Metal Forming Lab

EXPERIMENT NO.
1
AIM: Study of the effect of clearance and shear angle on the blanking and piercing
operations
THEORY: Blanking and piercing are both shearing operation. The difference is only in the
scrap. In blanking what you cut out is of interest. In punching what you cut from is of
interest. For example: You cut a hole in a sheet metal. If you are interested in the disc that is
cut out, then the process is called blanking. The sheet metal with a hole through it is the
scrap. If you are interested in the sheet metal that now has a hole through it, then the process
is
called
piercing.
The effect of clearance

Clearance is defined as the intentional space between the punch cutting edge & die cutting
edge. Theoretically, clearance is necessary to allow the fracture to meet when break occurs.
The amount of clearance depends upon the kind, thickness & hardness of work material.
Angular clearance is necessary to prevent backpressure caused by blank or slug build up
specially when the punches or die block are fragile. Recommended angular clearance varies
between 0.25 to 2o per side, depending upon material & shape of workpiece.Clearancec is
the space (per side )between the punch and the die tool and die producers enjoy some kind of
mystique related to their work as being both an art and science proper clearance between
cutting edges enable fractures to start ideally at cutting edge of the punch and also at the die.
The fracture will proceed towards each other until they meet and the fractured portion of the
sheared edge then has a clean appearance. For optimum finish of a cut edge, correct clearance
is necessary and is function of the kind, thickness, and temper of the material. The upper
corner of the cutting edge of the strip stock and the lower corner of the blank acquire a radius
where the punch and die edge respectively make contact with the work material. This edge
radius is produce by plastic deformation taking place and is more pronounce when cutting
1
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA
METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL
soft materials. Excessive clearance will also cause large radius at this corner as well as a bur
on opposite corner. When clearance is not sufficient, additional layers of the material must be
cut before complete separation is accomplished. With correct clearance, the angle of fractures
will permit clean break below the burnish zone because the upper and lower fracture will
extend toward one another. Excessive clearance will result in tapered cut edge because for
any cutting operation, the opposite side of the material that the punch enters after cutting, will
be the same size as the die opening. The width of the burnish zone is an indication of the
hardness of the material. Provided that the die clearance and material thickness are constant,
the softer the material the wider will be the burnish zone. As clearance increases, the material
tends to be pulled into the die instead of being sheared.
EFFECT OF SHEAR ENGLES ON PIERCING & BLANKING
Different shear angles for punches & dies

This has the effect of reducing the contact area while shearing at one time. Providing shear
also reduces the shock to the press and smoothens out the cutting operation. The shear angle
chosen should provide a change in punch from 1 to 1.5 sheet thickness. Various types of shear
angle are shown in the figure. Double shear angle is preferred force acting on the punch.
Double shear angle on punches should be concave to prevent the stretching of the material
before it is cut. Shear angle may be applied either to the punch face or to the die face,
depending on whether the operation is blanking or piercing because shear will distort the
work material. The shear angle for blanking operation will be on the die member, while, as
the piercing operation the shear angle will be given on the punch member
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: To determine the effect of percentage of reduction and the semi-cone angle of the die
on the drawing load.
THEORY:
Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling
the wire through a single, or series of, drawing die(s). Although similar in process, drawing is
different from extrusion, because in drawing the wire is pulled, rather than pushed, through
the die. Drawing is usually performed at room temperature, thus classified as a cold working
process, but it may be performed at elevated temperatures for large wires to reduce forces.
The concept of tube drawing is similar to wire drawing, but in this case tube is sized by
shrinking a large diameter tube into a smaller one, by drawing the tube through a die. Figure
schematically presents the set-ups of wire drawing and tube drawing.
Fig. Schematic setup of a) Wire Drawing, b)Tube Drawing
Consider the drawing of a wire through a conical shaped draw die, as shown below,
schematically:
Fig. Drawing Operation

Some of the important terms associated with wire drawing are to be understood first. They
are:
1) Area reduction r is defined as (Ao-Af)/Ao
2) The drawing ratio R is defined as Ao/Af = 1/(1-r)
3. The important parameters which affect the wire drawing force are the drawing ratio, die
angle, material flow stress, friction etc.
Fig. Force Analysis
Consider a conical element of the workpiece inside the die. The surface area of the element is
taken to be As. Let be the semi-cone angle of the die . Ao is the cross sectional area of the
work piece at entry of the die. Af is the exit cross-section area. We can write the surface area
of the element As as:
To understand the relationship of & Force F following excercise need to be

done:
S.NO. VALUE OF
1
10
20
30
40
50
OBTAINED
OF F
VALUE
Similarly, for determining the relation between area reduction & force F
following exercise need to done
VALUE
S.NO.
Ao
OF VALUE
Af
AREA
OF REDUTION %
OBTAINED
VALUE OF
F
(Ao- Af/Ao)*100
1
2
3
4
5
Result: Drawing Load=
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: Experimental determination of wire drawing force for wire drawing operation
THEORY:
In Drawing large quantities of wires, rods, tubes and other sections are produced by drawing process
which is basically a cold working process. In this process the material is pulled through a die in order
to reduce it to the desired shape and size. In a typical wire drawing operation, once end of the
wire is reduced and passed through the opening of the die, gripped and pulled to reduce its
diameter.
In Wire Drawing a circular cross section billet is reduced in diameter and increased in length
by pulling through a conical die of semi angle. The theory developed has certain assumptions:
A uniform state of stress is assumed to prevail at all points at a plane normal to the
axis.
The redundant work is negligible.
A cylindrical state of stress is assumed to exist with in the contact zone. The axial
stress and die pressure can be assumed to be principle stresses.
Before wire enters into the die it should be given a twist or bend to remove oxide layer from
it, the wire is then dipped into a lubricant. As the wire is entering into the bell section of die it
will be coated with a layer of lubricant. As lubricant hits the die, it losses all its momentum
which converts into pressure which enables the lubricant to enter into the deformation zone.
In the initial stages wire comes in contact with the bell, the shape of the bell causes the
hydrostatic pressure to increase and promotes the flow of lubricant into the die. Actual
deformation of material takes place in the approach section of die. By providing die land,
although the drawing forces will increases but it is required for die stability.
By increasing the semi die angle the contact length between material and die decreases. This
decreases the friction and hence drawing forces decreases. When the semi die angle increases
beyond a certain value the dead metal zone starts forming within the metal flow region. These
regions not only creates obstacle in the metal flow but also starts moving in the backward
direction. This increases the drawing force requirement. Dead metal zone produces bright
finish to the deformed material. Towards the end, some back relief is provided for the elastic
recovery.
Wire Drawing Process
Determination of Drawing Force
Mechanism of WireDrawing
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Aim: Study of the drop forging operation (flowability, forging load etc) by plasticine model.
Theory:
Drop Forging:
Drop forging is a metal shaping process, the metal to be formed is first heated then shaped by
forcing it into the contours of a die, this force can be in excess of 2000 tons. The drop forging
process can be performed with the material at various temperatures;
Fig. Drop Forging
Hot Forging during hot forging the metals are heated to above their recrystallization
temperature. The main benefit of this hot forging is that work hardening is prevented
due to the recrystallization of the metal as it begins to cool.
Cold Forging is generally performed with metal at room temperature below the the
recrystallization temperature. Cold forging typically work hardens the metal.
There are two types of drop forging, open die and closed die.
Open die drop forging requires the operator to position the work piece while it is impacted
by the ram. The die attached to the ram is usually flat or of a simple contour, most of the
shaping is achieved by the operator physically positioning the work piece before each stroke
of the ram. There are also special dies which can be used to cut the metal, form holes or
notches.
Open Die Forging

