6

(Q-

14

106

6.1

106

.4
t/c

-5

10

0.25
0.25

14-

15

20

Effect

on

-. 2j 1

Figure

X-9

Reynolds
(wing

Number
alone)

X-11

cI

max

1.2

1.0

C1

-8xlOG;

14.5x 10;
=

t/c

= 0.67
M

0.66

17%

.2

0
.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

Cd

Figure

X-10

Number

Reynolds
(wing

alone)

X-12

Effect

on

Drag

UU-4
I

0\

CZ

CZ)

il

Figure

X-11

II

Drag
(wing

II

Rise
alone)
X-13

Characteristics

-2.0M

Cd

0.5

.722

.0082

0.6

.746

.0114

0.7

.724

.0137

t/c

Shock

C1

17%

Effect

-1.0Cp

-. 05-

0.5-

1.0
0

20

40

60

Percent
Figure

X-1 2

Mach

Effect

Distribution
X-!4

80

100

Chord
on

Airfoil

Pressure

NOTES

X-15

NOTES

X-16

NOTES

X-17

NOTES

X-18

XI

INTERNAL STRAIN GAGE BALANCES

xI

XI Internal Strain Gage Balances

(Ref. 36)

List of Symbols
A

Cross-sectional area

E
F

Voltage
Gage Factor

iFA}

Appliea load to balance matrix

IF0

Output (mv) force matrix

[K..]-'

Inverted balance calibration matrix

Length

I
m
mv
n

Rolling moment
Pitching moment
Milli-volts
Yawing moment
Resistance

IDR

ISC)
wt
X

Sensitivity constant matrix

Weight
Axial force

Y
Z

Side force
Normal force

Axial (local) strain

Incremental

11t
p

Poisson's ratio
Resistivity of the gage material

Subscripts
A - Applied load

AF

Axial force

NF - Normal force

O - Output (mv)

PM

Pitching moment

SF - Side Force

RM - Rolling moment

YM

Yawing moment

XI-I

Strain Gages
In strain measurement. the simplest device to use is the resistance type strain gage.
Its construction and operation are simple, but it is so precise that strains on the order
of 0.1% may be measured. The gage is about the size of a postage stamp but only slightly
heavier. It consists of a metallic wire or strip of foil whose electrical resistance
varies linearly with strain. The gage is securely bonded to the member to be strained so
that any strain in the member due to a load ie, transmitted to the wire. There are
literally hundreds of types of strain gages available commercially; each gage having been
developed in response to a demand for a gage to meet a specific condition.
The most fundamental part of the gage is the wire itself. The resistance increase of a
wire, when it is stretched, is due to an increase in the length and a decrease in its
cross section, than to actual change in specific resistance. Typically, an electrical
conductor (wire) is bonded to the specimen (balance) with an insulating cement under a
no-load condition. A load is then applied, which produces a deformation in both the
specimen and resistance element (wire). This deformation is indicated through a
measurement of the change in resistance of the element (wires).
Three common types of resistance strain gages used in internal balances are wire, foil,
and semi-conductor. The bonded wire is most commonly used with the wire diameter varying
between 0.005 and 0.001 inches. The foil gage usually employs a foil less than 0.001
inches thick. The semi-conductor gage employs a silicon base material that is strain
sensitive and has the advantage of a very large gage factor (F-100). (The gage factor
relates the electrical resistance to the physical properties of the gage.) The material
is usually produced in brittle wafers having a thickness of 0.01 inches.
Wire and foil gages may be manufactured in various ways, but the important point is that
the resistance element (wire/foil) be securely bonded to its mounting. Most wire strain
gages employ either a nitrocellulose cement or a phenolic resin for the bonding agent with
a thin paper backing to maintain the wire's configuration. Such gages may be used up to
300F. A Bakelite mounting is usually employed for temperatures up to 5000F. Foil gages
are manufactured by an etching process and use base material of paper, Bakelite, and epoxy
film. Epoxy cement is also used on wire and foil gages.

XI-2

Temperature Effects
The major soure of strain gage error is the fact that the resistance of most wires
changes with temperature. This variation is not only a function of the change in
temperature but, may also be a function of the number of heating cycles to which the gages
has been subjected and of the time elapsed between cycles. Temperature compensation may
easily be accomplished by installing a second strain gage, often known as a dummy gage, on
an unstrained piece of the same metal that the active gage is bonded to. There are two
changes in gage resistance which are caused by temperature changes. The first effect is
the temperature coefficient of resistivity which is a random effect that may b, considered
as independent of the gage factor. The second effect is the difference in linear
expansion between the gage and the member (material) on which it is mounted. The latter
effect is one in which the error in the strain gage output is significant. Semi-conductor
gages offer the advantage that they have a lower expansion coefficient then either wire or
foil gages. It's best to mak , sure the strain gages are temperature compensated.
Deformation Theory and Calculation

Basic relations for the resistance strain gage are

R =

L)

A
L = length
A = cross-sectional area

p = resistivity of the material

Differentiating (1)
dR

+ dL

dA

(2)

The area may be related to the square of some transverse dimension, such as the diameter
(D) of the resistance wire.
dA

dD

XI-3

(3)

The unit axial strain E is defined as

_ dL

(4)

L
Poisson's ratio is defined as
=

dD/D

(5)

dL/L
Substituting equations (3), (4) and (5) into (2)...
dR = e(1 + 2gt) + dP

(6)

The gage factor 'F' is defined as

F

dR/R

(7)

Substituting (7) into (6)

F =1 + 2g. + (!)(p)

(8)

Rearranging (7)
Local Strain
=

(AR

(9)

FR

The value of the gage factor 'F' and the resistance (R) are usually

specified by the

manufacturer so that the user need only measure the change of resistance (AR) in order to
determine the local strain due to a load.
Measurement of AR/R
Consider the basic Wheatstone bridge in figure XI-1.
given by

XI-4

The voltage

at the detector

is

R
ED

!P

IR I +R 4

(10)

R 2 R3

If the bridge is balanced then E0 = 0.0 volts.

Let the strain gage represent R in the circuit in figure XI-2 and a voltage readout is
used such that the br'idge operates as a voltage sensitive circuit. We assume that the
bridge is balanced at zero strain conditions and that a strain , e, on the gage results in
the change in the resistance ARI and a change of voltage AE on the bridge.
used to represent the resistance of the page at zero strain conditions.

R will be

The voltage due to strain is...

A2

R +AR
D

R
(11)

R 1+AR 1+R 4

R 2 +R 3

Solving for the resistance change...

AR,

R1

(R 4/R I) [AE D/E + R 2/(R R2+R3)]

I - AED/E - R2/(R2+R3

1(3

- 1(13)

Balance Calibration (interaction) Matrix

(ref. 8 and 37)
No internal balance is able to measure the pure loads that it was intended to measure.
This is due to errors within the balance. There are generally two types of errors. The
first type of 'balance' errors are the linear (first degree) errors. This type of errors
are primarily due to construction errors, improperly positioned gages, variation in gage
factors, and electrical circuits. The second type of error is the non-linear (2nd degree)
error. This error is primarily attributed to elastic deformation (deflections) of various
balance parts. Both types of errors create interaction of forces and moments.
To account for these interactions (errors) in the balance, the balance is calibrated.
The purpose of this calibration is to acquire a set of interaction equations that can be
used to determine the loads applied by the model through the balance output (voltage)
signals. This type of calibration will not (generally) be accomplished by the testing

XI-5

engineer.

All the testing engineer will receive will be a

sheet(s)

linear and non-linear interaction coefficients on it (figure XI-3).

of paper
For a

with

six

the

component

(3 forces and 3 moments) balance, the linear coefficients will be uscd as a 6x6 matrix
with near unity (1) on the diagonal. The non-linear coefficients will be used as a 6x21.
For a six component

balance, there

is a total

of 27 interaction

speaking, the 6x6 matrix will need to be inverted to

computer.

be used

in

terms.

the

data

Generally
acquisition

This can be seen below in the theory of how the computer acquires

force/moment

data from a balance.

(F 0

[Kij]IF A
(14)

(FA = [K.i] '(SC) (Fo}

Example:
Original Balance Calibration Matrix
(non-dimensional)

Fz]

1.0000

.0336

1764

-. 0549

.0059-.00041

-.
0169

1.0000

0.uftO

.0131

.0000 .0000

-.0059

-.0022

1.0000

-.0032

.0000 .00021

-. 0004

-. 0006

.0078

1.0000

.1012-.0044'

0000

.0002

.0000

-. 0412

1.0000-.0064

.0012

.0049

.0294

-. 15).

-. 0.384;i.u
.

-.

