Sabbath Je

;
587
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
SAALSCHtJTZ, LOUIS: German

tician;
boru
matliema-
at Kiiuigsbeig.
Prussia, Dec. 1, 1S35;

Joseph Levin Saalscliutz. From 1854 to 18()
son .f
he studied matliematics and pliysies at Uie \iniversit.v of liis native city, graduating as Pli.I).
in 18GI
his dissertation was " Leber die WarnieverUnderungen in den Holieien Erd.schiehten Lnterdern Ein(
tiuss<les Xiclit-periodischen Teinpcraturwechsels

an
der OberHiiche," and was published in the "Astronomische Xachrichten." From 1S61 to 1882 he
was teacher of mathematics, mechanics, and engineering at the Royal School of Mechanics, Kiinigs-
During the same period he lectured at the

and since 187.5 he has been assistant
professor.
For a number of years lie has filled the
office of president of the Jewish orplian asylum
of
berg.
university;
Konigsberg.
is the author of
"Der Belastele Stab,"
1880; "Vorlesungen Leber die Bernoui'llischen Zahleii," Berlin, 1893; and of a number of
treatises in the technical journals.
S.
Saalschiitz
Leipsic,
SABA
word derived from the root

"to be white, old"; used in the Talmud with
2'0.
(N3D)
various meanings;
(ii) It designates an old man or old woman
in general, as in the saying -'an old man ["saba"] in the
house means ruin, but an old woman ["sabeta "] is a
treasure; since the former is unfit for work, while
the latter helps in the house " ('Ar. 19a).
(i) Preceded by the demonstrative ("hai
Saba"
that old man ") it was assumed to refer to the

prophet Elijah whenever the phrase occurs in either
Talmud; but this assumption was rejected by the
tosatists (Hul. 6a), and even before their time bv
Hai Gaon in a responsum

der Geonim," p. 23).
(ed.
HarUavy.
"
Responsen
used also as au honorific title, so that

R. Hisda are called "the old men of
Sura," and R. Judah and R. 'Ena "the old men of
(c)
R.
It
is
Huna and
Pumbedita" (Sanh. 17a).

(rf) It was the name of R. Niha's father
comp. Frankel, "Introductio in Talmud
mitum," p. 117a.
(Kil.
i.\.
Ilierosoly-
occurs in the phrase "sabe debe Atuna" =

men of Athens " (Gratz, " Jahresbericht des
Breslauer Seminars," 1884, p. 28).
(f)
It
BiBi.iOGRAPHT Kohut, Anich Cnmpletttm,

iiehy. WOrtefh. s.v.
:
Levy, A'fu-
s.v.;
T.
S.
SABA.
SABA,
O.
See Sheb.\.
ABRAHAM. See Abk.\h.\m Sab.\.

SABBATH fn^L"): The seventh day of the
week; the day
of rest.
Data On the completion of His

cieative work God blessed and hallowed the seventh
Biblical
day as the Sabbath (Gen. ii. 1-3). The Decalogue

in Exodus (xx. 8) reverts to this fact as the reason
for the commandment to " remember " the Sabbath
day to keep it holy. The Sabbath is recognized in
the account of the gathering of the manna a double
portion was gathered on the previous day, and the
;
extra supply gathered for consumption on the Sal)bath, when no manna descended, did not spoil (xvi.
22-30).
The Saljbath is a sign between Ynwn and
Death or
Israel, an everlasting covenant (xxi. 13).
b.
Joseph
excision (xxxi. 14, 15) was the penalty for its

profanation by work. An instance of tliis is afforded
by the case of the man who gathered sticks on the
Sabbatli and was condemned to die by lapidatiou
(Num. XV. 32-36). Work is proliibited, even during
harvest-time (Ex. xxxi v. 21), and is declared to l)e a
profanation of the lioly Sabbath; and the kindling

of fire in the habitations is especially interdicted
(Ex. XXXV. 3).
In the Dec.\logce as contained in Deuteronomy
12 et Keij.) the observance of the Sabbath is
again enjoined, but as a day of rest for the servants
as well as their masters, in commemoration of
(v.
Israel's redemption from Egyptian bondage.

The
Sabbath heads the enumeration of the appointed
holy seasons (Lev. xxiii. 3). The SnowBni:.\D was
changed every Sabbath (Lev. xxi v. 8). The sacrifice
ordained for the Sabbath consisted of two he-lambs
of the first year, without blemish, and of two-tenths
of an ephah of fine flour for a lucal-ofTcring, mingled
with oil, and " the drink-olTering thereof " the.se constituted the burnt o/Tcring, and were brought in addition to the continual burnt olTering (Xum. xxviii.
The Sabbath is designated also as"Shali9, 10).
bat Shabbaton," as is the Day of Atonement (Lev.
xvi. 31), often with the added qualification of
"holy unto Yiiwii "(Ex. xvi. 23, xxxi. 1, xxxv. 2);
and it is set apart for a holy convocation (Lev.
;
xxiii. 3).
From II Kings xi. 5 it appears that the royal

body-guard was changed every Sabbath. The Sabbath and the day of the New Moon were the favorite occasions for consulting the Prophets (II Kings
Iv. 23).
That the Sabbath was either improperly ob.served

or sometimes, perhaps, altogether ignored in the
lime of the Prophets seems to be evi-
Non-Ob-
denced by their writings. Amos castigates those that are impatient for the
in passing of the Sabbath because it in-
servance
by Some
Prophetic
Times.
terferes with their usurious business

(viii. 5).
in
" the wise
Saadia
Sabbath
Isjiiah
condemning
is
cijually
emphatic
his contemporaries for
unworthy celebrations
(i. 9).
Jeremiah exhorts
from carrying burdens on the
Sabbath (xvii. 21 et seqX Ezekiel describes the
laxnessof the fathers, for the purpose of impressing
upon his auditors the importance of observing the
Sabbath, evidently neglected in his day (xx. 12, 16,
20, 21, 24; xxii. 8; xxiii. 38).
In his scheme of reconstruction the hallowing of the Sabbath holds a
prominent place (xliv. 24, xlvi. 2, 3). According to
him the burnt offering for the Sabbath, provided by
the prince (xlv. 17), consisted of six lambs and a
ram, with an entire ephah of meal offering and a
"bin "of oil to every ephah (xlvi. 4-.5).
Isaiah conditions Israel's triumph on the observance of the Sabbath, which may not be set aside for
their
his people to refrain
its observance shouhl be a delight

In his vision of Jerusalem's exalta-
secular pursuits;
(Iviii.
13, 14).
from one Sabbath to

worship before Yiiwii
(Ixvi. 23).
The colonists under Xehemiah charged
themselves yearly with a third of a shekel to provide,
among other things, for the burnt offerings of the
Sabbaths (Neh. x. 32). Nevertheless Nehemiahtook
tion the
another
prophet
]iredicls that
all tiesh will
come
to
Sabbath
ilu-iu
t(i
task for profiuiing Hie day
(xiii. 16, 17),
and
turn it into
to be closed
gates
the
ordered
he
market-day
a
and kept closed until the end of the Sabbath. This
measure, after a while, had the desired effect (x.
Fs. xcii. is entitled "A Psalm or Song
19(tseq.).
As Hosea (i. 11) threatens
for the Sabbath Day."
the cessation of the Sabbath and other feasts as a
piuiishrnent to disloyal Israel, so does the author of
Lamentations (ii. 6) lament that the Subbatli has
to prtveiit llicm
from cuntiuuing
to
come to be f(irf.'oll<'n in ZUm.

In Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Un-
der the stress of the Syrian persecution, faithful

compliance with the strictest interpretation of the
Sabbath eomniandment came to be regarded as a
sign of loyally to God, especially since previonsly
the Sabbath had been liabitnally desecrated (I -Mace,
Many of the refugees in the mountains, thoui. 30).
sands in number, preferred to die rather than violate
the Sabbath by hurling stones
upon
their assailants
This made it necessary for

Mattathias to issue an imperative order that the
Jews, if attaekc<l, should defend tliemselves (I ^Macc.
Xevcrtlieless, II Mace. xv. 1 et .wq. relates
ii. 41).
that Nicanor planned the destruction of the Jews by
attacking them on the Sabbath-day, when he had
reason to believe they would not attempt to resist.
Though the Jews implored him to honor the "day
which had been dignified with holiness by the
Heavenly Ruler," ho persisted, declaring that lie
was ruler on earlh. Ilisexjieditiou, however, failed.
A previous raid against Jerusalem on the Sabbathday, under Appolouius. had proved successful (II
Mace. V. 2.5, 26).
(I
Maee.
ii.
29itiie(j.).
The IJook of Jubilees calls the Sabbath the great

sign that work should be done during six days
and dropped on the seventh (ii. 17). The chief
orders of angels also were bidden to observe the
Sabbath with the Lord (ii. 18). In selecting Israel
purposed to make
as His chosen people,
them a Sabbath-observing people. Eating, drinking, and t)lcssing God are distinguishing features of
the Sabbath, liesides cessation of work (ii. 31).
The
Sabbath was given to Jacob and his seed that they
might forever remain "the blessed and holy ones of
the first testimony and law," as is the seventh day.
Labor thereon entails death, but its defilement leads
to violent death (ii. 2."), 27).
Among the acts prohibited are included preparing food, drawing water,
and carrying burdens, however small, out of or into
the house, or from one house to another. The Sabbath was liallowed iti heaven before it was ordained
for earth.
Israel alone has the right to observe it
(ii. 28-31).
Again, in ch. iv., buying and selling,
making verbal agreements for future fulfilment,
and journeying are mentioned as among the acts
prohibited, as well as drawing water, carrj'ing burdens, and marital indulgences.
Only work that is
necessary for the sacrificial Temple service is permitted. Death shall be the penalty for any one who
Ynwn
works, walks any distance, tills his land, kindles a

loads a beast of burden, travels on a ship, beats
or kills any one, slaughters bird or beast, captures
in the chase any living creature, or even fasts or
wages war. on the Sabbath.
The archangel Michael instructs Seth (Vita Adee
fire,
et
Eviv,
not to
43)
588
mourn on
the
Apokryphen," ii. ryiH).