10
Fig. Open Die Forging. a) A solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies, b)
Uniform deformation of the billet without friction, c) deformation with friction
Closed die drop forging comprises of a die on the anvil which resembles a mould, the ram
which falls and strikes the top of the metal billet can also be equipped with a die.The heated
metal billet is placed on the lower die while the ram drives down forcing the metal to fill the
contours of the die blocks.
Fig. Close Die Forging
Introduction to Plasticine:
11
Plasticine is a strain hardening material with small strain rate dependency at room
temperature . The mechanical properties of plasticine are known to vary with age,
temperature, and moisture. It is an easy to deform material and thus it has been used widely
as a modeling material to simulate hot deformation of steel. It is generally used as a substitute
of clay or wax in modelling.
Fig. Plasticine
Determination of Forging Load

.
Fig. Drop forging operation
Fig:.Force study on plasticine element
12
After considering the horizontal equilibrium of plasticine & with the help of differentiation &
integration, the final result obtained are as follows:
Where Xs is the slipping distance
Where K= (yield stress)material /(3)^0.5

& total forging force per unit length is given by:
13
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Aim: To determine rolling load in sheet rolling process.
Theory:
Process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls.It is most widely used
forming process which provides high production and close control of final product. The metal
is subjected to high compressive stresses as a result of the friction between the rolls and the
metal surface.
Rolling is a forming operation where cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross sectional
area of a bar or plate with a corresponding increase in the length. Rolling process is widely
used because of high productivity. Figure depicts schematic set-up of rolling process.
Fig. Schematic set-up of flat rolling process. v0 and vf refer to the initial and
the final velocities of the sheet, respectively. t0 and tf are the initial and the
final thickness of the sheet material.
Rolling processes are broadly classified by the geometry of the final rolled shape of the
workpiece material such as flat rolling that is used to reduce thickness of a rectangular crosssection, and shape rolling that is used to produce shaped sections such as I-Beam from a
square or rectangular cross-section Rolling processes are performed both at high temperature
(above the recrystallization temperature), which is referred to as Hot Rolling, as well as at
room temperature that is referred to as Cold Rolling. Hot Rolling is usually performed when
large amount of deformation is required while Cold Rolling is performed for finished sheet
and plate stock. Various structural members, plates and sheets as well as pipes are produced
by rolling at very high productivity although due to high tooling cost, it is economical for
large batch size only.
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As shown in figure, grain structure of the metal changes when it passes through the rolls. As a
result of squeezing of grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and velocity of the
material at exit is higher than at the entry. After crossing the stress zone the grains start
refining. But this is the case only in the hot rolling. In the cold rolling they tend to retain the
shape acquired by them during rolling.
Fig. Change of Structure During Rolling Process

The rolls are in contact with the passing metal piece over a sufficient distance represented by
the arc AB in the diagram. The angle AOB is called the angle of contact or maximum angle of
bite.
15
Mechanism of Rolling
If rolling load= P
Rolling pressure=p
Width=b
Roller radius=R
h=ho- hf
Lenth of arc of contact=Lp
1) In case of no friction
16
2) In case of normal friction, average pressure
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Experiment No. 6
Aim:- Working drawings of the following:- Drilling Jigs (Box type, Leaf type, Indexing type,
Trunion type etc.), Milling Fixtures, Grinding fixtures, Assembly and welding fixtures (for
automobile components and frames etc.), Drawing Dies, Bending Dies, Compound Dies,
Combination Dies & Progressive Dies.
Theory:
Increasing the productivity and accuracy are the two basic aims of mass production. As we
know the solution to this is by reducing the set up cost of the machine and also reducing the
manual fatigue. In this case the device that caters our needs is the use of jigs. Let us take one
example. Let us consider that one gets an order of say 1000 products. There need to be three
holes drilled on this product. In such a case the designer tries to draw out every single hole
with the help of square, straighteners, scribers and center hole. In order to align the axis of the
hole with the axis of the drill we generally go for trial and error method.
Accuracy is the main problem in such cases. In doing so it increases the work load on the
operator. Hence using of jig to position and guide the tool to its right path is preferred rather
than using scribers, square, straighteners or center punch etc. Thus the productivity is
increased which is done by eliminating individual positioning, marking and frequent
checking. Interchangeability is the chief advantage here. All the parts fit in properly except
only the similar components are interchangeable. One does not need to repeatedly clamp and
unclamp the object for various purposes like positioning as the locating, clamping and
guiding of the tool is done by the jig itself. Bushing which is a tool guiding tool is used. So it
reduces the presence of skilled laborer.
Drill jig helps to drill, ream and tap at a much faster speed and with great accuracy as
compared to holes done conventionally by hand. The responsibility of maintain the accuracy
of the hole is now shifted from the operator and given to the jig. May it be a drill jig or a drill
fixture the necessity of a clamping device is inevitable. In case of a drill jig bushings are
used. These drill bushings guide the drill bit during the drilling operation. Generally
workpiece is held by a fixture and the fixture is arranged in such a way that the loading and
unloading of the job is quick.
As we all know a fixture is a production tool which is mainly used to locate, hold and support
the workpiece firmly to the table. Set blocks and feeler are sometimes used to provide
reference of the cutter to the wrokpiece. The main concern is the fastening of the fixture. The
fixture should be so chosen that the fastening of the job to the table is done quickly. It is
mainly used in milling operation. But nevertheless it can also be used extensively in drilling
machine also for holding the job during the drilling operation. The size of the fixture varies
from being simple to expensive and complicated. These fixtures also help in simplifying the
network operations which are performed on special equipment.
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Table 1 Comparison between jigs and fixtures