Xj9A]

XI-6

ZA
XA

n
I

Inverted Original Balance Cal ibration Matrix

ZA
XA
m
A

-W

nA
Y

1.0000
.0169

-. 0332
.9994

-. 176
.0031

.0555
-. 0121

.006
.0004
.0000

.002
.0006
- .0002

1.001

-.0013

-. 0048

.0034

-. 01 15
.001 1
-. 0004

.00051
-.0000
-.0002

Z
X
m

-. 0078

.9964

-. 1007

.0037

-.0005

.0421

.9959

.0065

n I

-.0309

.1564

.0225

1.0008

YI

The interactions of the forces and moments can be seen in the inverted matrix. For an
example, thete is a -17.6% interaction on the normal force due to the the pitching moment
and a 3.7% interaction on the rolling moment due to the side force.
The testing engineer needs to know if the balance coefficients are indeed
load
non-dimensional or dimensional (ie... (vTl-))

If the interaction matrix is

non-dimensional, then the testing engineer will have to acquire a sensitivity constant
Ioad
Vol-) for each force and moment. The acquisition of the sensitivity constants is
acquired during the check loading of the balance (see page XI-10).
Calii.aticn Podv

In order to load a balance accurately, it is first necessary to construct a fixture.

This fixture is geiteraily called a calibration body (cal. body). The --al. body On-,liates
the model to be tested which will allow loads to be accurately transmitted to the balance
in the same manner as the model will during testiiig. It should be attached in the same
manner as the model is attached to the balance (generally a single pin) and should have
reference surfaces which will remain fixed with respect to the balalnce reference center
(usually the balance electrical moment center)
The cal. body is an accurately machined 'rectangle box' with precisely located V-shaped
grooves in which the loads are applied during calibration or check loadings. It is
important that both the cal. body and the model be aligned with the balance in exacily the
same majiner. Also, the balance should fit tightly (no relative motion between the two
items) in the cal. body and in the modei.

All fixtures (moment arms, weight pans etc...

XI-7

should be manufactured as light as possible a.rnd as stiff as possible.

Loads applied to the balance (via the cal.

body)

components

are

considered

absolute

loads. Therefore, the weight of the cal. body and fixtures and even parts of the balance
must be considered as applied loads.
are taken out in the 'zero' reading.

However, the weight of the cal.

The zero reading is the

body

reference

and

fixtures

voltage

to

be

subtracted out from the load reading to acquire a 'true' reading.

Check Loading
The purpose of check loading a balance serves several purposes.
1) Acquire sensitivity constants (if needed)
2) Proof (check) load the balance
3) Check gaging and wiring
4) Determine hysteresis and repeatability
5) Determine component sensitivity
6) Determine deflections when a load is applied
7) Determine accuracy
It is important .o check

load

tile

balance

over

center-of-pressure range and that sufficient points

repeatable loadings.

are

the

entire

taken

to

anticipated
assure

load

accurate

and
and

The minimum check load to hang would be 10e7- of tile balance limit.

Check Loading Procedure

This procedure will assume that a dead weight (ie... disks) will be used to acquire
loadings required.

However, a load is a load

hydraulic actuator or sonie other source.

whether it

Just make sure

is

generated

it's a

by

point load

the

disk

and

not

or
a

distributed load on the calibration body.

Hang the weights on the calibration body at CONSTANT INCREMENTS, as an example,
A50 lbf or A100 lbf or whatever weight increment you choos-, to use. Be sure to maintain
that increment at all times.
hanging weights.

Don't forget to take a 'zero'

voltage reading prior to

A zero reading includes the weighis of the cal. body, ",eight pan or any

other weight that's considered a *zero' weight.

stop the weight pan from swaying.

After loading a weight on the weight pan,

Place an inclinometer on the cal. body and raise or

lower the cal. body (via the sting) until it is level (or < 4 3 mins of ,, degree).

XI-8

This

takes out the weight component due to the deflection of the sting.
measurements can be taken at this time.

Also, sting deflection

After the weight has been added and the swaying

has been stopped, have the control room take a data point and record the output (normally
in milli-volts [mv], and then add the next incremental weight and repeat the above
procedure.

Do this until the maximum load is achieved.

Once the maximum load is applied

and voltage taken, remove the weights at the same increment as when you added ihe weights
and take a data point at each weight going down.
removed and then take another zero.

Do this until all the weights hae been

This up and down procedure of check loading will show

accuracy, iepeatabiliy and a zero shift of the balance.

Do this for all force and moment

check loadings.
Dead-Weight Loading System
When the dead-weight system is employed, the weights are generally in the forni

of cast

iron disks (accurate to 0.1%) hanging on a weight pan supported by the cal. body or moment
arm fixture.

For a highly accurate check loading, one can weigh the cast iron di,;ks prior

to check loading.
When hanging weights for the normal force and side force, al a minimum, hang the weight,
at the balance electrical moment center and use this check loading to determine the normal
and side forces sensitivity constant.
the balance electrical moment

Taking the sensitivity constant for the

center, allows

the contribution

forces

(interactions)

at

of the

principle moments (pitching and yawing) to become negligible.

Hanging the weights for the pitching and yawing moments, at a minimum, at one moment arm
ahead and behind the electrical moment center but at

different

moment

arms.

This

will

result in a positive and a negative moment. When check loading for the rolling moment,
place the rolling moment fixture at the balance electrical moment center and at a minimum,
apply loads at two different moment arn

on the rolling moment fixture (expect

to

see

normal force reading).

Axial Force Check Loading
Axial force check loading is generally accomplished with a pulley rig. A pulley rig

has

two wires that are connected to the cal. body that run down the side of the sling and over
the pulleys down to a 'T' weight pan where the weights are placed.
The 'T' weight pan
must be absolutely level. Any angle in the 'T' weight pan will produce undesirable

XI-9

interactions and an erroneous axial force will be acquired.

Also, it might be desirable

to check load m the negative axial force direction. If this is desirable, set the pulley
rig in front of the cal. body and hang weights. Be sure to check the balance limits to
see if a negative axial force limit exists. Normally, a negative axial force calibration
is not dor:e.
Sensitivity Constants
Sensitivity constants are required when the balance calibration matrices are
non-dimensional. They are acqiired during check loading and are nothing but slopes of a
line [fAload

and are required for each force and moment. The sensitivity matrix is a

diagonal matrix.
T acquire sensitivity constants...

1) Put balance calibration matrix in the data acquisition computer.

2) Initially set sensitivity constants to unity (1).
3) Accomplish the check loading in all planes and at multiple positions within that
plane.
4) When the check loadings are complete, obtain the 'Raw Balance Data' (figure XI-4). Be
sure and account for the zero reading. Usually it needs to be subtracted out of the
output readings.
m, n.

There should be 'n' forces and moments usually titled X, Y, Z, 1,

Where X = axial force, Y = side force, Z = normal force, I = rolling moment,

m = pitching moment, and n = yawing moment.

5) At this point use a linear regression program to acquire the slope of the line with
the x-axis as the voltage and the y-axis as the load. The slope of this line is the
sensitivity constant for that force or moment. Do this for each position and for
each force and moment. The force and moment sensitivity constants should not vary
much from one another when taken at different positions on that plane. For the force
sensitivity constants, use the sensitivity constants at the balance electrical moment
center. This eliminates, theoretically, the influence of the moment of that plane.
6) If a linear regression program is not available at the test site, take the first
weight reading (mv) and subtract it from second weight reading (mv). Then take the
second weight reading and subtract it from the third weight reading and so on. The

XI-10

Amilli-volts (Amv) should be close to one another since the weight increment (Awt) is
held constant.
7)

Obtain an average Amy.

8)

Divide the Awt by the average Amv.

This is the sensitivity Zonstant for that position

on the plane.
9) Repeat steps 6 3 for each position on the plane.
10)

Steps 6-8 are not as accurate as using a linear regression program on the computer.

11)

For the moments, add

your

sensitivities together

sensitivities to obtain and average.

12)

This

average

and

divide

sensitivity

by the
constant

moment is the one given to the software/tunnel personnel.

After the sensitivity constants have been acquired, re-hang

selected

cal. body once again to verify the validity of the constants.

The

number

of

for the

loads

applied

on
load

the
to

the output load should be within 0.5% of one another.

Example Sensitivity Constant Matrix

2.3184

- .7844

mA

-. 1867

mi

1A

.1324

nA

-. 07780

Y 0J I

-1.188

Obtaining Force and Moments from Raw Balance Data

1) Take the balance output (mv) and subtract out the zero reading (mv).
2)

Take that increment (Amv) and multiply it by that position on the balance

calibration

coefficient (ie... if you are checking the normal force, on the nxn matrix (which
usually inverted) go to the Z,Z position), and multiply it by
constant.However, don't forget the interaction terms.

the

its

They'll need to

sensitivity
be added

subtracted to the force or moment you are looking at for an accurate reading.

XI-II

is
or

F or M = Amv(balance calibration)(sensitivity constant) + interaction terms

F = force; M = moment
Don't forget that each interaction term also has a sensitivity
it.

factor

associated

with

Keep a close eye on the units. Don't mix apples and oranges.