In Post-Biblical Literature
(Kaulzsch,
seventh day
"
Josephus, in
the main, follows the ISiblical narrative, giving the

word "Sabbath" the meaning "rest " ("Ant."i. 1,
1). and controverting the stu|)id etymology of the
name upheld by Apion, according
to
whom
tlie
Jews
were forced to observe the Sabbath

by the fact of their being atllicteil with
In Josephus and bubonic be.ils known in Egyptian by
the
a word similar to the Helirew word
"sabbath" ("Contra Ap." ii., tj 2).
Classical
.Moreover, his descriptions of Sabbath
Writers.
celebration do not differ from the BibThat the beginning an<l end of the Sabbath
lical.
were announced by trumpet-blasts ("B. J." iv. 9,
12) is shown by the ilishnah (Suk. v. 5).
Josephus makes much of the spread of Saliliath
observance in non-Palestinian cities and among nonJews ("Contra Ap." ii., 39; C(nnp. Philo, "De Vita
That he does not
Jloysis," ii. 137 [ed. Mangey]).
exaggerate is apparent from the comments of Uoman writers on tlie Jewish Sabbath. Horace, in his
"Satires" (i. 9, 69), speaks of "tricesima Sabbata,"
which certainly does not refer to a Sabbath so numbered by the Jews. Juvenal ("Satires," xiv. 96106), Persius (v. 179-184), Martial (iv. 4, 7), and
Seneca (Augustine, " De Civitate Dei," vi. 11) also
In the Maceabean struggle
refer to the Sabbath.
the observance of the Sabbath came to have special
significance as distinguishing the faithful from tlie
half-hearted but Josephus confirms I Mace. ii. 3941, where the faithful, under Mattatliias, decided to
resist if attacked on the Sabbath, and not to permit
:
themselves to be destroj'cd for the sake of literal

obedience to the Sabbath law (comp. "Ant." xii. 6,
He mentions instances in which the Jews were
2).
taken advantage of on the Sabbath-day for exi''..ple, by Ptolemy Lagi ("Ant." xii. 1; xviii. 9, ij 2).
Still, according to Josephus, the Jews carried on
offensive warfare on the Sabbath ("B.J." ii. 19,
Titus was outwitted by the plea that it was
2).
unlawful for Jews to treat of peace on the seventh
day (//). iv. 2, 3). .losephus also publishes decrees
exempting Jews from military service on the Sabbath, which exemption gave rise to persecutions
under Tiberius ("Ant." xiv. 10, 12 et mj.). The
Essenes are referred to as very rigorous observers of
the Sabbath ("B. J." ii. 8, 9).
In Philo an element of mysticism dominates the
interpretation of the Sabbath: the day was really
intended for God, a part of whose divine happiness
it is to enjoy perfect rest and peace.
In Philo. "Hence the Sabbath, which means
rest,' is repeatedly said by Moses to
be the Sabbath of God, not of men, for the one enDivine rest, however, does
tity that rests is God."
not mean inactivity, but unlabored energy ("De
Cherubim," 26 [i. 1.54-1 '5.5]). "Seven" being "the
image of God," the seventh day is a pattern of the
duty of philosophizing (" De Decalogo," S^ 20 [ii.
Tlie purpose of man's life being "to follow
1^7]).
God"("De Migratione Abrahami," 23 [i. 456]),
the commandment was given for man to observe tlie
seventh day, ceasing from work, and devoting it to
philosophy, contemplation, and the improvement of
'
589
character (" De Decaldgo," 20 [ii. 197]). The Sabbath is the most appropriate da\' for instruction (" De
Septenario," ^ 6 [ii. 383] ).
Aristobulus, a predecessor of Philo, wrote a treati.se ou the Sabbath, fragments of wliich are extant.
Polhiwing tlie Pythagoreans, he enlarges on tlie
marvelous poteucj- of the number "seven," but
endeavors, like Philo after him ("De Septenario,"
g 6-7 [ii. 381-2^4] ), to prove the observance of the
day to be both reasonable and profitable (Eusebius,
" Prsparatio Evangclica," .\iii. 13,
^ 9-1(5). lie asserts that even Homer and Hesiod observed the
Sabbath, citing lines from them and from Linus.
According to his understanding, the Sabbath was
primarily to be used for searching the Scriptures,
fostering the soul's powers, and striving after the
knowledge of truth. The Sabbath might be called
the first creation of the (higher) light, in which all
is revealed (comp. the benedictions ijreeeding the
Shema'; Hcrzfcld, "Gesch. des VolUes Jisrael," p.
Nordhauseu, 1867).
These Alexandrian speculations partake of the
nature of haggadic homilies. In those of the Tannaim and Amoraim similar strains are heard. The
Sabbath overshadowed every other
In the
day (Pesik. R. 23), while Shammai
Talmud, began even on the first day of the
478,
week to make provision for the proper

observance of the seventh day. It was Hillel who
recalled the dignity of otlier days (Bezah 16a).
The
Sabbath is considered to l)e equivalent to the Abrahumitic covenant (3Iek. 62b: Pesik. R. 23; Agadat Bereshit, xvii.). Its observance forestalls the
threefold judgment the Jlessianic sulTering.s, the

wars of Gog and Magog, and the final day of retribution (Mek. 50b, 51a; comp. Shab. 118a). The
privilege of celebi'ating the three great pilgrim festivals is the reward for faithful Salibath observance
(Jlek. I.e.).
The Sabbath is likened to wholesome
spices (Shab. 119a; Gen. R. xi. Jellinek, "B. H." i.
Whosoever keeps the Sabbath holy is pro75).
tected against temptation to sin (Mek. 50b).
Jlost characteristic is the dialogue between Rufus
and Akiba concerning the two signs of the Covenant
circumcision and the Sabbath (Sanli. 0.5b: Gen. R.
xi.
Pesik. R. 33; Tan.. Ki Tissa; Jellinek, "B.
H." i. 75). The will of God is alleged to be the sole
reason for the day's distinction. As proof that the
seventh day is the Sabbath the inability of the
necromancer to call a spirit from the River Sambation, and the fact that the grave of Rufus' father
;
sends forth smoke during the six week-days, but

Akiba
ceases to do so on the Sabbath, are adduced.
meets the objection that God violates Ilis own law
by sending wind and rain on the Sabbath with the
statement that the universe is God's private domain,
within which the proprietor is at liberty even on the
Moreover, God proved Himself to be a
Sabliath.
Sabbath observer by interrupting the fall of manna
on that day. To observe the Sabbath is regarded as
equivalent to having originally instituted it (Mek.
104a, b).
Tlie Sabbath expresses the intimacy between God

Israel; from the days of Creation this relation
has existed. Each week-day is associated with another, the first with the second, and so on: but the
and
Sabbath
Sabbath stands alone.
In answer to its complaint at

being thus neglected, God explained that Israel is
its peculiar associate (Bezali 16a; Gen. R. xi.).
Man's fac: takes ou a new luster on the Sabbath.
The two great heavenly lights, the sun and the
moon, dill not begin to lo.se their original brilliancy
until after the lirst Sabbath (Mi-k. 09b; Gen. R. xi.,
xii.).
If all Israel were to observe two succes.sive
Sabbaths as they should be observed, redemption
would ensue at once (Shab. llHb; comp. Yer. Taan.
64a); if even one Sabbath were rightly kept the
Messiah wonld ajipear (Shab. 118h).
Simeon ben
Yohai regarded too much talking as inconsistent
with the jiroper celebration of the day (Yer. Shab.
15b); K. Ze'era reproved his pupils for committing
this fault (Shab. 119a, b).
Those that observe
the Sabbath are ranked with those that give
tithes and honor the Law; their rewards are identical (Shab. 119a; Geu. R. xi.
Pesilj;. K. 23).
Two
angels, one good, the other evil, accompany every
Jew on Sabbath eve from the .synagogue to the
;
house.
If the Sabbath lamp is found lighted and
the table spread, the good angel prays that this
may
be the case also on the following Sabbath, and

the evil angel is compelled to say "Amen " to this;
but if no preparations for the Sabbath are seen, the
evil angel pronounces a curse, and the good angel
is compelled to say "Amen" (Shab. 119b).
The law of the Sabbath is equal to all the otlier
laws and commandments in the Torah (Yer. Ber.
3c; Yer. Ned. 38b: Ex. R. xxv.).
The zizit is intended to be a constant reminder of
Haggadic the Salibath (Yer. Ber. 3c). "Queen"
References, and "bride "are two tyjucal appellations for the day (Shab. 119a: B. K.
32a, b; Geu. R. x.) it is the signet ou the ring (ih.).
special soul ("neshamah yeterali ") is given to
man on the eve of the Sabbath, and leaves him
again at its clo.se (Be/ah 16a; Ta'au. 27b). Simeon
ben Lakish exjilains the repetition of the Salibath
commandment by relating a parable of a father who
sent his son to a merchant with a bottle and some
money. The son broke the bottle and lost the
money, whereupon the father ailmonislied him to be
more careful and gave him another bottle and some
more money. Hence comes the tise of the word
~\\0V in Deuteronomy ("be careful": Pesik. R. 23).
According to R. Simlai, the "remember" in Ex. xx.
8 indicates the duty of thinking of the Sabbath before, the "observe" in Deiit. v. 12 that of keeping it
;
holy after, itsad vent Pesik. R. 23). The Sabbath is

a precious pearl (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xcii., ed. Ruber. ]>.
The one day which belongs to God is, accord201a).
(
ing to Ps.cxxxix. 16, the Sabbath according to some