Basis
Jig
Fixture
Definition
It is a work holding device

that holds, supports and
locates the workpiece and
guides the tool for a very
specific operation.
It is also a device that holds

supports and locates the
workpiece. But it differs from
jig in way that it does not
guide the tool for the
operation.
Clamping
Jigs are not clamped to the

drill table unless and until
large diameter holes are to be
drilled.
Also
there
is
necessity to move the jig to
bring one bush directly under
the drill.
Whereas fixtures should be

securely clamped to the table
of the machine upon which
the work needs to be done.
Also there is no requirement
of alignment as bush is
absent in fixture.
Operation
Jigs are special tools in

operation particularly in
reaming, tapping and
boring.
Gauge blocks are not
necessary.
Fixtures are specific tools

used in milling, shapers and
slotting machine.
Gauge block
Weight
Gauge blocks are necessary

for effective handling.
Jigs are generally lighter in Fixtures are usually heavier

construction.
in construction.
2. Design considerations:
The points that are taken into consideration for designing a product are as following:
a) Jig must be so strong that the deflection in the jig should be as less as possible. The
deflection that is mentioned includes the forces of cutting, clamping of workpiece to the
machine table. The frame of the fixture should have sufficient mass to prevent vibrations
during the machining of the job.
b) Another important design consideration is the clamping which should be fast enough and
require less amount of effort.
c) Arrangement of clamps should be such that they are easily available. They should also
have the arrangement for easy removal as well.
d) Is swinging of clamp system is provided for removal of workpiece the clamp should swing
as far as possible for unclamping the device.
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e) There should also be provision for easy removal of chip. This will prevent the interference
of the chip with the operation on the workpiece i.e. cutting operation.
f) The clamps and support points which are to be adjusted in due course of time should be
preferred of same size. It will be better if the clamps and adjustable support points can be
operated from the front of the fixture.
g) If the surface area of clamping is more it damages the workpiece. This can be avoided by
making the surface area of clamping as small as possible.
h) As it is difficult to get spare parts during the operation so it is designed in such a way that
they can be easily replaced on failure.
i) The study of the design should be done thoroughly before fabricating. It should always be
ensured that the work is done in proper sequence. This will ensure zero loss of material. It
should always be preferred that there is maximum operation in a single setting of the
workpiece.
j) The movement of the workpiece is restricted i.e. there is zero degree of freedom of the
workpiece after clamping the workpiece. Sharp corners and redundant locators must be
avoided. One should try to maintain at least one datum surface.
k) The design must possess enough rigidity and robustness to prevent vibration else it may
lead to undesired movement of the workpiece and tools.
l) Minimum cost should be incurred during the fabrication of the project and the design
should be as simple as possible. In such a way it will help even a lay man to operate the
device.
m) Materials generally used are formulated in Table 2.
Sl. No
Part name
Material
1
2
3
4
Jig body
Stud
Drill bush
Pin
Cast iron
Mild steel
Mild stee
Mild steel
Nut
Mild steel
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TYPES OF JIG
Drill jigs may be divided into two general types, open and closed. Open jigs are for simple
operations where work is done on only one side of the part. Closed, or box, jigs are used for
parts that must be machined on more than one side. The names used to identify these jigs
refer to how the tool is built.
Depending upon method of operation and construction, drill jigs can be broadly classified as
follows:
Box Jig
These are otherwise called as channel jig. It is used where there is drilling at number of
distinct angles. Work-piece having holes on a number of sides can be drilled economically
with box jigs. The body is generally shaped like a box with one side open for loading and
unloading the work-piece. The open side is provided with a hinged latch with bushes on
various sides and suitable jig feet on the opposite sides. One should always try to avoid
placing bushings on the moving walls of the jig. This helps in better accuracy.
The working of box jig is as follows: Hole is drilled and then reamed when the workpiece is
held by jig. The workpiece is inserted in the jig. The cam rod is taken out of the jig and the
workpiece placed in the position inside the jig. The cam rod is then replaced and rotated to its
locking position. This holds the workpiece firmly so that drilling operation can be performed.
Fig. Box Jig
21
Leaf Jig
The diagram of leaf jig is shown in Fig.. It is also called as open type jig. Here the top plate
which is used to hold the job in its place is arranged in such a way that it swings about the
fulcrum point as shown in Fig.2. Thus it helps in clearing the path completely for loading and
unloading of the job to the device. The plate which covers the jig is called leaf, latch or lid. It
also has drill bushes fitted into it which guides the tool to its right position while machining
the job. Leaf jigs are particularly suitable for workpieces having location surfaces and holes
to be drilled on opposite sides.
Fig. Leaf Jig
Indexing Jig
When number of holes with the same size and pitch are to be drilled in a workpiece, then
conventional drilling takes more time to drill each hole individually and requires skilled
worker for complete production run. Also one cannot get required accuracy. This
automatically increases the cost. Such situation is avoided by using indexing jig. Indexing jig
not only saves the time and the cost but also increases accuracy. And unskilled worker may
operate the indexing jig. Linear indexing jig is shown in Figure
22
Fig. Workpiece for linear indexing Jig
Fig. Linear Indexing Jig

Working of Indexing Jig
a) Indexing pin is first inserted into hole A. It is used as a stopper for drilling the
first hole through the drill bush.
b) The pin is removed from hole A after drilling. Then workpiece is moved toward
right till the centerline of drilled hole coincides with the centerline of bush B.
c) The indexing pin is inserted into the drilled hole in the workpiece through bush
B.
d) In this way workpiece is indexed linearly to drill the next hole at 100 mm
distance (i.e. pitch) from the hole drilled previously.
e) By repeating step c, we can make number of holes at 100 mm pitch in the
workpiece.
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Rotary Indexing Jig

Rotary indexing helps in positioning a part accurately around the axis. It can be used
conveniently for drilling equi-spaced holes in cylindrical workpieces. Rotary Indexing is
shown in Figure
Fig. Rotary Indexing Jig
a) Workpiece is clamped and first hole is drilled through bush A.