Balance Calibration Equation Example (ref. 8)

The example below uses a 6 component balance calibration matrix.
below is considered non-dimensional.

If the

calibration

matrix

The calibration matrix

was dimensional,

consider the sensitivity constants on the diagonal of the sensitivity constant

matrix

then
as

unity (1).
From equation 14
(F0 )(SC) = [Kiji]FA}
(F ) = [K.i.]'SCIHFo}

Example Original Ba I ance Calibration Matrix

(non-dimensional)
Z

1.0000

.0336

-. 1764

-. 0549

.0059

-. 0004

-.0169

1.0000

.0000

.0131

.0000

.0000

-. 0059

-. 0022

1.0000

-. 0032

.0000

.0002

mA

-.0004

-. 0006

.0078

1.0000

.1012

-. 0044

.0000

.0002

.0000

-. 0412

t.0000

-. 0064

nA

.0012

.0049

.0294

.1555

-. 0384

1.0000

YA

m
1

XI-12

Example Inverted Balance Calibration Matrix

1.0000

-. 0332

X
A
m

.0169

.9994

.006

.02

1A

.0.00

A0

-. 176
.0031

.0555

-. 0115

.0005

-. 0121

.001 1

-.0000

1.001

.0034

-. 0004

-.0002

W0006

-. 0078

.9964

-. 1007

.0037

.0000

-. 0002

-. 0005

.0421

.9959

.0065

-.0013

-. 0048

-. 0309

.1564

.0225

1.0008

Example Sensitivity Constant Matrix

Z

2.3184

.7844

-. 1867

m0

.1324

10

nA

-.0778

no

YA

-1.188

A
A

A_

0
0

A typical load (normal force) equation can be seen below.

ZA = ZoK
K 1SCNF + XoK ISCAF + YK 13SCSF + 1oK 14SCLM + moK 15 SC M +"'
... + n 0 K 15 SCYM

(15)

Using the inverted and sensitive constant matrix above, the total

normal

force

pitching moment (m) equations are listed below.

Z = Z(1)(2.3184) + X(-.0332)(-.7844) + m(-.176)(-.1867) +
... + 1(.0555)(.1324) + n(-.01 15)(-.0778) + Y(.0005)(-1.188)
m = Z(.006)(2.3184) + X(.002)(-.7844) + m(l.001)(-.1867) + ...
... + 1(.0034)(.1324) + n(-.0004)(-.0778) + Y(-.002)(-1.188)
The rest of the forces and moments equations are derived in the same manner.

XI-13

(Z)

and

Balance Placement in the Model

The physical placement of the balance in a wind tunnel model can vary. Usually, the
balance electrical moment center is placed at the center of pressure of the configuration
at the maximum aerodynamic load. Since the center of pressure position varies with
angle-of-attack, make re the aerodynamic load is not outside the load of the balance.

XI- 14

AE
S

Ci

/l

x,

'

St

Figure

XI-1

Basic

Wheatstone

Bridge

RbB

Eb

Figure

XI-2

E A

Unbalanced

XI-15

Wheatstone

Bridge

~
~

1I

Nw% -Il

WJI

ini

----

m
0z

.:

('D
-4

220

-'

IN.
CD

"4"4
..-

000
I I I

0#

0II

g-.

-,4

,
Soo

WV
m I.

I
0

000

(DW0

tn Mi

I//

0001 I

4 M I
4WN

"

n1

MI

If

IlIl I

000W

04

'-"kw% %M

4.d Ci31
Z - jo's
V

zrb

"

w I

'A'")*
)e"

-)
I-

CD

upNa
w

.,3

%A

"

'F).

"4
4A

a)

Lm

X-tx

CA

0 CA

'

x
-4.VCt V C

X1-16

O
go

4Z.l

Normal Force (Z) Calibration

(Balance Electrical Moment Center)
Wt Inc.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

fData Pt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

X
-1329.8
-1308.8
-1289.8
-1268.8
-1250.8
-1230.7
-1208.0
-1186.7
-1211.0
-1227.7
-1250.8
-1268.8
-1287.8
-1306.8
-1326.8

Y
960.6
962.6
964.6
965.6
966.6
966.6
966.8
967.6
967.8
964.6
966.6
965.6
965.6
964.6
962.6

Z
0.0
191.1
384.2
575.3
766.5
958.6
1150.9
1342.8
1149.9
957.6
765.5
573.3
381.2
189.1
0.0

I
-1112.7
-1110.7
-1108.7
-1105.7
-1104.7
-1103.7
-1101.9
-1100.7
-1102.9
-1103.7
-1106.7
-1107.7
-1110.7
-1112.7
-11-2

m
705.4
710.4
714.4
718.4
722.4
726.4
731.6
735.4
730.6
725.4
721.4
727.4
713.4
709.4
2,1 4,

n
536.3
536.3
537.3
536.3
539.3
536.3
534.4
534.3
536.4
536.3
536.3
536.3
538.3
540.3
541.3

Pitching Moment (m) Calibration

(2 inch moment arm)
WtInc.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

DataPt
X
16
-1324.8
17
-1310.8
18
-1298.8
19
-1286.8
20
-1271.8
21
-1260.8
22
-1248.7
23
-1233.7
24
-1247.7
25
-1256.8
26
-1273.8
27
-1287.0
28
-1298.0
29
-1309.8
30
1-1322.8

Y
962.6
963.6
964.6
964.6
965.6
965.6
966.6
966.6
965.6
966.6
965.6
965.8
964.8
964.6
963.6

Z
-2.0
182.1
369.2
555.3
742.4
928.6
1114.7
1301.8
1114.7
928.6
742.4
556.4
370.3
183.1
0.0

I
-1113.7
-1110.7
-1108.7
-1105.7
-1102.7
-1100.7
-1099.7
-1097.7
-1098.7
-1100.7
-1102.7
-1103.9
-1106.9
-1108.7
-1110.7

m
688.4
567.3
446.3
326.2
206.1
85.1
-36.0
-157.1
-35.0
86.1
208.1
329.3
450.4
571.3
692.4

All readings are in milli-volts (my)

Wt Inc. is in ibf
Figure

XI-4

Raw
X 1-17

Balance

Data

n
543.3
544.3
545.3
545.3
545.3
546.3
545.3
545.3
547.3
545.3
545.3
545.4
545.4
547.3
547.3

This page was intentionally left blank

XI-18

NOTES

XI-19

NOTES

XI-20

NOTES

XI-21

NOTES

XI-22

LIST OF REFERENCES

R List of References

1)

Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow, NACA 1135, 1953.

2)

Ametec Engineering, Inc., 11820 Nor'hup Way Suite 200, Bellevue, Wa 98005,
(206)827-3304.

3)

Nicolai, L., Design of Aircraft Vehicles, United States Air Force Academy,
Colorado Springs, Co, July 1972.

4)

Lesko, James S., Reduction of Forces and Moments Taken on Internal Balances and
the Effect of Axes Orientation, Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson
AFB, Ohio, Technical Note 9, April 1952.

5)

Stewert, V.R.,Low Speed Wind Tunnel Test of Ground Proximity and Deck Edge
Effects on a Lift Cruise Fan V/STOL Configuration, NASA-CR-152247, May 1979.

6)

Henderson, C., Clark, J., Walters, M., V/STOL Aerodynamics, Stability &
Control Manual, Naval Air Development Center, Warminster, Pa., NADC-80017-60,
January 1983.

7)

Hoerner, Sighard, F., Fluid Dynamic Drag, Published by Author, 1965.

8)

Rae, William, H., and Pope, Alan, Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing; Wiley
Interscience Publication, New York, New York, 1984.

9)

Lan, Edward, C. and Roskam, J., Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance; Roskam
A iaition and Engineering Corporation, Ottawa Kansas, 1981.

10) Braslow, A.L., Knox, E.C., Simplified Method Determination of Critical lleight of
Distributed Roughness Particles for Boundary Layer Transition at Mach Number 0
to 5, NACA-TN-4363, Sept 1958.
11)

Taylor, Robert, Boundary Layer Transition Strips in Atmospheric Tunnels, Memo,

March 7, 1967, NASA-Langley Research Center.

12)

Hoak, P.E. et al., USAF Stability and Control Datcom, Air Force Flight Dynamics
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1978.

13) Jobe, Charles E., Prediction of Aerodynamic Drag, AFWAL-TM-84-203, Flight

Dynamics Laboratory, Wright -Patterson AFB, Ohio, July 1984.

R-1

List of References continued

14) Smith, C.W., Aerospace Handbook, General Dynamics, Convar Aerospace Division,
Fort Worth, Tx, Rev B, March 1976.
15)

Alexander, Michael G., Personal class notes, AEE 502 Aircraft Performance, 1988.

16) Roskam, Jan, Airplane Flight Dynamics & Automatic Flight Controls, Roskam
Aviation & Engineering Corporation, Ottawa, Kansas, 1982.
17)

Perkins & Hage, Airplane Performance Stability and Control, John Wiley & Sons
Inc., Jan 1967.