the Day of Atonement (Pesik. R. 23: Tan.. Bemidbar, 2U). The superior character of the seventh
day is marked by the circumstance that everything
connected with it is twofold < ..7., the double portions
of manna (Ex. xvi. 22): the two lambs (Num. xx viii.
the double menace in Ex. xxxi. 14 the repetition
9)
of the Sabliath commandment (Ex. xx. 8 and Deut.
V. 12): the double title of Ps. xcii. "niizmor" and
"shir" (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xcii., ed. Ruber, p. 201b).
The Sabbath is a foretaste of the world to come
(Gen. R. xvii., xliv. Ber. o7b ["one-sixtieth of the
world to come "]). The example of the Creator is
;
it is
to teach that all work, however important,

should cease as soon as the Sabliatli approaches; for
God was about to create bodies for the demons
whose souls He had fashioned when the Sabbath
came and prevented the execution of the intention
(Gen. K. vii). The Patriarchs are said to have kept
the Sal)l)atheven before the revelation on Sinai (Gen.
3'2a, b]).
It. Ixxix.; Tan.. Naso, 33 [cd. Bubcr. p.
According to the testimony of the Haggadah. the
Sabbath was looked upon and observed as a daj' of
Samuel ben Nahman declared that the Sabjoy.
bath was intended to be a day of good cheer (Yer.
Shab. 15a: J.Iiyya b. Abba in Pes. R. xxiii.). Fasting was forliidden upon it (Ber. 31b), even up to noou
(Yer. Ta'an. CTa; Yer. Ned. 40d). Expenses incurred
for a proper, joyful Sabbath celebraliou do not impoverish (Gen. K. xi.); on the contrary, riches are
the reward of those that enjoy the Sabbath (Sliab.
citi'd
special blessing for the Sabbath

vouchsafe impunity to the weak
for excesses in eating and drinking conuuitted in
118a).
in
Gen.
590
Sabbath
Hence the
ii.
3,
to
day (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i.

Three meals were considered indispensable
Of Hanina and Hoshaiah, disciples
(Shab. 118b).
of K. Johanan, it is reported that they occupied
themselves on Friday with the story of creation,
which miraculously enabled them to procure a fattened calf for their Sabbath meal (Sanh. Cob. 6Tb)
when they were; too poor to prepare properly for
Nothing should be eaten on Friday later
the day.
than the first hour after noon, in order that the Sabbath meal may be better enjoyed (Pes. 99b Tos. Ber.
V. 1
Yer. Pes. 87b). Change of garments was also
deemed essential to a proper observance white Salibath garments are mentioned in Shab. 25b. Every
person sboidd have at least two sets of garments, one
for week-days and another for the Sabbath (Yer.
Peah 31b); Kulh is referred to as an example (Kuth
Iionor of that
111).
Shab. 113b). The Jews

K. iii. 3; Pes. K. xxxiii.
of Tiberias, who plead their poverty as a reason for
;
not being able to celebrate the day, are advised

to make some change in their dress
Dress.
(A.).
To this refers also the proverb,
" Rather turn thj' Sabbath into a profane day [in dress], than be dcpeudeut on the assistance of others" (Pes. ir3a). The myrtle was used
for purposes of decoration on the Sabbath (Shab.
33b).
It was noticed with displeasure that Aha ben
Hanina wore mended sandals on the Sabbath (Shab.
114a).
The Sabbath was given to instructive sermons and discourses (Yer. Sojah IGd; Num. R. ix.;
Deut. K. v.). To run to the bet ha-midrash on tlie
Sabbath to hear a discourse does not constitute
desecration (Ber. 6b).
Rain on Friday is not welcome, as it interferes with Sabbath preparations,
while sunshine on the Sabbath is a divine boon to
the jioor (Ta'an. 8b).
The Ilaggadali clearly shows that the Sabbathday was celebrated in a s])irit of fervent joyfulness,
which was by no means intended to be repressed,
and which was not chilled or checked by the halakic
construction of the Sabbath commandments. The
Sabliath, indeed, was deserving of the designation
of " mattanah tobah " (a precious gift from on high
Shab. 10b).
:
E. G. H.
The origin of the Sabl)ath, as

Critical Vie'w
well as the true meaning of the name, is uncertain.
The earliest Biblical passages which mention it (Ex.
XX. 10, xxxiv. 21; Deut. v. 14; Amos viii. 5) presuppose its previous existence, and analysis of all
the references to it in the canon makes it plain that
its observance was neither general nor allogetber
spontaneous in either pre-exilic or iiost-exilic Israel.
:
It was priibubly originally connected in some manner with the cult of the moon, as indeed is suggested
by the frequent mention of Sabbath and New-iloou
festivals in the sjime sentence (Isa. i. 13; Amos viii.
.');
The old Semites
II Kings iv. 23).
Probable
worshiped the
moon and
the stars
Lunar
(Ilommel, "Der Gestirndienst der

Alten Aral)er "). Nomads and shepOrigin.
herds, they regarded the night as
benevolent, the day with its withering heat as malevIn this way the moon C'Sinai " = "moon
olent.
["sin"] mountain") became central in their panThe moon, however, has four phases in aptheon.
proximately 28 days, and it seemingly comes to a
Days on which the
standstill every seven days.
deity rested were considered taboo, or ill-omened.
New work could not be begun, nor unfinished work
The original meaning of
continued, on such days.
"Shabbat" conveys
"sheba'
" is
tins idea (the derivation
from
was done by
Lectures) and by Jastrow
entirely untenable).
If.
as
Prof. Sayce (in bis flibbert

American Journal of Theology," April, 1898), it
can be identified in the form "sliabbaton" with the
(in "
"Shabattum"
of the Assyrian list of foreign words,

"day of prodefined as "um nid.i libbi "
pitiation" (Jen.sen, in "Sabbath-School Times,"
1892), it is a synonym for "'Azeret" and means
a day on which one's actions are restricted, because
If, with Toy (in
the deit_y has to be propitiated.
"Jour. I5ib. Lit." xviii. 194), it is assumed that the
signification is "rest," or "season of rest" (from the
which
is
verb " to rest." " to cease [from labor] " though " divider" and "division of time" are likewise said to
have been the original significations; comp. also
Barth. " Nominall)ildungcn," and Lagardc, " Nominalbildung"). the day is so designated because, being taboo, it demandsabstinence from work and other
occupations. The Sabbath depending, in Israel's
ncunadic period, upon the observation of tlu^ pliases
of the moon, it could not, according to this view,
be a fixed day.
When the Israelites settled in the
hind and became farmers, their new life would have
made it desirable that the Sabbath should come at
regular intervals, and the desired change would have
been made all the more easil)' as they had abandoned
the lunar religion.
;
Dissociated from the moon, the Sabbath develo]>ed

day of rest for the workers and animals on
llie farm "(Deut. v. 14; Ex. xx. 10).
Traces of the
old tal)oo are, however, still found.
In Amos viii.
5 it is the fear of evil consequences that keeps
the impatient merchants from plying their wicked
trade.
The nndtitude of sacrifices (Isa. i. 8; Ilosea
ii. 11) on Sabljath and New Moon indicates the anxiety on those particular days to propitiate the deity.
Closer contact with Assyro-Babylonians from the
eighth to the sixth pre-Christian century lu'obably
revitalized the older idea of taboo.
The assumption
into a
591
tliat tlie Hebrews borrowed the institution

from the
Babylonians, whicli was first suggested by Lolz
C'Qua'stiones de Historia Sabbati "), is iinteualilc;
but tliat the Exile strengthened the awe in wliicli
the day was held can not be denied.
It having
become a purely social institution, a day of rest for
tlie farmers, the taboo element in course of
time liad
lost its emphasis.
The Assyro-Babylonians may
had similar days of abstinence or propitiation

(the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28lh of the month
Elul), and contact with them may have .served
to
lend the Jewish Sabbath a more austere character.
The Assyrian calendar seems to disclose an elforl
to get rid of the movable Sabbath in favor of
liave
the fixed.
If after tlie
twenty-eighth
Assyrian day two days are intercalated

Analogues, new -moon days, the 19th day
as
of the next preceding month, as in the Feast of

Weeks, in connection with whicli the emphasis
on "complete Sabbaths" ("sheba' Shabbot temi-
noteworthy. At all events,

in the Priestly Code, Sabbath violation is reprexxiii.
days of ill omen. Tlie propliets of llie Exile

laid especial emphasison the fact that the
Sabbath isuday
of joy, as did those of the Assyrian
period on the
futility of the propitiating sacrifices
(Isa.
Priestly
Code could not neutralize
rigorous ol).servance found acceptance only

the "Nibdaiim" (the Separatists; see Ncii.
Kyery
festival in the Biblical
The
i.).
this view.
scheme
Its
among
x. 31).
associated
connection of the
is
with a liistorieal event.

The
Sabbath with the Exodus, in Deut. v. 14-l.i, was altogether vague; and to snpjily a more definite
relation to an event in Israel's history the Satibatli
was
declared to liave had an important significance
in
the desert when manna fell (Ex. xvi. 27 H neq.).
The Decalogue of Exodus supplies a theological
reason for the observance of the day its phraseology

reflects that of Gen. ii. 1 ct seq.
Both this explanation and the story in Genesis are among the
latest
additions to the Pentatencli.
;
be-
comes the 49th from the beginning
mot"; Lev.
Sabbath
1.5) is
Bim.io(;RAPiiY: In addition to
tlif ahunclant literature mentioned in the liiblioiiraphics of tlii' liible dictionaries see
tYiedBolin, Dcr Siihhal im Allen Te.itami iit. (iulerslrjh. IMH
(the latest contribution
It abounds In parallels for the tab<x)
nch
E. G. H.
Historical and Legal: A comparison between lalihinieal (Salilialh legislation and the data of
the Bible, Apocrypha, and I'seudepigrapha must establish the fact that the Talmudical coiicejition of
what is implied by Sabbath "rest,"
Evolution with the piactical determination of

of Concep- wliat may and what may not be done
tion of
nn that day, is the issue of along procSabbath ess of development. Even the cornRest,
mandment ("remember") in Exijdiis
presupposes the previous existence of
the institution; indeed, tradition assumes that the
Sabbath law had been iiroclaimed at -Marali, before
the Sinaitic revelation (Uiishi on Ex. xv. Jlaimonides, "Moreli." iii. 32; Sanli. Hfib).
The restoration
of Sabliath observance in Ezra and Neheiniah's time
innoseiiselran.scended the Pentateuchal oidiuances.
;
By "no manner
Candlestick Used in Blessing the Sabbath Light.