b) Workpiece is unclamped and rotated clockwise to coincide the axis of drilled hole
with the axis of indexing pin.
c) The indexing pin is inserted in the drilled hole to index the workpiece for drilling the
next hole.
d) The workpiece is clamped again before drilling the next hole. In this way, the rotary
indexing can be used to drill number of equi-spaced holes with only two guide
bushes.
Trunnion jigs
Trunnion jigs are a form of rotary jig for very large or odd-shaped parts. The part is first put
into a box-type carrier and then loaded on the trunnion. This jig is well suited for large, heavy
parts that must be machined with several separate plate type jigs.
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Fig. Trunion Jig
Milling Fixture
This holds the part in correct relation to the milling cutter. Fixture is attached to milling
machine table. Milling fixture consists of the base, clamps, rest blocks or nest, locating points
and gauging surfaces. The base of milling fixture consists of a base plate. A base plate has a
flat and accurate under surface and forms main body on which various components are
mounted. This surface aligns with the surface of the mill table and forms the reference plane
with respect to the mill feed movement. It may be constructed of steel plate or cast iron,
depending upon the size and complexity of the part. The slots are provided in the base for
clamping the fixture to the mill table. The base plate also has keyways along with length of
the base for two keys. These keys are used to align the fixture on the milling machine table.
The keys are pressed into the keyway at both ends of fixture and held there by socket head
caps screw. This arrangement is shown in Figure. It is necessary to adjust the table by using
feed movements until the correct position is attained. This can be done by trial and error cuts
in the workpiece. Milling is always first operation.
25
Fig. Milling Fixture
One must know the dimension of milling machine for designing the fixture. The various
dimensions include the dimension of T-slots, centre-to-centre distance of T-slot, dimension of
milling machine table and length of table travel in all three feed movements. Tool designer
should provide enough clearance space around hold down slots for a nut, washer and wrench.
Clamps on mill fixture must be extremely rigid.
Cutting forces may change as the cutter enters or leaves the workpiece and throw an extra
load on clamps. Clamps should not be loosened by vibrations, which are caused by
interrupted cutting by the mill cutter at the beginning and at the end of the cut. Clamp should
be located opposite to bearing surfaces and locating points. These should be designed in a
way so that these can be easily operated by the operator.
Fig.
26
Fig. Fixture
Rest blocks or bearing surfaces are located with the nest and provide support for the work
piece. These surfaces change in design according to the shape and size of
work piece. These are usually in the form of pins, pads or plates that are accurately placed in
the base of fixture as shown in Figure. These surfaces are raised above the surface of base to
permit chips to fall away and allow easy cleaning.
Grinding Fixture
The standard magnetic tables are used to rest workpiece such that resting surface will be
parallel to the surface to be ground. However, for light workpiece with lesser resting area, the
resting area tends to tilt and fly off the magnetic table due to high speed of grinding wheel
and due to high feed, also. Hence, it is necessary to provide additional support by nesting the
workpiece. This can be done by placing the solid plates around the workpiece as shown in
Figure 4.8. The nest plates are held firmly by the magnetic force of table with more weight
and more resting area. The nest plates surround the workpiece from outside and arrest its
movement in the
horizontal plane. Thus, this arrangement will help in preventing it from flying off and tilting
due to high speed and feed in grinding operation.
27
Fig. Nesting
Welding Fixture:- The purpose of welding fixture is to hold the parts to be welded in the
proper relationship both before and after welding. Many time a fixture will maintain the
proper part relationship during welding, but the part will distort after removal from the
fixture. Good fixture design will of itself largely determine product reliability. Major fixture
design objectives are:1. To hold the part in the most convinent position for welding.
2. To provide proper heat control of the weld zone.
3. To provide suitable clamping to reduce distortion.
4. To provide channels and outlets for welding atmosphere.
5. To provide clearence for filler metal.
6. To provide for ease of operation and maximum accesibilityto the point of weld.
Other factors that have a very definite influence on fixture design are:
1. Cost of tool.
2. Size of the production runs and rates.
3. Adaptibility of available welding equipment on hand to do the welding process.
4. Complexity of the weld.
5. Quality required in the weldment.
6. Process to be employed.
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7. Conditions under which the welding will be performed.

8. Dimensional tolrences.
9. Material to be welded.
10. Smoothness required.
11. Cofficient of expansion and thermal conductivity of both workpiece and tool
materials.
Gas Welding Fixture:

The genral design of a gas welding fixture must take into consideration the heating and
cooling conditions. A minimum of heat loss from the welding area is required. If the heat
loss is to rapid, the weld may develop cracks from cooling too rapidly. Heat loss by
material, particularly aluminium and copper, must be carefully controlled. To do this,
large fixture masses should not be placed close to the weld line. If the fixture supports
are too far from the weld line, however, the part may distort. The contact area and clamps
should therefore be of the minimum size consistent with the load transmitted through the
contact point. In welding copper and aluminium, the minimum contact surface often
permits excessive heat loss, and prevents good fixture welds.
Fig. Gas Welding Fixture
One of the simplest fixture for gas welding is a gravity type fixture as shown in figure 61. This design eliminates excess fixture material from the weld area to minimize heat
loss, while providing sufficient support and locating points. The design also permits
making welds in horizontal positions which is generally advantageous.
Figure 6-2 shows another simple form of gas welding fixture which holds two flat sheets
for joining. C-clamps holds the workpieces to steel support bars. Alignement is done
29
visually or with straight edge. A heat barrier of asbestos is placed between the workpiece
and the steel bars. Holddown plates are used to keep the workpiece flat and to prevent
distortion. If the parts to be welded have curved surfaces, the supporting bars and
holddown plates are used to keep the workpieces flat and toprevent distortion. If the parts
to be welded have curved surfaces, the supporting bars and holddown plates may be
machined to match the part.
The selection of material for gas welding fixture is governed by these factors:
1. Part print tolrances.
2. Material heat resistance.
3. Heat transfer qualities.
4. The fixture rigidity required to assure workpiece alignment accuracy.
The fixture material should not be affected in the weld area. Some of the fixture material
commonly used are cast iron, carbon steel, and stainless steel.
Arc Welding Fixture
Arc welding concentrates more heat at the weld line than gas welding. The fixtures for this
process must provide support, alignment, and restraint on the parts, and also must permit heat
dissipation.
Some of the moe important design consideration for arc welding fixtures are:
1. The fixture must exert enough force to prevent the parts from moving out of
alignment during the welding process, and this force must be applied at proper point
by a clamp supported by a backing bar.
2. Backing bars should be parallel to the weld line.
3. Backing bars should promote heat dissipation from the weld line.
4. Backing bars should support the molten weld govern the weld contour, and protect
the root of the weld from the atmosphere.
Backing bars are usually made from solid metal. A simple backup could be a rectangular bar
with a small groove directly under the weld. This would allow complete penetration without
pickup of the backup material by the molten metal. In use the backup would be clamped
against the part to make the weld root as airtight as possible. Some common groove shapes ae
shown in figure.
30
Fig. Typical Grooves in Backing Bars
Fig. Workpiece with simple fixturing for arc welding operations
Fig. Backing bars with provisions for A) Directed Gas Flow, B)