18) Simms, Kenneth L., An Aerodynamic Investigation of a Forward Swept Wing, Thesis,
AFIT/GAE/AA/77D-14, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB,
Ohio.
19) Erickson, G.E., Rogers, L.W., Schreiner, J.A., Lee, D.G., "Further Studies of
Subsonic and Transonic Vortex Flow Aerodynamics of a Close-Coupled Forebody
Slender Wing Fighter", AIAA paper AIAA-88-4369, Aug 1988.
20) Alexander, Michael G., Cavity/Separation Characteristics of an Axisymmetric Air
-to-Air Missile from Mach 2.0 to Mach 5.0, Wright Research and Development
Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, WRDC-TR-89-3041, April 1989.
21)

Gieck, K., Engineering Formulas 5th Edition, McGraw- Hill Inc., 1986.

22)

Bartel,

H.W.,

McAvoy,

J.M.,

Cavity Oscillation in Cruise Missile Carrier

Aircraft, AFWAL-TR-81-3036, June 1981.

23) Whitford, Ray, Design for Air Combat, Janes Publishing Company Inc., New York,
New York, 1987.
24) Abbot and Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections, Dover Publications, Inc., NY, NY,
1958.
25) Braslow, A.L., Hicks, R.M., and Harris, R.V., Use of Grit Type Boundary-Layer
-Transition Trips on Wind Tunnel Models, NASA-TN-D3579, Sept 1966.
26) Crowder,

J.P.,

Fluorescent Mini-Tufts for Non-Intrusive Flow Visualization,

Douglas Aircraft Company, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, MDC J7374, 1980.

R-2

List of References concluded

27) Shapiro, Ascher H., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
volume 1, The Ronald Press Company, 1953.
28) Tighe, Thomas, Personal notes, 1989.
29) Anderson, J.D., Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978
30) Strength Analysis 4 Percent Scale Model Aero/RCS Wind Tunnel Model", McDonnell
Aircraft Company, Report # SA-151, 4 Aug 1981.
31)

Peery, David J., Aircraft Structures, McGraw Hill Book Co, 1950.

32) MIL-Handbook 5
33)

Cerrnica, John N.,Strengths of Materials, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. 1977

34) Nash, William A., Strength of Materials Schaums's

Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972

Outline

Series

in

35) Unknown; "Definition & Measurement of Net Lift and Drag", 707/CFM56 Aerodynamic
Staff, June 1978
36) Holman, J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1966, 1971.
37) Volluz, R.J., Handbook of Supersonic Aerodyanmics, Section 20, Wind Tunnel
Instrumentation and Operation, John Hopkins
University Applied Physics
Laboratory, Silver Springs, Maryland, NAVORD Report 1488 (Vol. 6), DTIC
AD261682, January 1962.
38) Thelander, J.A.; Aircraft Motion Analysis, FDL-TDR-64-70, March 1965, DTIC
AD617354, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.

R-3

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX

20.0

15.0

10.0

7.00
DYNAMIC
PRESSURE (q)
(psi)

4.0

_:

AI

5.0

3.0

/ /

2.0

/
MCNU/

i.u

-i

Dcse

(a

dA

.-

-~

--

r1-

i!

se

Reynolds

number

X,

per

unit lengthx

(RA

ft

14.7 pot

u4

4-

EIN

-TIT

INo

"

~
..
. ..
-t#

Fiur

A-

Renod

ff
Nube
I
t
1
I il..

Determ
1LInaVtio
tA-21

I
1

rf.

Altitude
ft

Temperature
F
R

Pressure
psf
psi

Density
lbm/ft^3
ro/ro0

Speed of
Sound
ft/sec
mi/hr

Absolute
Viscosity
Ibm/ft-s

Kinematic
Viscosity
ftf2/sec

0
2000
4000
6000

58.7
51.5
44.4
37.3

518.4
511.2
504.1
497.0

2116.0
1968.0
1828.0
1696.0

14.700
13.672
12.699
11.782

0.002378
0.002242
0.002112
0.001988

1.0000
0.9428
0.8881
0.8358

1107.64
1100.07
1092.36
1084.64

760.9
755.7
750.4
745.1

3.725x10^-7
3.685
3.644
3.602

1.566x1O^-4
1.644
1.725
1.812

8000
10000
12000
14000

30.2
23.0
15.9
8.8

489.9
482.7
475.6
468.5

1572.0 10.921
1455.0 10.108
1346.0 9.351
1243.0 8.635

0.001869
0.001756
0.001648
0.001545

0.7859
0.7384
0.6931
0.6499

1076.78
1068.92
1060.91
1053.05

739.7
734.3
728.8
723.4

3.561x10"-7
3.519
3.476
3.434

1.905x10-4
2.004
2.109
2.223

16000
18000
20000
22000

1.6
-5.5
-12.6
-19.8

461.3
454.2
447.1
439.9

1146.0
1056.0
972.1
893.3

7.961
7.336
6.753
6.206

0.001448
0.001355
0.001267
0.001183

0.6088
0.5698
0.5327
0.4974

1046.21
1036.75
1028.60
1020.59

718.7
712.2
706.6
701.1

3.391x10^-7
3.348
3.305
3.261

2.342x10"-4
2.471
2.608
2.756

24000
26000
28000
30000

-26.9
-34.0
-41.2
48.3

432.8
425.7
418.5
411.4

819.8
751.2
687.4
628.0

5.695
5.219
4.775
4.363

0.001103
0.001028
0.000957
0.000889

0.4640
0.4323
0.4023
0.3740

1012.15
1003.71
995.26
986.82

695.3
689.5
683.7
677.9

3,217x10"-7
3.173
3.128
3.083

2.916x10-4
3.086
3.268
3.468

32000
34000
36000
38000

-55.4
-62.5
-67.3
-67.3

404.3
397.2
392.4
392.4

572.9
521.7
474.4
431.1

3.980
3.624
3.296
2.995

0.000826
0.000765
0.000705
0.000640

0.3472
0.3218
0.2963
0.2692

978.23
969.50
963.67
963.67

672.0
666.0
662.0
662.0

3.038x100-7 3.678x10^-4
2.992
3.911
2.962
4204
2.962
4.625

40000
42000
44000
46000

-67.3
-67.3
-67.3
-67.3

392.4
392.4
392.4
392.4

391.9
356.2
323.7
294.2

2.723
2.475
2.249
2.044

0.000582
0.000529
0.000480
0.000437

0.2448
0.2225
0.2021
0.1838

963.67
963.67
963.67
963.67

662.0
662.0
662.0
662.0

2.962x10^-7
2.962
2.962
2.962

5.089x10"-4
5.599
6.161
6.778

48000
50000
52000
54000

-67.3
-67.3
-67.3
-67.3

392.4
392.4
392.4
392.4

267.4
243.1
220.9
200.8

1.858
1.689
1.535
1.395

0.000397
0.000361
0.000328
0.000298

0.1670
0.1518
0.1379
0.1254

963.67
963.67
963.67
963.67

6620
662.0
662.0
662.0

2.962x10-7
2.962
,2.952
2.962

7.459x10"-4
8.206
9.028
9.933

56000
58000
60000
62000

-67.3
-67.3
-67.3
-67.3

392.4
392.4
392.4
392.4

182.5
165.9
150.8
137.1

1.268
1.153
1.048
0.952

0.000271
0.000246
0.000224
0.000203

0.1140
0.1036
0.09415
0.08557

963.67
963.67
963.67
963.67

662.0
662.0
6620
662.0

2.962x10-7
2.962
2.962
2.962

10.93x10-4
12.02
13.23
14.56

64000
65000
70000
75000

-67.3
-67.3
-67.3
-67.3

392.4
392.4
392.4
392.4

124.6
118.7
93.53
73.66

0.866
0.825
0650
0.512

0.000185
0.000176
0.000139
0.000109

0.07777
0.07414
0.05839
004599

963.67
963.67
963,67
93.67

662.0
662.0
662.0
6620

2.962x100-7 16.02x10'-4
2.962
16,8
2.962
21.33
2.962
27.09

Figure A-3 Standard Atmosphere

A-3

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AND CHIARTSP

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A-9

e'jc'J

To Convert

Into

Multiply By

A
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres
Atmospheres

Ton/sq inch
cm of mercury
dynes/cm ^2
Ft of water (@ 4 degs C)
In. of Mercury @ 0 degs C
kgs/ sq cm
kgs/sq meter
Ibf/sq ft (psf)
Ibf/sq inch (psi)
tons/ sq ft

0007348
76
1.013xl106
33.9
29.92
1.0333
10332
2116.4
14.7
1.058

B
Bars
Bars
Bars
Bars
Bars

atmospheres
dynes/sq cm
kgs/sq meter
Ibf/sq ft (psf)
Ibf/sq in (psi)