(From a
ilrHwiDg by Vi,'f,Ta.)
sented as entailing death (Num. xv. 32-36). The

prohibition against kindling fire (Ex. xxxv. 3) probably refci-s to proiiucing fire by the fire-drill or by
rubbing two sticks together; tliis was the crime of
the man put to death according to Num. xv. 32-30.
the "mekoshesh " (see also Bezah iv. 7j, the presence
of fire Ijeing con.sidered, if the analogy with superstitious practi.ses elsewhere is decisive, a very grave
.sign of disrespect to the deity.
But Hebrew institutions are often in diiect antagonism to similar ones among the Assyro-Babylonians.
The seventh days in the Babylonian scheme were
of labor" (Ex. xx. 10, Hebr.), as the

context shows, were indicated domestic and agricultural occupations (comii. 15. K. v. 7).
The special
mention of plowing and harvesting, and probably
the direct prohibition of kindling lire, the explicit
mention of which the Babbis attemi't to explain
away (Shab. 70a), suggest that, in the main, fieldand household-work were covered by the Biblical
idea of labor (Ex. xxxiv. 21, xxxv. 3).
Carrying of
loads " in and out " can not be held to be an excepI'robably Jeremiah's cention (Jer. xvii. 21-22).
sure had reference to carrying to market the yield
of field and farm, or the articles manufactured at
home (comp. Amos viii. 5). It is just this that
Nehcmiah deplores (Neli. xiii. 1.5).
The JIaccabean rebellion marks the beginning
of an altogether dilTei'eiit conception of the term
"labor." The rigorists regarded .self-defense, even
against a mortal attack, as included in the proliibiThe stricter
t'ion (Josephus, "Ant." xii. C, SS 2-3).
construction, then, must have been devised among the
Hasidini, !Matlathias representing the broader view.
That for a long time the question of what was permitted in this direction on the Sabbath remaineil
open is shown by a comparison of I Maec. ix. 34,
43; II Mace. viii. 26; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 6, g 2;
Sabbath
13; xviii. 9, 2; idem,

3; idem, "Contra Ap." i.
^ 22; Ta'aii. 2.Sb, 29a; 'Ar. lib. Rabbinical law
whether
is still busy debating iu Sliab. vi. 2, 4
weapons may be carrieil on the Sabbath, anil what
Some latitude
arc weai>ons and what ornaments.
xiii. 1.
"B.
3;
.I."'ii.
8,
21.
4; xiv.
55
8; iv.
10,
2,
is allowed .soldiers in camp ('Er. i. 10; Dem. iii. 11),

and such as had gone forth carrying arms on the
Sabbath to wage war were permitted to retain their
weapons even when returning on the Sabbath (Yer.
Shab. i. 8; 'Er. iv. 3; loa; Maimonides, "Yad."
Melakim. vi. H, 13).
Freedom to move about is indispensable to mili-
tary operations: but the interdict against marching,

walking, or riding established by the rabbinical law
rendered military ventures impossible on the SabIn the time of .losephus this
bath.
Military interdict was known. He reports that
Jewish soldiers do not march on the
Ex-
ceptions.
Sabbath, their non-Jewish
command-
ers respecting their religious scruples
("Ant,"
way
12; xviii. 3, .5). The"Sabbath

"ERrn), limited to 2,000 ells, is fully rec-
.\iv. 10,
" (see
New Testament
(comp. Acts i. 12).

Sabbath way, or walk, clearly
to extend the established limits.
There were several calculations by which the limit of
ognized in the
The institution of
shows a purpose
this
distance was arrived at. In the injunction concerning the gathering of manna (Ex. xvi. 29) the phraseology used is, "Let no man go out of his place." But
this noun " place " is used also in the law concerning
In Num. xxxv.
the cities of refuge (Ex. xxi. 13).
26 the "limit" or l)ordcr of the city is named, while
verses 4 and Ti of the same chapter give 2,000 ells as
its extent ('Er. 48a).
Josh. iii. 4 also is considered,
2,000 ells being the interval that must be maintained
between the ark and the people. Whether this distance should be measured in a straiglit line in one
direction, or whether it should be taken from the
center of a circle, was open to argument.
If the latter, freedom to move within a circle 4.000 ells iu
diameter would result. This would certainly answer
the ordinary needs of the Sabbath walker ('Er. iv.
3, 5. 8; U. n. ii. 5). By another calculation, in which
the area of limitation is a square, with each side of
4,000 ells, even greater latitude is arrived at; movement along the border-lines as well as along the diagonal Would be free ('Er. iv. 8; see Baneth, "Einleitung zum Traktat Erubin ").
In reference to other Sabbath distances, the traditional four ells, so often found in speciticatious of
proportions and nuantitics, are given as the limit
(Yoma i. 2; Suk. i. 10; Ber. iii. .5; B. B. ii. 4, 5, 12).
Within the distance' of four ells throwing was allowed
(Shab. xi. 3, 4).
Only so much water might be
poured out on the Sabliath as four ells square of
ground would absorb ('Er. viii. 9, 10; for other instances see 'Er. i. 2; iv. 1, 5; x. 4, 5).
How these
four ells should be measured is also a matter of serious
inquiry ('Er. iv. .i, G). Thus the Mishuali preserves
the evidence of a constantly active desire to relax
the rigor of probably Hasidcan constructions.
For
this purpose the legal fiction of the 'erub was resorted to, creating constructively a new residence.
Perhaps, originally, huts were built (for instance,

the Imts, 2,000 paces apart, for those that accom-
panied the scapegoat on

IJohn,
592
Yom
Kippur;
Yoma
"Der Sabbat im Altcu Testamentc,"
vi.
p.
4;
72,
Against this 'erub the S.vuare reported to have protested

('Er. vi. 1, 2).
It is well known that the Samaritans withdrew freedom of movement almost entirely,
The gloss to
as did the Essenes ("B. J." ii. 8, 9).
R. II. ii. 5 is indicative of the existRestricted enceof similarly rigorous views among
Freedom of others. At first, in the case of an obMovement. servation of the new moon on Sabbath, the witnesses were not i)ermitted
to move about; but later H. Gamaliel allowed them
Such
the freedom of 2,000 ells in every direction.
laws as the one that he who has exceeded the
"tehum" (Sabbath distance) even by one ell may
not reenter point to the same conclusion ('Er. iv.
Traveling on u ship was not prohibited,
11).
though even in this case the disposition at one time
was to require the traveler to remain on the ship
three days previous to sailing if the day of departure
was the Salibath, circumstances, of course, necessitating certain exceptions (Shab. 19a; "Seferha-Terumah," cjuoted in "ShiI>l)ol(^ ha-Leket," ed. Buber,
A fictitious "shebitah" (acquisition of
p. 41).
domicil) helped to remove the rigoristic construcDming the voyage itself it sufficed, even for
tion.
the stricter interpreters, if the passenger informed
the captain of his desire that the ship should lay to
on the Sabbath. No responsibility rested upon him
if his desire were disregarded. On Sabbath, during
the voyage, the Jew might walk the whole length
of the ship even if her dimensions exceeded the
measure of the Sabbath way {ib.). Still, R. Joshua
and R. Akiba are remembered as having refrained,
while on a voyage, from walking farther than four
Giiterslohe,
1903).
Di'CKi';s (literalists)
on shipboard on the Sabbath ('Er. iv. 1).

fact that artificial "gezerot " (apprehensions
lest a forbidden act be done) are adduced to explain
the so-called "shebutim " (Bezah v. 2), i.e., acts that
ought to be omitted on Sabbath (for instance, climbing a tree or riding on an animal), discloses a purpose
to rela.x the law.
It is most probable that at one
time the acts classified under this name were not
proscribed. Only later practise prohibited them,
and when a less strict spirit began again to assert
itself, it was found that there was not suflicient warrant for the enforcement of the prohibition.
In the case of riding on the Sabbath tliis evolutionary process is plain.
The proliil>ition appears
to have been first promulgated during the Hasmonean period. But riding, especially
Restricon asses, was the usual mode of locotions
motion, and the injunction seems not
on Riding, to have been readily heeded. An inells
The
stance exists of a court that, desiring

offender to death (Yeb.
90b; Sanh. 46a; Yer. Hag. ii. 1). Yet Elisha ben
Abuyah is rejjorted to have ridden on horseback
within the limits of the Sabbath distance, R. Me'i'r
following to hear him discourse on the Torah until
the hoofs of the horse reminded him that he ought to
turn back, as he had ridden the fidl length of the
distance permitted (Hag. 1.5a).
While the names of
riders mentioned in the Talmud are mostly those
of apostates, yet the Talmud affords no justificato
make an example, put an

593
"THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
tion for the
Sabbath
prohibition (see Low, "Gesammelte

Schiiften," iv. 305 cZ seq.).
The Talnnid assunifs
that every living creature carries itself (Sliab. 94a);
hence the horse or ass does not carry a burden when
ridden by a man and iu older to find some basis for
the injunction, rabbinical writers allege the apprehension that the rider might cut a switch on the
but the multitude

of the explanations advanced
fear of mixing joys;
apprehensions that preparation for the wedding-feast
ndght lead to infraction of Sabbath laws; etc.
shows the embarrassment of the later teachers (Ket.
way with which
Samaritans (Ned. ii. 10, viii. 0).