Diffused Gas Flow, and C) Pressurized Gas
31
The size of the backbar is dependent on the metal thickness and the material to be welded. A
thin weldment requires larger backup to promote heat transfer from the weld. A material with
greater heat- conducting ability requires less backup than that required for a comparable
thickness of a poor conductor.figure shows backing bars designed for use with gas, which
may be used to blast the weld area(A), flood the weld area(B), or may be concentrated in
weld area(C). backup bars may be made of copper, stainless steel, beryllium, titanium or a
combination of several metals.
Bending Dies
Bending is defined as shapping metal around a straight axis whixh extends completely across
the material. The result is plane surface at an angle to the original plane of the workpiece
material. Metal flow is uniform along the bend axis, with the inner surface of the bend in
compression and the outer surface in tension.
Progressive Dies
Prgressive dies perform two or more operations at different stages every time the ram
descends. The stock strip is advanced through a series of stations that performs one or more
distinct die operations on the workpiece. The strip must move from the first through each
succeeding station to produce a complete workpiece. Thereafter a complete workpiece is
produced with each stroke of the ram.
The distance from one station to the next must be the same. The station to station distance is
also the same as the advance distance. The advance distance, called advance for short, is the
distance the stripe moves in order to relocate at each succesive station.the feed distance is the
distance the stroke stripe is moved at each stroke of the ram and may or may not be same as
the advance distance.the reasson the feed distance and advance distance may not be the same
is that the strip is often overfed a slight amount against a stop. Pilotsthen registor the strip by
pulling it away from the stop. This prevents the stop from interfering in any way with part
registry.
32
Fig. Simple Progressive Die: 1.Stock Strip, 2. Die Stop activation

Pin, 3. Primary Die Stop, 4. Blanking Punch, 5.Piercing Punch, 6.
Punhc Plates, 7. Stripper, 8. Die Block, 9. Die Set, 10. Automation
Button Die Stop, 11. Punch Pilot
The principle of the progressive die can be best explained with the aid of figure. The stock
strip is fed into the channel mechanically or by hand. The primary stop is pushed in by hand,
and the lead end is then fed into contact with it. The press is now tripped to produce the
pierced hole at station 1.
33
Fig. a) Schematic illustration of producing a washer in a progressive die., b) Forming of

the top piece of a common aerosol spray can in a progressive die. The part is attached to
the strip until the last operation is completed.
Compound Dies
A compound die performs two or more cutting operations during one stroke of the press at
one station only.in order to do this, both the upper and lower member of the die set carry
punching and blanking elements which are directly opposed to each other. In other words, the
pierching punches act in the opposite direction with respect to the blanking punch. A simple
compound die is shown in figure.
Figure shows the compound die in a closed position. The blanking punch also serves as the
piercing die. The sidewalls adjacent to the cutting edges of theblanking die opening are
straight because the blank does not pass through the die. The blank is return-ejected by the
knockout mechanism that is actuated at the return strokeof the press.a knockout bar is built
into the ram of most presses to strike the knockout collar. Angular clearance must be provided
in the piercing die to allow slugs to drop through the die. The knockout plate is often used to
support and guide fragile punches.
34
Fig. Compound Die
Compound dies have advantages especially where tolrances are close.

1. The cutting operation, aided by the action of the knockout plate, ensures flatness of
the blank.
2. Pierced holes in the workpiece (blank) can be held to close tolerances with the edges.
This is very important when blaking out such parts as clock gears having a central
hole.
3. Large parts can be blanked in a smaller press if compound dies rather than
progressive dies are used.
4. Sometimes scrap blanks are available, and these can be hand fed to a compound die
under conditions where the saving in material will offset the cost of the labor.
35
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Aim: To determine the true stress-true strain relationship
Theory:
True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the instantaneous
cross-sectional area True stress is related to engineering stress: Assuming material volume
remains constant.
The rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length.
Where K is called the strength coefficient & n is the strain hardening exponent
36
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
RELATIONSHIP
OF TRUE
STRESS
&
TRUE
37
STRAIN
True Stress vs True Strain
ENGINEERING STRESS- STRAIN V/S TRUE STRESS-STRAIN
38
Experiment No-8
Aim:- To mount die assembly on power press and produce the desired blanks.
Blanking:- blanking is a process in which the punch removes a portion of material from the
stock which is a strip of sheet metal of the necessary thickness and width.the removed portion
is called a blank and is usually further processed further processed to be of some use, e.g.,
blanking of a pad lock key.
In these processes, a finite volume from a sheet metal is removed by using a die and a punch.
The shape and size of the portion removed are determined by the geometry of the die and the
punch. If the final product happens to be the removed portion, then the operation is termed as
blanking.
Blanking Operation
Figure shows a simple blanking operation. As in deep drawing the job is held by job holder to
prevent any distortion and to provide a support. It should be noted that the punch and the die
corners are not provided with any radius as the objective in this process is to cause a rupture
of the material. A clearance c is provided between the punch and the die. Hence, the die
diameter
Dd = Dp + 2c,
Where Dp is the diameter of the punch.
39
Fig Details of Blanking Operation
Mode of Metal Deformation and Failure

Figure shows the nature of metal deformation as the punch penetrates the work piece. It is
clear that the work piece bends and is pulled down by the punch movement and the grains
elongate near the punch corner B. A similar type of deformation takes place near the die
corner D. when the grain elongation or local natural strain in the surface fibre AB (of the
work piece) reaches a limiting value, the fibre ruptures. Since the local strain is maximum at
the corner, a crack opens up just ahead of the punch corner. After this, with a single
movement of the punch, the inner fibres also get ruptured. Thus, the fractured line BY
propagates, following a path along which the successive inner fibers attain the fracture strain.
Fig. Deformation of Workpiece during Punch Travel
A similar crack also propagates from the die corner D (because of the symmetry of the
deformation geometry). It should be remembered that the velocity of propagation of the
fracture line is very high.
40
Now, if the amount of clearance c is optimum, then the two fracture lines meet and a clean
edge is obtained after the operation (fig a). If the clearance is too
small, then the fracture lines miss each other and a secondary deformation takes place,
resulting in an unclean edge (fig. b). fig c shows what happens when the amount of clearance
is too large.
Power Press
A press is a sheet metal working tool with a stationary bed and a powered ram can be driven
towards the bed or away from the bed to apply force or required pressure for various metal
forming operations. A line diagram of a typical press is explained in the Figure hydraulic
system. The relative positions of bed and ram in the press are decided by the structure of its
frame. The punch is generally gripped into the punch holder and punch holder is attached to
ram. A balster steel plate is attached to the bed of the press and die is mounted on the balster
steel plate.
Line Digram of a Typical Press
Presses are available in a variety of capacities, power systems and frame type. Meaning of
capacity of press is its capability to apply the required force to complete the operation.
41
Power and Drive System