0.9869
10^6
1.020x10"4
2089
14.5

C
Centigrade
Centimeters (cms)
Centimeters
Centmneters
Centimeters
Centimeters
Centimeters
Centimeters
Centimeters
Centimeters of Mercury
Centimeters of Mercury
Centimeters of Mercury
Centimeters of Merwry
Centimeters of Mercury
Centimeters isec
Centimeters /sec
Centimeters /sec
Centimeters /sec

fahrenheit
feet
inches
kilometers
meters
miles
millimeters
mils
yards
atmospheres
feet of water
kgs/sq meter
Ibf/sq ft (psf)
Ibf/sq inch (psi)
feet/min
feet/sec
kilometers/hr
knots

(C - 9/5) - 32
3.281x 10-2
0.3937
10'-6
0.01
6.214xl0^-6
10
393.7
1.094x10-2
0.01316
0.4461
136
27.85
0.1934
1.9685
0.03281
0.036
0 1943

Figure A-5 Continued

A-10

To Convert

Into

Multiply By

meter/min
miles/hr

0.6
0.02237

miles/min
feeVsec/sec

3.728x10^-4
0.03281

Centimeters/sec/sec

kms/seqcsec

0.036

Centimeters/sec/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters

meters/sec/sec
miles/hr/sec
cubic feet (ft^3)
cubic inches (in^3)
cubic meters (m'3)
cubic yards (yd^3)
gallons (gal; US Iiq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic centimeters
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallon (US liq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic centimeters
cubic fget
cubic meters
cubic yards
grdlons
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic certimeter
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic yards
gallons (US liq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)

0.01
0.02237
3.531x 10^-5
0.06102
10^-6
1.308x10'^-6
2.6242x10"-4
0.001
2.113xl0^-3
1.057xl 0^-3
2832
1.728
0.02832
0.03704
7.48052
28.32
59.84
29.92
16.39
5.787xl 0"-4
1.639x10'-5
2.143x10"-5
4.329xl0"-6
0.01639
0.03463
0.01732
10^6
35.31
61023
1.308
264.2
1000
2113
1057

Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec

Figure A-5 Continued

A-11

To Convert

Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec
Centimeters/sec/sec
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic centimeters
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic feet
Cubic fet
Cubic feet
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic inches
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters
Cubic meters

Into

Multiply By

meter/min
miles/hr
miles/min
feet/Vcc/sec
kms/sec/sec
meters/secisec
miles/hr/sec
cubic feet (ft^3)
cubic inches (in^3)
cubic meters (m^3)
cubic yards (yd^3)
gallons (gal; US liq.j
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic centimeters
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallon (US liq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic centimeters
cubic feet
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)
cubic centimeter
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic yards
gallons (US liq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quarts (US liq.)

0.6
0.02237
3.728x10"-4
0.03281
0.036
0.01
0.02237
3.531xl 0"- 5
0.06102
10^-6
1.308x1 0^-6
2.6242x104
0.001
2.! 13x10^-3
1.057x10"-3
2832
1.728
0.02832
0.03704
7.48052
28.32
59.84
29.92
16.39
5.787x10^-4
1.639x10^-5
2.143x 10^-5
4.329x 10-6
0.01639
0.03463
0.01732
10^6
35.31
61023
1.308
264.2
1000
2113
1057

Figure A-5 Continued

A-12

To Convert

Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard
Cubic yard

Into

Multiply By

cubic centimeters
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons (US liq.)
liters
pints (US liq.)
quart (US liq.)

7.646x1 05
27
46656
0.7646
202
764.6
1615.9
807.9

D
Days
Degree (angle)
Degree (angle)
Degree (angle)

Degree (angle)
Degree/sec
Degree/sec
Degree/sec
Dyne sq cm
Dyne sq cm
Dyne sq cm
Dynes
Dynes
Dynes
Dynes
Dynes
Dynes
Dynes

seconds
quadrants
radian
revolutions

86400
0.01111
0.01745
2.7778x1 0^-3

seconds

3600

radian/sec
revolutions/min
revolutions/sec
atmosphere
inches of Mercury at 0 degs C
inches of water at 4 degs C
grams
joules centimenter
joules meter (newton)
kilogram
poundals
pounds
bar

0.01745
0.1667
2.778x10"3
9.869x10^-7
2.953x10^-5
4.015x10^-4
1.00x10^-3
10^-7
10"-5
1.02x10^-6
7.233x10"-5
2.248xl 0-6
10^-6

E
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs

Btu
dyne-centimeters
foot-pounds
gram-calories
gram-centimeters
horsepower-hrs
joules

Figure A-5 Continued

A-13

9.84x10^-11
I
7.367x10-8
0.2389x10^-7
1.020x1 0-3
3.725xl0"-14
10^-7

To Convert

Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs
Ergs/sec
Ergs/sec
Ergs/sec
Ergs/sec
Ergs/sec
Ergs/sec

Into

Multiply By

kg-calories
kg-meter
kilowatt-hrs
watt-hrs
Btu/min
ft-lbf/min
ft-lbf/sec
horsepower
kg-calories/min
kilowatts

2.389x10^-11
1.02x10^-8
0.2778x1O^-13
0.2778x10'-10
5.688x10^-9
4.427x10"-6
7.3756x1 0^-8
1.341xl0^-10
1.433x10"-9
10^-10

F
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet
Feet of water
Feet of water
Feet of water
Feet of water
Feet of water
Feet of water
Feet/min
Feet/min
Feet/min
Feet/min
Feet/min
Feet/sec
Feet/sec
Feet/sec
Feet/sec
Feet/sec
Feet/sec
Feet/sec/sec
Feet/secqsec

centimeters
kilometers
meters
miles (nautical)
miles (statute)
millimeters
mils
atmosphere
inches of Mercury
kgs/sq centimeters
kgs/ sq meter
lbf/sq feet (psf)
Ibf/sq inch (psi)
centimeters/sec
feet/sec
kilometer/hr
meters/min
miles/hr
centimeters/sec
kilometers/hr
knots
meters/min
miles/hr
miles/min
cms/sec/sec
kms/hr/sec

Figure A-5 Continued

A-14

30.48
3.048x10^-4
0.3048
1.645x10"-4
1.894x10^-4
304.8
1.2x104
0.0295
0.8826
0.03048
304.8
62.43
0.4335
0.508
0.01667
0.01829
0.3048
0.01136
30.48
1.097
0.5921
18.29
0.6818
0.01136
30.48
1.097

To Convert

FeeVseq/sec
FeeVsec/sec
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds
Foot-pounds/min
Foot-pounds/min
Foot-pounds/min
Foot-pounds/min
Foot-pounds/sec
Foot-pounds/sec
Foot-pounds/sec
Ft ot-pounds/sec
Foot-pounds/sec

Into

Multiply By

meters/secrsec
miles/hr/sec
Btu
ergs
gram-calories
hp-hrs
joules
kg-calories
kg-meters
kilowatt-hrs
newton-meters
foot-pound sec
horsepower
kg-calories/min
kilowatts
Btu/hr
Btu/min
horsepower
kg-calories/min
kilowatts

0.3048
0.6818
1286x10^-3
1.356x10"7
0.3238
5.05x10^-7
1.356
3.24x10"-4
0.1383
3.766x10^-7
1.35582
0.01667
3.03x10"-5
324x10^-4
2.26x10"-5
4.6263
0.07717
1.818xl0^-3
0.01945
1.356x10"-3

G
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons (liq. Br Imp)
Gallons (US)
Gallons of water
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams

cubic centimeters
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
liters
gallons (US liq)
gallons (imp)
pounds of water
dynes
joules centimeter
joules meter (newtons)
kilogram
milligrams
ounces ounce (troy)
poundals

Figure A-5 Continued

A-15

3785
0.1337
231
3.785xl0"-3
4.951xl0-3
3.785
1.20095
0.83267
8.3453
980.7
9.807x10^-5
9.807x1 0^-3
0.001
1000
0.03215
0.07093

To Convert

Grams
Grams/cm

Into

Multiply By

pounds
pounds/inch

2.205x10"-3
5.6xl 0'-3

H
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower (metric)
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower (boiler)
Horsepower (boiler)

Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Mercury
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C
Inches of Water @ 4 degs C

Btu/min
foot-lbf/min
foot-lbf/sec
hp (550 ft Ilbflsec)
hp metric (542.5 ft Ibf/sec)
kg-calores/min
kilowatts
watts
Btu/hr
kilowatts

42.44
33000
550
0.9863
1.014
10.68
0.7457
745.7
33.479
9.803

centimeters
meters
miles
millimeters
mils
yards
atmospheres
feet of water
kgs/sq cm
kgs/sq meter
pounds/sq ft (psf)
pounds/sq in (psi)
atmospheres
inches of Mercury
kgs/sq centimeter
ounces/sq inches
Ibf/sq ft (psf)
Ibf/sq in (psi)