The Puritan chanicterof the rabbinical Sabbath is
shown in the aversion, deilucible from some laws,
to loud noises (instance Simeon ben Yohai's reproof
of his mother for loud talking), clapping of hands,
striking with a hanmier, trumpet-calls, and music
(Low, I.e. ii. 355). While to some of the more ascetic
rabbis any loud demonstration of joy undoubtedly
approached irreverence and impiety, it may be noted
come a
to whip the horse, and thereby beviolator of the Sabbath (Shab. 133b; Mai-
monides, " Yad," Shabbat, xviii. lfi-17; Ti'i" Oral.i

Hayyini, 305). It was a rule not to sell or hire animals to non-Jews lest they be deprived of their Sabbath rest. The- horse alone was excepted, since it
would be used only for riding, winch was not in
Tahnudic law a violation of the Sabbath ('Ab. Zarah
i,
6; 15a; Pes. iv. 3).
Sabbath Evk Cekemomks
i.n
find a reason for this prohibition,
Except in the case of weddings, which were

1).
forbidden, later practise was opposed to that of the
i.
a Ukkma.n Jkwish
Homk of TUt KniUTKK.NTH
(From Kirchner, " JUdisches CeremonUI,"
The jirohibition against kindling a fire was rigorusly and literally observed by the Samaritans (Leopold Wreschner, "Samaritanische Tra-
Against
De
Sacy, "Notices
Kindling: et E.xtraits," xii. 163, 176). The SadFire.
ducees, as were later the Karaites,
were similarly convinced that light
and tire should not be found on Sabbath in the habiditionen," p. 15;
of the faithful (Geiger, " Nachgelassene

The purpose of rabl)inicoScbriften," vol. iii.).
Pharisaie casuistry is to combat this ascelic literalism. Hence its insistence on the lighting of the lamps
and its micrologic devices for keeping food warm;
it accommodated itself to the rigorism of the litcralists only so far as to avoid the creation of an open,
tations
flaming fire (Shab. ii., iv.). Marital indulgence on

the Sabbath was regarded as a profanation by the
Samaritans (De Sacy, I.e.). Tliis opinion prevailed
also in the earlier rigoristic period of Sabbath legislation.
Weddings were not permitted on the Sabbath (Bezah v. 2). Later casuistry endeavored to
X. 38
rt.vTLKV.
1786.)
that the minor reasons adiluced in regard to music

(e.g., lest
musicians might be tempted to make or
estimate of music as
[nD3n]) indicate that ascetic
tendencies hail but little to do with the prohibition
of it.
In the later jiost-Talmudical days non-Jewish musicians were employed on the Sabbath.
repair instruments,
"labor," not "art"
or the
But the employment of non-Jews to do what it

was not lawful for the Jew to do on the Sabbath
If they were
presented dilliculties.
servants they might not work (Ex.
xx). By a legal fiction, however, the
]iresumption was established that in
reality the non-Jew worked for himself(see "Shibbole "ha-Leket," pp. Âit stq. "Yad,"
Among the thirty-nine classes of forbidden
I.e. vi.).
acts are also swimming, jumping, dancing, holding
court (but comp. Sanh. 88b), performing the ceiemony of halizah, setting aside as holy, vowing to
pay the value of things so set aside, putting under
the ban (a beast as devoteil to the Temple), and
Employment of the
"Goy."
Sabbath
collecting the priest's iiortion or the tithes (Bezah

V. 2).
acts are iu themselves permissible, though they may

involve possible, though not unavoidable, iufrac-
Sabbath law. Unless a previous intenwas inainfest to perform an act in a way that
of Juliilces reflects the earlier, more

The acts cnumerriji:i<l eonceptioii of the Salibuth.
iited therein as forbidden are almost identical with
tions of
Its temper is evidenced

those foun<l in tlie Mishnah.
by the fact that it niaUes death the penalty for violations.
Later, flagellation was substituted for the
to be taken into account.
'I'lie
Hook
severer penalty.
lie oliscrvance of the Sabbath,
In the llalakah
like any other Pentateuchal ordinance or statute,
is treated as a legal duty or debt laid upon the
I
I-;raidite, and the manner and measure in which this

duty must be diseliaiged are legally fl.ved. Undoubtedly, in the case of the Sabbath as in that of other
institutions, the Halukali legalized
and
systematized customs of long standof

ing, endeavoring to connect them with
Halakah. Pentateuchal text and precedent. This
systeniatization resulted in the accenUnder the general precept
tuation of limitations.
a number of speeilic prescriptions "\vere evolved.
Principle
Devices for
Keepi.nc.
would
lead to incidental violation, this latter is not

If, however, the secondary
violation is necessarily involved in the usually jier-
missible act, even though no intention to violati^ the

Sabbath may be imputed, the perjietrator is guilty.
The existence of a good motive for doing a thing
prohibited docs not exonerate the doer thereof.

For instance, extinguishing a light
Motive
is foiliiddeu; it is forbidden also to
Considered, extinguish it for the purpose of economizing oil. The motive, liowcver,
is deci.sive in cases wlrere one act was intended and
another of different .scope is accidentally performed.
Where two men perform one piece of work {(.;/.,
carry a beam) in common, but each alone does less
than would render him liable, and it is within the
power of either to do it alone, both are cxein]it.
But where the worlv exceeds the strength of each
that
is
Kir,^hli.he Verf.'is-smig," ]7-lS.)
Again, the principle of "a fence around the Law"

led to the enactment of precautionary regulations.
Still, rabbinical Sabbath legislation was by no means
altogether restrictive.
In many instances its effect
was to broaden the scope of the Biblical law or its
literal interpretation (see 'Erub).
which this legalism engendered are

by the first mishnah in Shabbat, which
analyzes the possibilities of Sabbath violation in
connection with carrying from one territory into
another, or in the passing of alms from the donor
within the house to the donee outside it.
Another example is furnished by the following
subtleties
illustrated
abstract of JIaimonides' first chajiter of Shabbat.

To rest from labor on the Sabbat h (" shebitah ") is a
mandatory commandment.
tion
tlie
Water and Food Warm on Sabbath.
(From Budeiischatz, "
The
594
Transgression thereof,
however, violates both a positive and a negative

precept, as the Pentateuch enjoins rest as well as
prohibits work.
The penalty for intentional violation liy work is excision ("karet"); if there were
witnesses to the act and the legal warning ("hatra'ah ") had been given, the penalty was stoning.
Unintentional desecration entails the bringing of the
prescribed sin-offering.
The law analyzes and discriminates among the various kinds of acts: some
necessary to do it together, both are

destroys merely ("mekalkel ")
docs not entail a penalty; but destruction preliminary to Iniilding is forbidden.
With a view to more thoroughl}' safeguarding
the Sabbath against profanation an hour of the previous day ('"creb Shabbat ") was added to it. This
was called "adding from the profane to the holy "
(Shull.ian 'Aruk, Oral.i Hayyim, 261, 2).
The Pentateuchal warrant for this was found in the use of
the definite article in Gen. i. 31 (tJ'tJ'n, "the sixth
day ") or in Ex. xx. 10 O^'acn, " the seventh day "
see Gen. R. ix. Pesik. R. 23).
Indeed, to a certain
extent Friday was included in the Sabbath legislation.
Everybody was expected to rise very early
on that day in order to make the purchases necessary for a worthy celebration of the Sabbath (Sliab.
117b; Orah Hayyiiu, 2.50); the greater the outlay
the greater the merit (Yer. Sanh. viii.
Friday
2).
Personal participation in various
Prepara- preparations for the meals was recomtion.
mended; indeed, many among the.
most learned were remembered as having proudly shared in such i)reparations(Shab. 119a:
Kid. 41a; Orah Hayyim, I.e.).
According to one of
alone,
guilty.
and
it is
Work which
595
THE JEWISH EXCVCLOPEDIA
the teu ordimiDces of Ezra, Jewish women

were advised to bake bread early ou Friday to
supply the
poor(B. K.
8L'a).
Tlie details of the toilet, such as the dressing

of hair
and paring of finger nails, were attended to before

the advent of the Sabbath (Shab. 251), 31a;
Sanh.
9.5a Uezali 37b Oral.i Hayyini, 200). Workaday
garments were exchanged for better Sabbath clothes
(Shab. 119a; B. K.32b; Orah Hayyim, 262), While
it was still daylight the table was
set (Shab, 119a;
Orah Hayyim, I.r. and it became the custom to
cover tlie table with a white cloth (Tos. Pes. IdOb,
;
).
'-She'en"); this
s.v.
was held
to be in
memory
of the
manna, as was a certain favorite 'ereb Sliabbat pie

consisting ot two layers of dough between which
the meat was placed ("mulai " is the name given
by
MaHaRIL;
Hilkot
'-Shabbat"),
Two loaves of
bread, al.so in allusion to the manna, were to be on
the table (Shab, 117a; Ber. 39b; see Kiddush).
Near dusk the liead of the family would inquire:
"Have you set aside the tithe, made the 'erub, and
separated the l.iallah V " Upon receiving an affirmative answer, he would say: "Then light the lamp
(Orah Hayyini, 260),
According
to the
Mislmah (Shab,
i,
"
a tailor
3),
should not venture out near dusk with his needle

(stuck in liis coat); nor a writer of books with his
pen; one .should not read near the lamp, though
children might do so under the su|)ervision of the
master.
In fact, work was declared unpropitious
after "miidiah " (construed to be the "minliah gedolah," i.e., tliirty nu'nutes after noon; Pes, 51b; Orah
Hayyim,
Yet
this applied only to work for

such work as was styled "work
work from a religious or some liigh,
altrui.stic motive, was permitted.
Long walks away
from one's liome on Friday were discountenanced
251),
personal profit;
of heaven," i.e.,
Hayyim,
(Oraii
249),
Such work as could not he
before the beginning of the Sabbath, but
"finish itself" during the Sabbath (as in the
finished
would
fla.x put into an oven to bleach), might l)e

begun near dusk on 'ereb Shabbat (Orah Hayyini,
252),
So was it lawful to put food intended for the
Sabbath wiierc it would stay warm, though under
certain conditions and precautions (.Shab, 18b, 38a;
" Or Zarua'," ,?'.
Tos, ib., s,v. "Shakah Kederah "
case of
"Ereb Shabbat," 9; "Shibbole lia-Leket,"