Power systems on presses are either hydraulic presses use a large piston and cylinder to drive
the ram. This system is capable to provide longer ram strokes than mechanical dries. It gives
a consistent applied load. Its working is comparatively slower. These presses can be single
action or double action or so on. Number of actions depends on the number of slides
operating independently.
Mechanical presses are used several types of drive mechanisms. These drives includes
eccentric, crankshaft, knuckle joint, etc. These drives are used to convert rotational motion
given by a motor into linear motion of the ram. A fly wheel is generally used as reservoir of
energy for forging operations. These presses are recommended for blanking and punching
operations as the involved drives are capable to achieve very high forces at the end of their
strokes.
Press working is used in large number of industries like automobile industry, aircraft industry,
telecommunication electrical appliance, utensils making industry are major examples.
Power Press
S.No
Rate(Rs.)
1.
Description
Amount(Rs)
Quantity
POWER PRESS PLATE BODY STEEL GEARED

18,950/18,950.00
Capacity
: 5 Tons
Diameter of crank shaft
: 45mm
Adjustment of stroke
: 6*19mm
Adjustment of Ram
: 19 mm
Punch hole in Ram
: 25 mm
Hole in bed (Bolstar)
: 57mm
Length in bed (Bolstar)
: 305mm
Width of bed (Bolstar)
: 177 mm
Thickness of bed (Bolstar)
: 38 mm
Dist. Between bed to Ram
: 150 mm
Flywheel dia
: 355 mm
Strokes per minutes
: 80 mm
H.P. required for Geared
: 1HP
(1440 RPM)
Weight Approximate
: 250 kg
(SHAILESH MAKE)
ONE
TOTAL: 18,950.00
TERMS AND CONDITIONS:
1. F.O.R.
2. DELIVERY
date of order
3. TAXES
4. GAURANTEE
manufacturing defect
5. PAYMENT
inspection
: KOTA
: Within 8 weeks from the
: 4% C.S.T. against form D
: 1 year against any
: 100% after satisfactory
42
Figure below shows a Power press with components:
43
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Aim: To mount forming die assembly and to form a cup of M S Sheet.

Theory
Sheet Metal Operation The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the
output of the rolling process. Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of
standard size. Therefore the first step in any sheet metal process is to cut the
correct shape and sized blank from larger sheet.
Sheet metals are widely used for industrial and consumer parts because of its capacity for
being bent and formed into intricate shapes. Sheet metal parts comprise a large fraction of
automotive, agricultural machinery, and aircraft components as well as consumer appliances
uccessful sheet metal forming operation depends on the selection of a material with adequate
formability, appropriate tooling and design of part, the surface condition of the sheet material,
proper lubricants, and the process conditions such as the speed of the forming operation,
forces to be applied, etc. A numbers of sheet metal forming processes such as shearing,
bending, stretch forming, deep drawing, stretch drawing, press forming, hydroforming etc.
are available till date. Each process is used for specific purpose and the requisite shape of the
final product.
Fig. Schematic setup for Sheet Metal Operation
Shearing
Irrespective of the size of the part to be produced, the first step involves cutting the sheet into
appropriate shape by the process called shearing. Shearing is a generic term which includes
stamping, blanking, punching etc. Figure shows a schematic diagram of shearing.When a
long strip is cut into narrower widths between rotary blades, it is called slitting. Blanking is
the process where a contoured part is cut between a punch and die in a press. The same
process is also used to remove the unwanted part of a sheet, but then the process is referred to
punching. Similarly, nibbling, trimmingare a few more examples of cutting process using the
same principle of shearing process.
Maximum punch force: Fmax = 0.7(UTS)
44
Mechanism of Shearing
Fig. Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die, indicating
important process variables
Fig. Typical punch force vs. penetration curve in shearing. The area under the curve is
the work done in shearing. The shape of the curve depends on processing parameters
and material properties.
Bending
Bending is the operation of deforming a flat sheet around a straight axis where the neutral
plane lies. It is a very common forming process for changing the sheets and plates into
channel, drums, tanks, etc.
Two different scheme of bending are shown in the figure.
Spring back is a major problem during bending of sheets that occurs due to elastic recovery
by the material causing a decrease in the bend angle once the pressure is removed. The
springback can be minimized by introducing excess amount of bending so that the finished
bending angle is the same after the elastic recovery. However, a careful estimate of the elastic
recovery based on the mechanical behaviour of the sheet material is necessary to achieve the
same.
45
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM: To study sheet gauges & sheet metal working machines & preparing a funnel using
shear, circle cutting machine, ending rollers & spot wiring machine.
Theory:
Sheet Metal Gauge
Gauge sizes are numbers that indicate the thickness of a piece of sheet metal, with a higher
number referring to a thinner sheet. The equivalent thicknesses differ for each gauge size
standard, which were developed based on the weight of the sheet for a given material. The
Manufacturers' Standard Gage provides the thicknesses for standard steel, galvanized steel,
and stainless steel. The Brown and Sharpe Gage, also known as the American Wire Gage
(AWG), is used for most non ferrous metals, such as Aluminum and Brass.
SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINES

1. SHEARING MACHINE: This machine is used to cut or shear metal sheets. A punch (or
moving blade) is used to push the workpiece against the die (or fixed blade), which is fixed.
Usually the clearance between the two is 5 to 40% of the thickness of the material, but
dependent on the material. Clearance is defined as the separation between the blades,
measured at the point where the cutting action takes place and perpendicular to the direction
of blade movement. It affects the finish of the cut (burr) and the machine's power
consumption. This causes the material to experience highly localized shear stresses between
the punch and die. The material will then fail when the punch has moved 15 to 60% the
thickness of the material, because the shear stresses are greater than the shear strength of the
46
material and the remainder of the material is torn. Two distinct sections can be seen on a
sheared workpiece, the first part being plastic deformation and the second being fractured.
Because of normal inhomogeneities in materials and inconsistencies in clearance between the
punch and die, the shearing action does not occur in a uniform manner. The fracture will
begin at the weakest point and progress to the next weakest point until the entire workpiece
has been sheared; this is what causes the rough edge. The rough edge can be reduced if the
workpiece is clamped from the top with a die cushion. Above a certain pressure the fracture
zone can be completely eliminated. However, the sheared edge of the workpiece will usually
experience work hardening and cracking. If the workpiece has too much clearance, then it
may experience roll-over or heavy burring.
2. BAR FOLDER:
Used to bend or fold the edges of metal sheet. This is a Mild Steel Fabricated Body heavy
duty yet easy to operate Hand operated Manual CMT type Sheet Folding machine having
capacity to fold upto 1250mm length x 1.6mm thickness mild steel sheets. The machinie is
very versatile with excellent design features making the operation of this folding machine
easy and adjustable to suit the job requirement. The upper beam is supported by operating
handle on one side and adjustable counter weight on the other side. The lower beam has the
operating lifting handle which moves easily & smoothly. The entire hand folding machine is
mounted on suitable fabricated stand for proper height for ease of operation. The fabricated
stand is wider at the base for added stability. The sheet folding machine is supplied with one
full length standard finger and others as per requirement can be supplied.
47
We can also supply this machine in heavier version to fold sheets upto 2.0mm thickness
against specific order.
3. UNIVERSAL SHEET FOLDING MACHINE

Universal sheet folding machine is extremely versatile machine suitable for many
applications. This heavy duty sturdy machine is well fabricated from mild steel with hinge
points in roller bearings for effortless folding. The eccentrics and other pins are made from
alloy steel duly hardened. Our universal folding machine incorporates adjustable truss bars
which ensures accurate and straight folding even for full length jobs.
The sides of the machine are well fabricated using M.S. Tee and I beam. Both sides are
connected with three tie bars to maintain strength.
The upper beam Ram, of the machine is reinforced properly and equipped with three
adjustable truss bars. It can move upto 200 mm to fix various types of fingers to facilitate
taking different types of bends. It moves in dovetail slides for accurate work.
Clamping of sheet is done by the lower beam Table, which moves on the I beam. The
movement of this lower beam is operated by two independent eccentrics on each side, aided
by two strong springs to reduce the clamping pressure. Lower beam is also equipped with two
adjustable truss bars.
The folding beam Apron, is adjustable vertically for taking sharp as well as radius bends.
Adjustments can be done by apron bolts. Angle selector gauge is also provided for repeated
jobs. Two handles on beam and two counter weights for effortless bending are fitted at the
side of the paddle of apron. The movement of the counter weights is possible which allows to
change the effective force depending upon the job.
48
3. BURRING MACHINE: This machine is used to make burr of the edges of the bottom of
the can or on the cylinder
49
4. CIRCLE CUTTING MACHINE:
Circle Cutting Machine is one of the principal machine in sheet metal industry. It is
mainly used as the name indicates to cut circles of sheet material, annular rings &
strips.
Our hand operated machines are available in models:14H, 18H, 24H, 24HB, 36H, 36HB & 48HB are used for cutting 18 swg MS / 22 swg
SS.
Our motorised machines are available in models:18M2, 24M2, 36M2, 48M2 & SPM for specific size are used for cutting 14 swg / 18
swg SS.
24M3, 36M3, 48M3 & SPM for specific size are used for cutting 10 swg / 16 swg SS.
24M4, 36M4, 48M4 & SPM for specific size are used for cutting 8 swg / 14 swg SS.
50
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
AIM: Determining the drawing force component during wire drawing operation using
dynamometer.
THEORY:
The existence of some physical variables like force, temperature etc and its magnitude or
strength cannot be detected or quantified directly but can be so through their effect(s) only.
For example, a force which can neither be seen nor be gripped but can be detected and also
quantified respectively by its effect(s) and the amount of those effects (on some material) like
elastic deflection, deformation, pressure, strain etc. These effects, called signals, often need
proper conditioning for easy, accurate and reliable detection and measurement. The basic
principle and general method of measurement is schematically shown in Fig.
The measurement process is comprised of three stages:
Stage 1 : The target physical variable (say force) is converted proportionally into another
suitable variable (say voltage) called signal, by using appropriate sensor or transducer.
Stage 2 : The feeble and noisy signal is amplified, filtered, rectified (if necessary) and
stabilized for convenience and accuracy of measurement.
Stage 3 : where the conditioned signal (say voltage) is quantitatively determined and
recorded by using some read out unit like galvanometer, oscilloscope, recorder or computer.
Different types of transducers used in dynamometers for measuring machining forces.

Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic principles : (a) measurement of
elastic deflection of a body subjected to the cutting force (b) measurement of elastic
deformation, i.e. strain induced by the force (c) measurement of pressure developed in a
medium by the force. The type of the transducer depends upon how that deflection, strain or
pressure is detected and quantified. (a) Measuring deflection caused by the cutting force(s)
51
Under the action of the cutting force, say PZ in turning, the tool or tool holder elastically
deflects as indicated in Fig. Such tool deflection, is proportional to the magnitude of the
cutting force, PZ, simply as,
Here the cutting force is a physical variable which we like to measure but it is neither visible
nor you can grip it by your hands. So we do not handle it directly but we can understand the
presence of force of the intensity of force by its effects when some force acts on cantilever
beam it undergoes bending or some ball then this will be deformed. So this is how we
understand the presence of the intensity of the force. For example, the wind is not visible but
from the movement of leaves and branches of tree, we understand the presence and the
intensity of the wind. Similarly temperature is neither visible nor you can catch hold directly.
But from the effects, we can understand or detect the temperature from expansion of liquid or
gas or something or wending and something like that or EMF generated. So the physical
variables like cutting force and temperature which cannot be directly gripped or visible has to
be converted into a suitable effect which is visible, which is detectable which is measurable.
For example, now this physical variable will be converted into another suitable variable and
this another suitable variable may be deflection of elastic beam or expansion of a liquid by
temperature like that. This stage of conversion of the physical variable to be measured into
another suitable variable which is detectable is called transducing stage. This is stage number
1. So this conversion is accomplished by some transducer or sensor. They produce some
signal, this signal may be voltage or something else or current but the signal that is normally
produced by conversion of the transducers is very feeble and noising. Therefore this signal
has to be conditioned properly, amplified and rectified and smoothened by some conditioning
stages. This stage is called conditioning stage number 2 and purposes are amplification of the
signal, to enlarge signal which can be easily measured accurately. Filtration from the noise if
any and stabilization if there be any instability in the signal after that we get the condition
signal which can be easily measured detected and measured quantified how this can be done.
Suppose this condition of signal is a voltage now this voltage can be directly measured by a
voltmeter or it can be leave there is pulsation or variation if you want to see the ah time
dependence or then we can look into the oscilloscope and if you want to record it, we can
record it on pen recorder or strip chart recorder and we can also do it comfortably and make
use of it onward by come storing it into personal computers that is called third stage or
readout stage
52
This diagram shows that here is the job the cross section of a rod which is undergoing
machining by a turning tool. This shows the turning tool of the tool holder which is nothing
but like a cantilever beam. This is like a cantilever beam subject to a force Pz, suppose one
force due to that, this elastic beam will undergo deflection by this amount say delta. Now this
delta deflection is visible it can be measured unlike the force Pz. Now this delta is equal to if
it is cantilever beam is equal to Pz the force, L cube is length of the projection or cantilever
three EI. E is property of the material of the beam that is Young's modulus of elasticity and I
is a section modulus of the plain moment of inertia. This is I plain moment of inertia of the
beam. Therefore we can measure Pz in terms of delta provided we know the other parameters
L E I this have to be known then Pz can be determined from the deflection delta
53
FACTORS TO BE KEPT IN MIND FOR FORCE MEASUREMENT BY