2.45
2.54x10^-2
1.578xl 0^-5
25.4
1000
2.778x10^-2
0.033422
1.133
0.03453
345.3
70.73
0.4912
2.458x10^-3
0.07355
2.54x10^-3
0.5781
5.204
0.03613

Figure A-5 Continued

A-16

To Convert

Into

Mulitiply By

J
Joules
Joules
Joules
Joules
Joules
Joules
Joules/cm

Btu
eogs
foot-pounds
kg-calories
kg-meters
watts-hrs
grams

9.840x10"-4
10^7
0.7376
2.389x10^-4

Joules/cm

dynes

10^7

Joules/cm
Joules/cm
Joules/cm

joules/meter (newtons)
poundals
pounds

100
723.3
22.48

0.102
2.778x10^-4
1.0210^4

K
Kilograms (kgs)
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilograms
Kilogram/cubic meter
Kilogram/cubic meter
Kilogram/cubic meter
Kilograms/meter
Kilogram/sq cm
Kilogram/sq cm
Kilogram/sq cm
Kilogram/sq cm
Kilogram/sq cm
Kilogran/sq cm
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilogram/sq meter
Kilometers (kms)

dynes
grams
joules/cm
joules/meter (newtons)
poundals
pounds
ton (long)
ton (short)
grams/cu cm
pounds/cu ft
pounds/cu inch
pounds/ft
dynes
atmosphere
feet of water
inches of Mercury
Ibf/sq feet (psf)
lbf/sq inch (psi)
atmospheres
bars
feet of water
inches of Mercury
lbf/sq feet (psf)
lbf/sq inch (psi)
centimeters

Figure A-5 Continued

A-17

980665
1000
0.09807
9.807
70.93
2.205
9.842x10^-4
1.102x10^-3
0.001
0.06243
3.613x1 0^5
0.672
980665
0.9678
32.81
28.96
2048
14.22
9.678xl0^-5
98.07xl0^-6
3.281xl0^-3
2.896x10'-3
0.2048
1.422x10'-3
10^-6

To Convert

Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers
Kilometers/hr
Kilometers/`hr
Kilometers/hr
Kilometers/hr
Kilometers/hr
Kilometers/hr
Kilometers/hr/sec
Kilometers/hr/sec
Kilometers/hr/sec
Kilometers/hr/sec
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Knots
Knots
Knots
Knots
Knots

Into

Multiply By

feet
inches
meers
miles
millimeters
yards
centimeters/sec
feet/min
feet/sec
knots
meters/min
miles/hr
cms/sec/sec
ft/sec/sec
meters/sec/sec
miles/hr/sec
Btu/min
horsepower
feet/hr
kilometers/hr
mautcal miles/hr
statute miles/hr
yards/hr
feet/sec

3281.0
3.937x1 04
1000.0
0.6214
10"6
1094.0
27.78
54.68
0.9113
0.5396
16.67
0.6214
27.78
0.9113
0.2778
0.6214
56.92
1.341
6080
1.08532
1.0
1.151
2027.0
1.689

L
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Liters
Lumen
Lumen

bushels (US dry)

cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons (US liq)
pints (US liq)
quarts (US liq)
spherical candle power
watt

Figure A-5 Continued

A-18

0.02838
1000
0.03531
61.02
0.001
1.308xl0^-3
0.2642
2.113
1.057
0.07958
0.001496

To Convert

Into

Muitiply By

M
Meters
Metrs
Meters

Meters
Meters
Meters
Meters
Meters
Meters/min
Meters/min
Meters/min
Meters/min
Meters/min
Meters/min
Meters/sec
Meters/sec
Meters/sec
Meters/sec
Meters/sec
Meters/sec
Meters/sec/sec
Meters/sec/sec
Meters/sec/sec
Meters/sec/sec
Microns
Miles (nautical)
Miles (nautical)
Miles (nautical)
Miles (nautical)
Miles (nautical)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles (statute)
Miles/hr
Miles/hr

centimeters
feet
inches

100
3.281
39.37

kilometers

0.001

miles (nautical)
miles (statute)
millimeters
yards
cms/sec
feet/min
feet/sec
kms/hr
knots
miles/hr
feet/min
feet/sec
kilometers/hr
kilometers/min
miles/hr
miles/min
cms/sec/sec
ff/sec/sec
kms/hr/sec
miles/hr/sec
meters
feet
kilometers
meters
miles (statute)
yards
centimeters
feet
inches
kilometers
meters
miles (nautical)
yards
cms/sec
feet/min

5.396x10"-4
6.214x10^-4
1000
1.094
1.667
3.281
0.05468
0.06
0.03238
0.03728
196.8
3.281
3.6
0.06
2.237
0.03728
100
3.281
3.6
2.237
1.Ox1 0^-6
6080.27
1.852
1853
1.1516
2027
1.609x1 0^5
5280
6.336x1 0^4
1.609
1609
0.8684
1760
44.7
88

Figure A-5 Continued

A-19

To Convert

MilaqIhr

Miles/hr
Mile4hr
Miles/hr
Miles/hr
Miles/hr
Miles/hr/sec
MilesWhr/sec
Miles/hr/sec
Miles/hr/sec
Miles/min
Miles/min
Miles/min
Miles/min
Miles/min
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
Millimeters
MilS
Mils
Mils
Mils
Mils
Minutes (angles)
Minutes (angles)
Minutes (angles)
Minutes (angles)

Into

Multiply By

feet/sec

1.467

kms/hr
kms/min
knots
meters/min
miles/min
cmstjmvsec
feet/sec/sec
kms/hr/sec
meters/sec/sec
cms/sec
feet/sec
kms/min
knot-/min
miles/hr
centimeters
feet
inches
kilometers
meters
miles
mils
yards
centimeters
feet
inches
kilometers
yards
degrees
quadrants
radians
seconds

1.609
0.02682
0.8684
26.82
0.1667
44.7
1.467
1.609
0.447
2682
88
1.609
0.8684
60
0.1
3.281x10^-3
0.03937
10^-6
0.001
6.214x10^-7
39.37
1.094x10^-3
2.54x10-3
8.333x10^-5
0.001
2.54x10^-8
2.778x10^-5
0.01667
1.852x1 0^-4
2.909x10^-4
60

N
Newtons
Newtons

1.0x10^5
0.2248

Dynes
pounds (Ibf)

Figure A-5 Continued

A-20

To Convert

MultiF* By

Into
0

Ounce
Ounce
Ounce
Ounce
Ounce
Ounce
Ounce
Ounce (fluid)
Ounce (fluid)
Ounces (troy)
Ounces (troy)
Ounces (toy)
Ounces (boy)
Ounces (troy)
Ounce/sq inch
Ounce/,c inch

drams
grains
grams
pounds
ounces (troy)
tons (long)
tons (metric)
cubic inches
liters
grains
grams
ounce (avdp.)
pennyweights (troy)
pounds (troy)
Dynes/sq cm
Ibf/sq in (psi)

16
437.5
28.349527
0.0625
0.9115
2.79x10-5
2.835xl0"-5
1.805
0.02957
480
31.103481
1.09714
20
0.08333
4309
0.0625

P
Parsec
Parsec
Pennyweight (troy)
Pennyweight (troy)
Pints (dry)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pints (liq)
Pounds (avoirdupois)
Poundals
Poundals
Poundals
Poundals
Poundals
Poundals

miles
kilometers
grams
pounds (troy)
cubic inches
cubic centimeters
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons
liters
quarts (liq.)
ounces (boy)
dynes
grams
joules/crn
joules/meter (newtons)
kilograms
pounds

Figure A-5 Continued

A-21

190x!0^12
3.084x1 0^ 13
1.55517
4.1667x10^-3
33.6
473.2
0.01671
28,87
4.73210"-4
6.189x10"-4
0.125
0.4732
0.5
14.5833
13826
14.1
1.383xl0^-3
0.1383
0.0141
0.03108

To Convert

Pc,'nds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds (lbf)
Pounds
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Poends (troy)
Pounds (troy)
Pounds of water
Pounds of water
Pounds of water
Pounds of water/min
Pounds-feet
Pounds-feet
Pounds-feet
Pounds/cubic feet
Pounds/cubic feet
Pounds/cubic feet
Pounds/cubic inch
Pounds/cubic inch
Pounds/cubic inch
Pounds/sq foot (psf)
Pounds/sq foot (psf)
Pounds/sq foot (psf)
Pounds/sq foot (psf)

Into

Multiply By

drams
dynes
grains
grams
joules/cm
joules/meter (newtons)
kilograms
ounces
ounces (troy)
poundals
pounds (troy)
slugs
tons (short)
grains
grams
ounces (avdp.)
ounces (troy)
pennyweights (troy)
pounds (avdp)
tons (long)
tons (metric)
tons (short)
cubic feet
cubic inches
gallons
cubic feet/sec
cm-dynes
cm-grams
meter-kgs
grams/cubic cm
kgs/cubic meter
poundsjcubic inch
grams/cubic centimeter
kgs/cubic meter
pounds/cubic feet
atmospheres
bars
dyne/sq cm
feet of water (4 degs C)