Orali
Hayyim,
p,
44
253, 254, 257-259),
Sabbath
was burning (Shab. 2ob; Tos.
s.v.
i/j.,
"iladlakah
").
Explicit directions are given concerning the

material
for the wick, the kind of oil that was lawful,
tlie manner of lighting the lamp, and liow far one
might
from the light of the Sabliath lamp for reading
and other jiurposes (Shab. ii, 1 " Yad," I.e. v.).
Later authorities question whether lighting
the lamp
marked the beginning of the Sabbath rest, or whether
Sabbath did not set in until after tlie prayers had
been recited and Kiddush performed (see "Tania
Habbati,|' ed. Warsaw, p, 36a),
In Palestine theapproaeh of theSaliiialh wasannouuced by,six trumpetblasts, with an interval after each lilast,
to give
workers a suc(!ession of warnings to cea,se from their
labors (Orah Hayyini, 256; "Yad," I.e. v. i8 et m/.).
Iirofit
One of the solicitudes of rabbinical law was to

enforce the exceptional character of the Sabbatli as
a day of rejoicing and good cheer; hence on Friday
no sumptuous repast was to be eaten, not even at a
wedding, in order that all might anticipate the Salibath meal with avidity. Some of the jiious cyen
went to the length nf fasting during Friday in order
to whet their appetite (Oral.i Hayyini, 249).
For
this reason, most of the people being hungry, the
service in the synagogue on the eve of Salibat'h was
shortened; the reader, instead of reciting tlie telillah, gave an epitome of it (Her. 21a, 29a).
According to Shab. ii. 1, the"Banieh .Madlikin " was
read (see "Sefer ha-Manliig " and " Kol Bo"). Another reason for abbreviating the .service was that
evil spirits were said to roam about on this evening
in greater numbers than on other evenings (comp.
Raslii, "Sefer ha-Pardes"; Pes. 112b).
See KiwDISII.
The Mislmah (Shab. vii. 2) enumerates thirtynine princijial classes of prohibited actions, these
"abot"(lit. "fathers" or "chief categories") comprehending, when developed casuistically, a large
variety of "toledot" (lit. "offspring" or "derivatives").
The number mentioned lias been
recognized as conventional even liy TalniMdists. the
list as given containing virtual du])li(ations, while
certain kinds of work are clearly omitteil (SJiab. 74a).
Tlie ex|)lanation
The Thir- done

ty-nine
Prohibited
Acts.
in
is
that whatever
in the erection of tliu
the desert
pal." even
if
was
was
Tabernacle
classitied as " princi-
this rendered certain du-
iilications necessary
its dis-
(//<.).
This nuiiiderived from the phrase n^K
D'n3Tn ("These are the words") in Ex. xxxv. 1
(Yer. Shab. 9b; Shab, 70a; Num H, xviii,
Tan.,
Korah), the numerical value ot npN being 36; and
as "debarim "isjdural it must signify at least " two,"
while the articU' prefixed indicates that it stands for
"three" (36
3 = 39).
The misreading in Tan..
Korah, where mp^DC beatings") appears for ni3S?D
("labors"), disclo.ses the true nature of the numl)er.
"Forty," in Hebrew, denotes the extreme numlier
or quantity in the connection in which it is used;
charge generally fell upon the women

The
("Yad," I.e. v. 3). Some rabbis deSabbath manded that at least two lamps should
"
Lamp.
be lighted, one to express the " zakor
(remember) of Ex. xx., ami the other
the "shamor " (observe) of Dent. v. (Shab. 33b). The
Sabbath meal might be eaten only where the lamp
for instance, " forty " lashes means the utmost number of lashes that may be inflicted in any given case.
Hence, in order to remain within the limit, forty less
one was fixed upon as the greatest number of lashes
The iiiishthat might be inflicted upon the culprit.
nah in regard to the classes of prohibited actions
follows the jirecedent, and borrows the phraseology
[57]
The
lighting of
tlie
lamp was considered an
obli-
gation which had to be discharged before darkness

setin(Shab, 2.5b, 31a; " Yad," Shabbat, v, 1), This
dut}' could be deputed to a non-Jew (Orah Hayyim,
261), but so essential was the Sabbath light considered to a joyful celebration that one was advised to
beg for tlie oil if necessary ("Yad," I.e.). A benediction w'as prescribed (Tos. Shab. 25b, s. r. " Hobah "
Tani, in " Sefer ha-Yasliar." t; G22; "Yad," I.e.
Men and women
Ber, R, .\i., I.w.
Pesik, H, 31),
alike
were under
this
obligation,
though
ber
is
dwelling imrposes; a city walled in and with gales

shut at night; or covered passages with tliree enclosures, the fourtb being a board; a hou.se anil
courtyard used for dwelling purpo.ses (" Yad." r'-.
("forty, less one") used iu regard to flagellation.

See S.\BB.\TH L.vws.
Maimoiiiiles("Vml," Sliabl)at. vii.) lias the same
enumeration, tlidiigli in dilTerent order and witli

"
verbal changes, and with the substitution of ruling
[the hide] with lines" for the "salting it" of the
Mishnah. According to Driver (Hastings. "Did.
Bible." iv. 320. notej), Margoliouth (in "Expositor," Nov.. liWO. pp. 3'iGet coy.) cites, from an unedited I'ersian manuscript of the eleventh century,
a catalogue of thirty-eight forbidden acts containing
many variants from the .Mishnah. An examination
of the tlurlynine discloses that they com))rise only
the agricultural and industrial occupations as known
" Graphisehe Kequisiin tliemishnaic period (Low.
ten,"
ii.
xiv.
1,521 (=39X39) derivatives (Yer.

Shab. vii. 2): though even before R. Jolianan b.
Nappal.ia and K. Simeon ben Lal>isli, after three and
a half years' study of tiie Sabbath laws, hail made
this discovery, a mislmah in Hugigah (i. 8) had
characterized these amplifications as "mountains
into
Jlicrological as all this .seems at first glance,
closer inspection disclo.ses the sound

TJnderly- underlying iirinciple that work done
ing Princi- on Salibath to save labor on another
pie of
day renders guilty. Permanent knots,
says
R.
.ludah, arc prohibited (Mai-
Yad," l.r. x., says " profc'Sknots"; comp. Shab. Ilia,

112b). This is apparent also from the provision that
one may not, on tlie Sabbath, prepare the couch for
the f<illowing evening (Sliab. iii., xv.).
The things that miglit be saved from a conflagration constituted another solicitude of rabliinical Sabliath legislation.
Sacred books, no matter in what
language they might be written, might be saved,
tliough on this point, and as to wiiether the books
of Christians, as containing the name of God, were
nioiiides, "
tion.
"Karmalit":
Aheap from
three to ten
'KlUMi see article.
suspended by a hair."
A few examples may serve to illustrate the method
and system of this expansion. The general principle being given that "knots shall not be tied (U- untied," it was necessary to determine the kinds of
This led to the decknots that were proscribed.
daration that acamel-driver's or boatman's knot was
inteud<Ml; or a knot that could not be untied with
one hand. Knots might lie tied by a woman on
A
articles of dress, or in packing aiticles of food.
pail might be fastened with a band, but not with a
Prepara-
(2)
1).
spans in jieight and four by four in width; a corresponding excavation or depression; an area enclosed by four walls three to ten spans in height;
a corner adjoining the " ri sliut ha-rabbim " (tlie pulilic domain), with three walls on three sides and the
public reshut on the fourth {e.g., a covered passage witlioiit board or beam on the fourth side). (3)
The ]iulilic domain: Deserts, towns, market-places,
and roads at least fifteen cubits wide. (4) "Makoin
]iatur"; A free, open space, i.e., a iilace less than
four by four spans in width and tlirce or more spans
in height; what is less than lliree in heiglit is considered the cartli, so that thorn-bushes in the public
domain, if less than four by four in widtli, belong
For the effect of the
to this class ("Yad," I.e.).
But these thirty-nine jnincipals ex-
28).
panded
rope.
596
Sabbath
sional
Another consiileration involved in this injunction

as to what one may wear abroad on the Sabbath.
Arms, certain kinds of sandals, signet-rings in the
is
case of women, plain rings in that of

the men (though women were cautinned against wearing these ornaGarb.
ments at all), and many more things
in conncclion with the toilet, were under the ban
Under certain conditions the
(see " Yad." I.e. xix,).
iieud-dress might be considered as a form of building, and therefore prohibited on the Sabbath (Yer.
Shab. l'2c. where plaiting is regarded as building).
Later literature on the toilet for the Sabbath is very
extensive, and histin-ically valuable as showing ma.s-
Sabbath
culiiie
and feminine customs of
liaLeket,"
S8
pji.
et ser/.).
It
("Sbibbole
be noted that in
attire
may
made in the Middle Ages it is assumed that

the Jews bad at that time no regular reshut haralibim.
The cautions against wearing jewels and similar
decisions
(U-nanients
were not inspired by Puritanical moods
or views.
The Sabbath was always and es.sentially
Hence fasting was forbidden,
a day of rejoicing.
even for half a day (Ta'an. iii. 7; Yer. Ta'an. CTa:
some controversies are reported (Shab.