DYNAMOMETERS
Sensitivity, the sensitivity should be high, so 14 that the amount of signal that will produce
ultimately should be readable, should be substantial amount so that it can be read or it can be
recorded but if this signal is very very weak, then it cannot be measured this is called
sensitivity. Then on the other hand rigidity, the dinor should be rigid. Such that it can
withstand the cutting force. Coming into that it should not be spoiled or broken or plastically
deformed. It has got another reason that if it is not very rigid, then the cutting tool of the
compression will undergo very wide deflection which will affect the machining condition and
the accuracy of measurement. So this has to be rigid that means there should not be
unnecessary large deflection. So sensitivity and rigidity are contradictory to some extent.
Sensitivity demands larger signal and rigidity demands that signal should not be too large or
deflection or deformation should not be too large. So a good compromise has to be made
through design. Cross sensitivity; Now the dynamometer is used for major in not only one
force see vertical force Pz them Px and Py and for each force there is a separate Wheatstone
bridge channel or a separate piezoelectric crystal. All these things are put together into the
device called dynamometer. Now the cross sensitivity has to be low as possible it means that
the accuracy of measurement say a particular force Px or Py should not be affected by Pz.
Otherwise the force Pz should not affect the measurement accuracy of Px or Py like that so
each one will be independent. One will not effect the measurement of the other. Next stability
against temperature and humidity; Now the temperature changes in the environment beside
that due to the cutting action lot of heat is produced that heat is transmitted into the tool or the
transducer. Therefore the transducer dynamometer should be such that, it should not affect
much by the temperature within the range and humidity also should not be affected by
humidity. So proper protection has to be taken, time response the response should be very
quick that is the effect force the causes is force and effect is deflection and strain, stress and
etcetera the voltage this should be simultaneous as almost simultaneous. If there will be large
load gap between these responses the cause and effect then this is chance of error in the
measurement. So time response should be very quick. Frequency response; Frequency
response means the readings of the measurement values should not be if the dynamometer
should be so designed and constructed that the measured values should not be affected or
jeopardized or spoiled by the vibration even if the any into the machine. Of course within the
range of frequency and amplitude even vibration because to large then the no question
nothing will work you know dynamo will fail but within a range of large range of or
reasonably large range of frequency of vibration of the machine tool if any this measurement
value should not be affected, this is called frequency response. Now consistency and
durability; This diameter should keep the reading uniformly of the relation between input and
output should remained constant that is called consistency and durability, the dynamometer
will survive longer and perform uniformly throughout its longer life.
54
Split-die technique was adopted to find the coefficient of friction in wire drawing directly from
experiment. Simple dynamometers with wire resistance strain gages were used for
measuring separating force and drawing force instead of cumbersome equipment used by
former researchers. Reasonably good results were obtained. The effect of the land or
parallel portion in the die on the coefficient of friction was indicated in the results. Its
importance was emphasized. A theoretical equation of the drawing stress with the effect of
land considered was derived. Using the coefficient of friction obtained by the split-die
method, drawing stresses were calculated from the derived equation. A comparison of the
theoretical and experimental drawing stresses was made. Results were tabulated and
plotted. It was concluded that including the land in the analysis of wire drawing is important
and further research in analyzing the shear deformation must be pursued in order to get a
close agreement between theoretical analysis and experimental results
Working principle of common tool force dynamometers.

The dynamometers being commonly used now-a-days for measuring machining forces
desirably accurately and precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are either strain
gauge type or piezoelectric type Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less
accurate and consistent, whereas, the piezoelectric type are highly accurate, reliable and
consistent but very expensive for high material cost and stringent construction. Turning
Dynamometer Turning dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric type and may be
of one, two or three dimensions capable to monitor all of PX, PY and PZ. For ease of
manufacture and low cost, strain gauge type turning dynamometers are widely used and
preferably of 2 D (dimension) for simpler construction, lower cost and ability to provide
almost all the desired force values. Design and construction of a strain gauge type 2 D
turning dynamometer are shown schematically in Fig. 10.8 and photographically in Fig. 10.9
Two full bridges comprising four live strain gauges are provided for PZ and PX channels
55
which are connected with the strain measuring bridge for detection and measurement of strain
in terms of voltage which provides the magnitude of the cutting forces through calibration.
56
57

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EXPERIMENT NO.

The effect of clearance

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

EFFECT OF SHEAR ENGLES ON PIERCING & BLANKING

Different shear angles for punches & dies

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Fig. Schematic setup of a) Wire Drawing, b)Tube Drawing

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Fig. Drawing Operation

Fig. Force Analysis

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

To understand the relationship of & Force F following excercise need to be

Result: Drawing Load=

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

The redundant work is negligible.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Wire Drawing Process

Determination of Drawing Force

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Fig. Drop Forging

Open Die Forging

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Fig. Close Die Forging

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Determination of Forging Load

Fig. Drop forging operation

Fig:.Force study on plasticine element

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Where Xs is the slipping distance

Where K= (yield stress)material /(3)^0.5

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Fig. Change of Structure During Rolling Process

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

2) In case of normal friction, average pressure

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

Table 1 Comparison between jigs and fixtures

It is a work holding device

It is also a device that holds

Jigs are not clamped to the

Whereas fixtures should be

Jigs are special tools in

Fixtures are specific tools

Gauge blocks are necessary

Jigs are generally lighter in Fixtures are usually heavier

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, RTU, KOTA

METAL FORMING & TOOL DESIGN LAB MANUAL