256
44.4823xl 0^4
7000
453.5924
0.04448
4.448
0.4536
16
14.5833
32.17
1.21528
3.1081xl0-2
0.0005
5760
373.24177
13.1657
12
240
0.822857
3.6735 x 10^-4
3.7324x10^-4
4.1143xl0^-4
0.01602
27.68
0.1198
2.670x10"-4
1.356xi 07
13825
0.1383
0.01602
16.01847
5.787x10^-4
27.68
2.768x10^4
1728
4.725x10' 4
4.788x10"4
4.788xi 0'2
0.01602

Figure A-5 Continued

A-22

To Convert

Pounds/sq foot (psi)

Pounds/sq foot (psf)
Pounds/sq foot (psf)
Poundsisq foot (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)
Pounds/sq inch (psi)

Into

Multiply By

inches o Mercury @ 0 degs C

kgs/sq meter
lbf/sq inch (psi)
newton sq. meter
atmospheres
dynes/sq cm
feet ot water @ 4 degs C,
inches of water @ 4 degs C
inches d Mercury @ 0 degs C
newton sq meter
kgs/sq meter
pounds/sq inch (psi)

0.01414
4.882
6.944xl O"-3
47.88
0.06804
6.8948x10"4
2.307
27.681
2.036
6.8948x10^3
703.1
144

Q
Quadrants (angle)
Quadrants (angle)
Quadrants (Ingle)
Quadrants (angle)
Quarts (dry)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)
Quarts (liq.)

degree
minutes
radians
seconds
cubic inches
cubic centimeters
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons
liters

90
5400
1.571
3.24x10^5
67.2
946.4
0.03342
57.75
9.464x10^-4
1.238x10"-3
0.25
0.9463

R
Radians
Radians
Radians
Radians
Radians/sec
Radians/sec
Radians/sec
Radians/sec/sec
Radians/sec/sec

degrees
minutes
quadrants
seconds
degrees/sec
revolutions/min
revolutions/sec
revs/min/min
revs/min/sec

Figure A-5 Continued

A-23

57.3
3438
0.6366
2.063xA 05
57.3
9.549
0.1592
573
9.549

To Convert

Radians/sec4sec
Revolutions
Revolutions
Revolutions
Revolutions/min
Revolutions/min
Revolutions/min
Revolutions/min/min
Revolutions/min/min
Revolutions/min/min

Into

Multiply By

revs/sec/sec
degrees
quadrants
radians
degree/sec
radians/sec
revs/sec
radians/sec/sec
revs/min/sec
revs/sacjsec

0.1592
360
4
6.283
6
0.1047
0.01667
1.745xl 0^-3
0.01667
2.778xl10-4

S
Seconds (angle)
Seconds (angle)
Seconds (angle)
Seconds (angle)
Slug
Slug
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square centimeters
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square feet
Square inches
Square inches
Square inches
Square inches
Square inches

degress
minutes
quadrants
radians
ibm
kgs
circular mils
square feet
square inches
square meters
square miles
square millimeters
square yards
acres
circular mils
square centimeters
square inches
square meters
square miles
square millimeters
square yards
circular mils
square centimeters
square feet
square millimeters
square mils

Figure A-5 Continued

A-24

2.778xl0^-4
001667
3.087x10"-6
4.848x10^-6
32.2
14.594
1.973x1 0^5
1.076xl 0^-2
0.155
0.0001
3.861 x1 0^-11
100
1.196xl0'-4
2296x 10-5
1.833x10"8
929
144
0.0929
3.587xl0"-8
9.29x104
0,1111
1.273x10"6
6.452
6.944x10"-3
645.2
10^6

To Convert

Square inches
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square kilometers
Square meters
Square meters
Square meters
Square meters
Square meters
Square meters
Square meters
Square miles
Square miles
Square miles
Square miles
Square miles
Square milimeters
Square milimeters
Square milimeters
Square milimeters
Square yards
Square yards
Square yards
Square yards
Square yards
Square yards
Square yards

Into

Multip*y By

square yards
acres
square centimeters
squarefeet
square inches
square meters
square miles
square yards
acres
square centimeters
square feet
square inches
square miles
square millimeters
square yards
acres
square feet
square kilometers
square meters
square yards
circular mils
square centimeters
square feet
square inches
acres
square centimeters
square feet
square inches
square meters
square miles
square millimeters

7.716x1 0-4
247.1
10O10
10.76x10^6
1.55x10"9
10^4
0.3861
1.196xl 06
2.471x1O^-4
10^4
10.76
1550
3.861xl 0"-7
10^6
1.196
640
27.88x10"6
2.59
2.59x10^6
3.098xi0"6
1973
0.01
1.076x1 0"-5
1.55x10^-3
2.066x10"-4
8361
9
1296
0.8361
3.288xl0"-7
8.361 x 0^5

T
Tons (long)
Tons (long
Tons (long)
Tons (metric)
Tons (metric)

kilograms

1016
2240
1.12
1000
2205

lbf
tons (short)
kilogram
lbf

Figure A-5 Continued

A-25

To Convert

Tons (short)
Tons (short)
Tons (short)
Tons (short)
Tons (short)
Tons (short)
Tons (short)

Into

Multiply By

kilogram
ounce
ounce (troy)
lbf
pounds (troy)
tons(long)
tons (metric)

907.1848
32000
29166.66
2000
2430.56
0.89287
0.9078

W
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Watts

Btuthr
Btu/min
ergs/sec
foot-lbf/min
foot-lbf/sec
horsepower
horsepower (metic)
kg-calodes/min
kilowatts

3.4129
0.05688
107
44.27
0.7378
1.341x10"-3
1.36x10'^-3
0.01433
0.001

Y
Yards
Yards
Yards
Yards
Yards
Yards

centimeters
kilometers
meters
miles (nautical)
miles (statute)
millimeters

Figure A-5 Concluded

A-26

91.44
9.144x10"-4
0.9144
4.934x10^-4
5.682x10"-4
914.4

NOTES

A-27

NOTES

A-28

APPENDIX B

13

APPENDIX B
Tid Bits
This section offers tid bits of information that can be useful.
below is not in any particular order.

The information listed

1)

One count of drag is 0.0001.

2)

A A drag count of 30 counts is a significant increase.

3)

Wing sweep decreases CLa and CLmax

4)

Critical Mach is increased by wing sweep.

5)

In a powered test (V/STOL), vary q, dynamic pressure, to obtain the appropriate

thrust coefficient.

6)

(xZL does not vary with aspect ratio.

7)

Principal contributor to C,

(dihedral effect) is wing geometric dihedral, 'Z'

position of wings and sweep angle.

8)

Supercritical airfoils (wings) delay the drag rise due to shock formation.

9)

When the Mach number is > 0.3, be sure to correct the dynamic
(density) for compressibility effects.

B-1

pressure

Wind Tunnel First Aid Kit

This section is a collection of suggested items that would be helpful to the testing
engineer if they accompanied him/her to the testing site. It keeps the testing engineer
from loosing an 'atta boy'.
1)
2)

Extra money for testing

Aspirin

3)
4)
6)
7)

Coffee mug
Triangle, ruler, symbol template, and other graphing equipment
Pencils with extra lead and erasers
Binders and dividers to put plots in
Labels & gummed tabs for binders and dividers
Paper clips

8)
9)

10) Calculator
11) Notebook for personal notes
12)

Notebook for wind tunnel log. It is most important that the testing engineer
write down everything that happens during the test. By the time the reduced data
arrives back 'home', you will have forgotten what happened during the test.

13) Test Plan

14) Run Schedule
15) Stress report
16) Previous data for comparison
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)

Model drawings
Reference material
Raucous reading material for the wee hours in the morning
Telephone numbers from back home and at the test site
Don't forget extra money for a post test party.

B-2

Circular Are Sector

Square

S=

d2-

2b

h =

z fp,

2.b....