Non-Jews were invited to help in
such cases. Of course, it was not lawful to rcsoit
Judith viii. 6). Mourning was inYer. Ned. 40il

terrupted by the Sabbath (M. K. v. 3).
The technical term for suspensions of the Sabbath
is "dohin ct ha-Shabliat" (push aside or set back
For a higher duty, that of ob.sorving
the Sabbath).
A priest might
the Sabbath was held in abeyance.
violate the Sabbath in the discharge
of his sacerdotal work at the altar, or
Suspen-
to the usual inetliod of putting out the
fire if no life
were endangered (" Yad," ^.c. xii. 3) but indirect
means might be resorted to, such as covering with
a hide or making a barrier by piling up vessels (Shab.
sions of the
xvi.
lile
included,
xvi.
1,
ll.'ja).
'5).
But the injunction against carrying received the

Territories were classified under
greatest attention.
four heads (" resliuyot "
Shab. Ga): (1) "Reshut
;
To
belonged an elevation ten spans

in heiglit and four by four or more in width; an
excavation ten spans deep and four or more in width
a space enclosed by four walls ten spans high and
four wide, no matter what its area, if intended for
ha-yal.iid":
this
Sabbath,
bath law
is
performing the sacrilicial rite,

any other function, assigned to him.
For "en Shabbat ba-mikdash " tlie Sabwliile
or
not applicable to the service in the TemActs necessary for the Passover are
(Pes, O.ia).
not affected by the |uohibitions (Pes. vi. 1, 2). The

bloW'ing of the shofar is permitted (R. II. iv. 1).
A
licvito may tie a broken string on his instrument
while iierforming in the Temple ('Er. x. 13). CirI'unicision also takes precedence of the Sabbath,
though whatever preparations for this rite can be
completed previously should not be left for the
Sabbath (Shab.
xviii.
3.
xix. 1-3).
But whenever
597
there
was
was danger
to life, or
where a Jewisli woman

was
in the throes of childbirth, the Sal)bath law
set aside (Shab. xviii. 3).
In the case of one dangerously sick, whatever was ordered by a competent

physician might be done regardless of the Sabbath
but it iiad to be done by pious and prominent Jews,
not by non-Jews (" Yad," l.r. ii. 1-3). It was forbidden to delay in such a case, for it was intended
that man should live by the Law, and not die
through it (Yoma 8oa, b; Sanh. 74a; 'Ab. Zarali
2Tb, .54a; Mek., Kl Tissa).
Water raiglit be heated
and the lamps lighted. In accidents, too, every help
might be extended. Some restrictions were placed
on the choice of fluids to relieve toothache or of ointments to relieve pain in the loins (Shab. xiv. 4). A
sprained member might not have cold water poured
over it, but it might Ije bathed in the usual way
(Shab. xxii. 6).
It was permissible to take animals to water, provided they carried no load (''Shibbole ha-Leket," p.
74, where it is explained that covers necessary fenthe comfort of the animal are not considered a load).
Water might be drawn into a trough so that an
animal might go and drink of its own accord ('Er
20b).
If an animal has fallen into a well, it is provided with food until Sabbath is over, if this is
possible; but if it is not, covers, cushions, ami mattresses are placed under it so that it may get out
without further aid the pain of the animal is sufticient excuse ("za'ar ba'ale hayyim ") for this Sabbath violation. But the animal might not be drawn
out by men, a precaution taken in tliose ca.ses where
animals had gone astray and had to be driven back
into the courtyard ("Yad," i.f. xxv. 26; Shab. 128b;
B. M. 32b; Ex. xxiii. 5).
In view of the spirit of philanthropy that, as
Maimonides constantly asserts ("Yad," I.e. ii. 3),
underlies the Law, it is difficult to understand the
controversies with Jesus attributed to the Pharisees
In JIatt. xii. 1, Mark ii. 23,
in the New Testament.
Luke vi. 1, tliedisciplcs jjlucked and rubbed the ears
of corn and thus violated a ralibinical Sabbath ordinance ("Yad," I.e. viii. 3; Ycr. Shab. 10a; Shab. x.
But the defense of Jesus assumes that the dis7).
ciples were in danger of dying of starvation: he
charges his critics with having neglected charity.
This must imply that they had not piovided the
Sabbath meals for the poor (Peah viii. 7). Thus he
answers their charge with another. For the act of
his disciples there was some excuse; for their neglect to provide the Sabbath meals there was none.
;
In the cases mentioned in .Matt. xii. II and Luke

up" of the animal would be
.5 the "drawing
an innovation, but the provision made by the rabbinical law for the comfort and possible escape of
In
the animal is also a violation of tlic Salibalh.
xiv.
the instance of the blin<l
New
Tes- sight was restored (John
man whose
ix. 6)
the im-
tament
portant point is not tlie fact that Jesus
Examples, broke the Sabbath law by kneading
(Shab. xxiv.
3),
for the provisions in
regard to pain in the eyes ("Yad,";.?. xxi. Yer.

Shab. xiv.) have no bearing on this case; the point
involved is rather the use of magic in the restoration
of sight (comp. Shab. 67a; Sanh. 101a). In all cures
effected by Jesus this was the matter at issue, not
:
Sabbath
the incidental violation of the Sabbath, which might

be justified on the ground that life was in danger.
In John v. iet seq. the taking up of the bed would
constitute the violation.
I?ut possibly " beil " here is
a misreading for " stall " (" mittah " instead of " mat-
teh").
"lame" person may carry
his crutch or
moreover, the reading
for which there is a strong
presumption, another explanation may be advanced.
"Take up thy bed " may be a inisapi)rehension of
the Aramaic "tol we/e," the well-known fornnda
for bidding one depart, "tol" being construed as
"pick up" (naturally, therefore, "thy couch"),
when in reality it means "pick thyself up," or
"walk away." Jesus' saying that the "Sabbath
was made for man, and not man for the Salibath"
(Mark ii. 27) is a free triuislation of the -Mekilta's
comment on Ex. xxxi. 13 "The Sabbath is given
over unto you. vo\i are not delivered unto the Sab-
Orah Hayyim. 301

"bed " must be retained,
staff
).
If.
bath."
A brief description of the Sabbath celebration

under the rabbinical system may show that even
with all these minute constructions the day was a
Sabbath
bringer of unmixed joy.

rations for the Sabbath
The prepahaving been
Celebration.
given in detail in a previous section,

they need not be repeated here. At
the conclusion of the services in the
synagogue with the orphans' "Kaddisli." the attendants hurried to their homes, where upon crossing the threshold they recited the prayer, "Peace
be with ye, ye ministering angels." etc. (comp.
Shab. 119b. for tlu^ reason wlij' the angels were
apostrophized).
This jirayer was precedeil by the
greeting " Good Shalibat." which was also exchanged
on the way with jiasscrs-ljy it was followed by the
recital, on the part of the husband, of Prov. x.xxi.
to etseq., verses laudatory of the good housewife:
after which the younger members of the family were
blessed by their ]iarents; the elder sons having received this benediction in the synagogue, where the
rabbi was wont to bless all the young people of
Every family had. as a rule, a
the congregation.
stranger as its guest, who had been tothesyna.irogue
and had been invited to participate in the celebraStudents ate at the table of
tion of the Sablialh.
their masters (Gi'idemann. "Gesch." iii. 102).
The
meal on tlw; eve of Sabbath began with the "Kiddush." The meal itself was sumptuous, lish being a
;
"Jewish Life
favorite dish (Abrahams,

finest
in the Jliddle
The tablewanr was often of the

and costliest there was hardly a family that
Ages."
p.
blO).
gold or silver drinking-ciip for the

"Kiddush" and an ornamental seven-branched lamp
After the
for Friday night (.Vbrahams. I.e. p. 146i.
meal, the Ashkenazim throughout the year, the
Sephardim only in winter and sununer. sang the
"zemirot lia-Shalibat " (idem, ^c. pp. IZS et seq.).
This was followed l)y a grace containing a special
reference to the Sabbath, after which all retired.
On Sabbath the peoiile slept longer than on weekdays (Orah Hayyim. 281 comp. Ex. xviii. 4. "in the
morning," with verse 9. "uba-yom ha-Shabbat,"
from which the inference is drawn that on weck-ilays
one should rise early in the morning; on Sabbath,
when the day is well advanced). After rising and
did not possess
its
rei)futiiij;
the usual nioniing prayers, they repaired
synagogue to recite tlie "slmharit," ending

with "ab liarahaniini"; after this Ihe Torali roll
was taken out and the projier " parashali " read, for
whieh seven men were called <ip to the jiulpit.
"Kaddisli" following, the"niaftir" was called up,
the
ti)
Sabbath
Prayers,
special benedictions were recited, the

Torali returned to the ark. and, finally.
the ".Musaf" pronounced. The services ended, the
second Sabbatli meal
might have worked hardship; but the institugoy met the exigency, though
MeVr Rntlieuburg and Solomon ben Adret scrupled
to avail
for this purpose (Abrahams.
I.e.
p. 327).
The
dis-
courses were often largely attended (see Maimoiiides'

letter in
Abrahams,
I.e.
p. 236).
The
Rabl)is regarded
the Sabliath as a belitting occasiou to e.\liort their

congregations. The "elders" are bidden to do this
"
by a "taUkanah" contained in "Ilukke ha-Torali
(published by Gu<lemann, I.e. i. 271). especially that
the Torali
may again come to its own. People of

mood would walk about, or be found
less serious
dancing or gossiping in the yard of the synagogue