22

!LI

-T

Rootanillo
Quarter Circular

Iab3

Acb

2.in

d,-

22

-9li

Pazallelolraan

dCi

[a.-A

LICuba n
2a +

=-'D

.i

-l:h

-+

-i =

D---

1----

r.

b-=

A =GA
xquilatrial
Trian

T
ml

PeIrallelpiped

n-.q,

2(.1

_A
2

Ln

Parallelpiped

A
2

nr

Circle

!4 d2

0.785d

-- ';

:;:

CI. = T

" "
1 1 ,1 1

V =hA

4icu
27-7-r
4

-= Vx 4 = 0

1.(

Cylinder
Semi-Cirole

A
A

E1 2

I.=

~ ~

I2-a--PIrbollo
b

4,-3,-r

-- ---

ly

TM

Sx

AS urfe

d:2nrjr

1
+ h)

0 .10913r4

Co

iP2sr:

obol1b.l~

A
4

Parabelio
A
Aa

ab

sphere

Sb
Figure

B-i

Aeurf

Geometric
B-3

Equations

4.r2

I v

rh=
:

1'

NOTES

B-4

NOTES

B-5

NOTES

B-6

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C
Power On Symbols
Moment Arms
I = Horizontal Ram Drag Arm
12 = Vertical Thrust Arm
13 = Vertical Ram Drag Arm
14 = Horizontal Thrust Arm
15 = Lateral Thrust Arm
Thrust Induced Aerodynamic Forces (Pwr ON
AL

Lift

AD
AM

Drag
Pitching moment

ARM

Pwr OFF)

Rolling moment

Total Coefficients
CL

Lift coefficient, L/qS

CD

Drag coefficient, D/qS

CM

Pitching moment, M/qSc

CRM

Rolling moment, RM/qS

Incremental Thrust Coefficients

CT

Thrust coefficient, T/qS

ACLT Lift coefficient due to Thrust

ACD

Drag coefficient due to thrust

ACMT

Pitching moment coefficient due to Thrust

C-1

Symbols continued
ACRMT RolliAgiionoent coefficient due to Thrust

AC yMT Yawing moment coefficient due to Thrust

ACM

Pitching moment due to Ram drag

M.

CD

Ram drag coefficient,

Aerodynamic Coefficients (direct thrust effect removed)

CAero or CLLA
CL

Lift coefficient

CAero or CA
CD
CD

Drag coefficient

CM
CAero or CA
CM

Pitching moment coefficient

C RCRAero or CM
C
R

olling moment coefficient

Miscellaneous
x

= Fan Number

Total Thrust Vector (measured from longitudinal axis)

0 x = Fan Thrust Vector

c

= M.A.C.

- Wing Span

h/D Non-dimensional he ight with respect

to the nozzle diameter

C-2

Power On Aerodynamic Equations (ref. 5)

Incremental Aerodynamic Coefficient (x

fan number)

OT = sin' IETX sinOx / (ITx

T cosOx) 2 + (ETx sinOx) 2
ACLT = CT sin(OT + (x)
ACDT =CT cos(OT + (a)
ACMT

Tx(14x sin0Tx + 12T

x cOSoTx

qSc

ACMT = 1.ACMT (Fan 1,2,3,...x)

ACM D=

DR(

cosa + 11

sina) / qSc

x
ACM D

XACM

(Fan 1,2,3,....x)

ACRM

Txl5 [sinOx cosa + cosO sina] / qSc

ACYM

Txl 5 x[cosOxcosz - sinOxsina] / qSc

Aerodynamic Coeffi,;ients (total - thrust effects)

(figure 111-5)
=CLL AL
CLAero
L
CAero = CD
CD

ACD TCD
_ CR

CM
CAero = CM

ACD T

CRM
CyYM

CRM
CYM

ACMD

EACRMx

YACYMx

C-3

DR = MiV
_DR

DR

qS

Induced Force Coefficients

AL

CLA

AD
T

-CL
pwr on

pwr off
CT

AD~ CA
AM
T

" CD
pwr on

pwr off
CT

CRMA
AM

pwr on
CT

CRM
pwr off

C-4

LIFT C~rFnCIENT
DUE TO THRUST

CL

At
CLA
INDUCED LIFT COEFFICIENT

O)

L Puwcr oft
(Acro Lift)

24

it6

(Total Drug
T con 8)

(+)

minus

RAM
DRAG COEFFICIENT

IND

CDA

CD

Power Off

(Aero Drug)

INCREMENTAL
COEFFICIENT
DUE TO THRUST

~~DRAG

68

h1

ACA

CM

(Total Pitch minus

Thrust X Arm)

PITCHING MOMENT
COEFMCIENT DUE

cmA
INCREMENTAL

Power On
(Aero Fitch)

PITC11ING

ACM

CMo

Power On

4
h/)

68
MtDX~ED P'ITCHING MOMENT
COEMVCIE NT

CM
Power Off
(Total Pitch)

Figure

c-i

Powderedt
C-3

Effects

This page was intentionally left blank

c-6

NOTES

C-7

NOTES

C-8

NOTES

C-9

NOTES

C-10

NOTES

C-II

NOTES

C-12

NOTES

C-13

NOTES

C-14

NOTES

C-15

NOTES

C-16

NOTES

C. 17

NOTES

C.- I,

NOTES

C-19

NOTES

C-20

NOTES

C-21

NOTES

C-22

NOTES

C-23

NOTES

C-24

NOTES

C-25

NOTES

C-26

NOTES

C-27

NOTES

C-28

NOTES

C-29

NOTES

/,.,

SUPPLEMENTARY

INFORMATION

DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE

WRIGHT LABORATORY (AFMC)
WRIGHT-PATrERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO

7 January 1994

FROM:

WL/DOA
Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-6523

SUBJ:

Notice of Changes in Technical Report(s)#WL-TR-91-3073/ADA240263

TO:

Defense Technical Information Center

Attn: DTIC-OCC
Cameron Station
Alexandria VA 22304-6145
Please change subject report

as follows:

Include the attached 2 corrected pages in

as an ERRATA SHEET.

WM F. WHALEN
Chief, STINFO and Technical Editing Branch
Operations and Support Directorate

subject Tech Report

Cy to:

WL/DOL (M. Kline)

Corrections to version 1.0 of Subsonic Wind Tunnel Testing Handbook

WL-TR-91-3073; DTIC AD A240263
1)

Page 11-2; Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC); Add a comma after 'span'.

2)

Page IV-7; Figure IV-4, Top figure 'Aerodynamic Angles'; -3 is on the wrong plane.

It should be on the +VI plane.

3)

Page IV-9; Balance to Body A."is , force equations (roll=O) [not matrix]; on CN

term

C-- Cbal sino3sina should be positive +Cba1

+C
sinosinox.
4)

Page IV-9; Balance to Body Axis , force equations (roll=0) [not matrix]; on CA term
.C-- Cbal sino3cosca should be positive +Cba1
+Cy sino3cosoc.

5)

Page IV-9; Balance to Body Axis , force equations (roll=O) [not matrix]; on CY

term ... +CAbal sino3 should be negative -CAbal sinp.

6)

Page IV-13; Bod,- Axis to Wind Axis, Force matrix; Change C Cb to Cb

7)

Page IV-14; Body Axis to Stability Axis, Force matrix; Change C

to C

8)

Page IV-15; Wind Axis to Stability Axis, Add a 'w' sub-subscript to CL in the vector
column of the force matrix.
9)

Page V-2; change the units on 32.1741 to (lbm-ft/lbf-sA2) from (ft/secA2).

10)

Page VI-6; Figure VI-3; Tli is measured on this figure from the centerline to
the inboard trailing edge flap chord.
11)

Page VI-10; Inboard Section, b /2=26.96in; Change to bi/2=26.96 in.

12) Page VII-7, Method of Determining a Drag Polar; Change

N
XCL(i) 2*CD(i).

CL(i)*CD(i) 2 to

i=l

izi

13)

Page VII-7, Last line; change b=-2kC to b=-2KCL

14) Page VII-8; Resulting augmented matrix; Change first line from '3
'5 1 0.3'; Change 0.11251 to 0.0 11251

1 3' to

15) Page XI-9; 4th line; Change 'in milli-volts [mv]' to 'in milli-volts [my])'
D-1

16) Page XI-12; Example Original Balance Calibration Matrix, no action is required. This
is a point of clarification. Part of this matrix came from Figure XI-3. The original
matrix was inadvertently entered and subsequently inverted in COLUMN order when in fact it
should have been entered in ROW order. All the preceding calculations use the column
order inverted matrix, but their ORDER of calculations and calculations is correct. If
you "pretend" they were entered in row order everything works out fine. This was not
corrected in this report.
17) Page A-3; Standard Atmosphere; The values used in this figure were obtained from a
dated U.S. Standard Atmosphere source ie., speed of sound @ S.L. = 1107.64 when it should
be 1116.1.
18)

Delete Page A-12.

19) Page A-10...; Conversion Factors;

To Convert

Into

Multiply By

Change to

Centigrade

fahrenheit

Centimeters
Cubic feet
Cubic feet

kilometers
cubic centimeters
Cubic inches

10A-6
2832
1.728

10A-5
28,320.0
1728.0

Cubic inches
Degree/sec
Ergs/sec

gallons
revolutions/sec
BTU/min

4.329x 10^-6
2.778x 10A3
5.688x 10A-9

4.329x I0A-3
2.778x 0^A-3
5,688x 10^A9

Hp (boiler)
Knots

BTU/hr
kilometers/hr

33.479
1.08532

Knots

mautical mi/hr

L.0

33,479.0
1.8532
nautical mi/hr

20) Page B-3; Figure B-I

base of the parallelogram.

(C*9/5)-32

(C*9/5)+32

Geometric Equations, Parallelogram; tile length of 'a' is the

D-2