(Abrahams, I.e. p. 381). Music was not regarded as
incompatible with the character of the day, and
Christian musicians often played gratuitously (.see
"
'Erube
Mordecai on Bezah v. MallaRIL, Ililkot
Hazerot ").
Chess was a recreation largely indulged in on Sabbath, the figures being made of silver in honor of the
day. Some of the rabbis stipulated that no money
should change hands at the play (Low. "Lebcusal;
The Minbali service interrupted studbut this prayer having been concluded, the dis-
ter," p. 328).
ies,
cussions were resumed (Pirke Abot especially was

studied in the summer). After Minhah the third
meal, which, however, was much lighter than the
others, was served.
The Sabbath concluded with
the "Ilalidalah."
The Sabbath was often a refreshing oasis in the
desert of persecution. Maimonidcs ("Moreh," cli.
ii. 81) assigns both repose of body and the symbolizalion of God's existence as the reasons for its institution.
Judah ha-Levi, a most scrupulous observer
of the Law, while emphasizing the .ioyful character
of the day, doubts that the Sabbath of the Christians and of the ^lohamiuedans is as blessed as that of
the Jews (" Cuzari, " iii.
His Sabbath hymns, as
9).
those of Ibn FIzra and of many others, among them
being the " Lekah Dodi," attest the justice of Sclicchter's words concerning the Sabliath ("J. Q. R." iii.
7fi3): "Notwithstanding rabbinical micrology, the
Sabbath was a day of delight, whose coming was
looked for with fond anticipations, whose parting
was sped with grateful regrets."
,'5.
In the synagogalscrvicesthe joyous note alone was

In fact, the life of the Jews is ample testi-
licard.
mony that
the Sabbath under the Law was anything

but irksome, gloomy, and fatal to spirituality. Karaitic literalism succeeded in turning the Sabbath
into a burden; but rabbinical legalism, with its legal
fictions, avoided this.
The injunction not to kindle
themselves of this looiihole.
Even
the pro-
visions regulating partnerships with and service of

non-Jews with reference to the Sabbath law may be
called legal fictions; they are of an order of juridical
reasoning which is not foreign to modern English

and American courts. Rabbinical law accommo-
dated
itself to
the
demands
of
life.
E. G. H.
.1.
coMiiiieuceil.
included the "shallet " (dish kept warm overnight in

After this meal
the congregation's oven) and fruit.
" zeinirot " were sung, and. grace being said, the ne.xt
hours were devoted to study or discourses on the
Law. Gilds (' hebrot ") were sometimes organized
fire
tion of the Salibath
Hands were washed and then the

The meal
blessing was recited over wine and bread.
was
598
Sabbath
Laws
The Sabbath, being the fundamental

most fre()uently recurring institution of
:
and the
Judaism, naturally engaged the attention of the
Rabbis and of the coditiers to a very great extent.
The few scattered laws of the Bible jjertaining to
the observance of this day grew into two large volumes of the Talmud (Shabbat and 'Erubin), into
thirty-eight chapters of the code of Maimonidcs,
and into 175sectionsof Caro's Shulhan 'Aruk. The
present article can deal only with the more important laws, especially those having relation to the conditions of modern life.
The.se may be conveniently
treated under two headings: (1) laws prohibiting
the iierforniance of any kind of work; and (2) tho.se
enjoining the observance of certain religious acts

and ceremonies.
I. In both Decalogues is included the prohibition
against performing any work on the Sabbath-day.
In Ex. XX. 10 this prohibition is extended to all the
members of one's family (including male and female
slaves), to one's cattle, and to "the
stranger that is within thy gates."
In the
Decalogue. The same prohibition occurs in Deut.
V. 14, where details are added and
philanthropic motive is assigned for the rest
to be given to the slave on that day.
The transgressor of this law incurs the death penalty (Ex.
xx.xi. 15, XXXV. 2).
No precise definition of the
term " work " is given in the Bible. From the account of the prohibition against gathering the
manna on the Sabbath, it appears that cooking and
baking were understood to be included under the
head of work (ih. xvi. 22-27).
The kindling of
lights is expressly prohibited (ib. .xxxv. 3).
From
Ex. xxxiv. 21 (comp. the parallel passage ib. xxiii.
12) it appears that plowing, sowing, and harvesting also were included in this prohibition.
It is related (Num. XV. 32-36) that a man who was found
gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day was, by divine
command, stoned to death. In the prophetic books
references are found to what was then regarded as
work. Amos (viii. 5) refers to the prohibition of
trading on the Sabbath. Jeremiah (xvii. 21, 22)
eniiihasizes this prohibition, and warns the people
against carrying burdens or performing any kind of
work on the Sabbath-day. Neheniiiili enters into a
covenant with the people not to buy f strangers
who bring their wares to the market on the Sabbathday (Neh. X. 32); and when he finds this covenant
disregarded and sees the people doing all kinds of
work, as treading winepresses, lading asses, and
carrying wine, grapes, figs, and all manner of burdens, he remonstrates with the elders and closes the
gates of Jeru.salem on that day, so that the merchants have to remain outside the city (ib. xiii. 15-
599
31
1.
art-
TIIK
JKWISH E>X'YCLOPEDIA
In other books of the Bible similar references

to tbe performaiue on the Sabbath-day of
made
what was cousidered work; but nowhere is tlie term

work " in relation to
the Sabbatli strictly defined
and circumscribed.
The Rabbis, however, wMth
their love for legal precision, laid down strict rules
for the Sabbath, always endeavoring to find a Scriptural basis for their assertions.
The 3Iishuah
(Shab. vii. 2) enumerates thirty-nine

("aljot"
"fathers") of work prohibited on
the Sabbath.
The.se are: sowing.
Classes of plowing, reaping, gathering into
Prohibited sheaves, thrashing, winnowing, cleansWork,
ing, grinding, sifting, kneading, and
baking; shearing, bleaching, beating,
and dyeing wool; spinning, making a warp, making
clas.ses
two thrum-threads, weaving two threads, splitting

two threads, tying, untying, sewing two stitches,
tearing in order to sew two stitches; hunting deer,
slaughtering, skinning, and salting it (its hide), tanning, scraping off the hair, cutting up (the hide);
writing two letters, erasing for the purpose of writing two letters; building, pulling down; extinguishing fire, kindling fire; beating with a liainmer; and carrying from one premise into another
(.see ilaimonides, "Yad," Shabbat, vii. 1).
All of
these kinds of work were presumed by the Habbis
to have been associated with the building of tbe
Tabernacle; and because the prohibition against
doing work on the Sabbath is found in close proximity to the account of the erection of the Tal)ernacle (Ex. xxxv. 2, 3), they assumed that only that
was considered work which was necessarj' to be
Each of
comprises a number of
(lone in its construction (Shab. 73b, 90b).
these thirty-nine classes
kinds of work which resemlile it in sotne form or

other.
The specific kinds of work comprised under
one head are called the "'toladot" (children) uf that
class.
For instance, the class of plowing, which embraces such kinds of work as digging or making
canals, has for its toladot such labors as weeding or
the pruning of trees(Shab. 103<-i "Yad," I.e. viii. 1).
Similarly, reaping, which implies all kinds of harvesting, whether of grain, vegetables, or fruit, has
;
such acts as plucking fruit from a

or tearing off grass or mold that has grown on
a box or a barrel, or cutting oti a flower (Shab. I.e.
"Yail," I.e. vii. 4, viii. 3).
for its toladot
tree,
There was no distinction in the punishment meted

out to the transgressor, whether he performed one
of the chief works ("abot") or one of their toladot,
except as regards the sacrifice to be offered in case a
number of works coming under the same head were
performed unwittingly ("shogeg"; "Yad," I.e. vii.
In either case, if the work was done wittingly
7, 8).
(" mezid ") in the presence of two witnesses who liad
warned the transgressor of the attendant penalty, the
punishment was stoning; if there were no witnesses,
the punishment was "karet "; and if the transgression was committed unwittingly, the transgressor
had to bring a sin-offering ("hattat " th. i. 2).
Work on the Sabbath, in order to be punishable,
must be performed with the intention of doing this
particular work.
If one threw a stone, intending to
strike a man or an animal, and the stone struck a
tree and Ijroke one of its branches, or if one in;
Sabbath
tended to gather grapes and gathered dales, or vice

versa, there was no punishment (naUTlD
D^NÔ
min niDK; Ker. 19a; " Vad." ;.<-. i.
Modifica- 8-13)
The neees.sary result of any actions as to tion is reganh/d as lying in tlie IntenPunish- tion of its author, whatever his avowed
ment.
object may be. For instance, one who
cut (ill the head of a living bird in
order to give it to a child as a toy, was dcelareii
to be liable to punishment, since the death of the
bird was a necessary consequence of the decapitation (niSD' iiXI n'B"1 P'DSl.
similarly, if a man blew
out a light, even though not for the purpose of being in darkness, but merely in order to sjive the oil
or the wick, he was liable to punishment (Shab. 29b.
93a; "Yad,"/.<-. i. 7; comp. HABaD adloe.).

If.
however, the result was not a neces.sary one. although
it did occur in consequence of the action, there was
If a man while walking on grass
of the Idades, he was not liable to pimishment, since the tearing of the grass coidd not be
considered as a neces.sary consequence of the walking
no punishment.
tore
some
thereon (Shab.
in order to
9.")a;
"Yad,"
I.e.
i.
.'5,
6).
The work,
make
the agent liable to punishment,

had to be such as would be of advantage to him. If
a man tore garments or set fire to objects with the
sole intention of destroying them, he was not liable
pimishment. If, however, he destroyed them

with a view to later improvement, as in tearing
down a house in order to rebuild it, punishment folto
lowed (Shab. 10.")b; "Yad," I.e. i. 17. 18).

The laws relating to the Sabbath, in common with
other ceremonial laws, are set aside in case of
life (nj3D).Moreover, if such an occasion
for the violation of the laws arises, the work should
be done not by non-.Jews or minors, but by adult
.Jews or learned and pious rabbis, to
Exceptions show that while the laws of the Sabbath are important, the preservation
Life Is in of life is still more so(Tosef. Shab.
Danger.
xvi. 12; "Yad."^c. ii. 3).
In ca.se of
dangerous illness about whicli physicians disagree, if only one says that certain work
should be done in order to save the patient's life,
no question need be asked, and any one may jhtforra such work.
If a child is locked in a room and
there is danger that it will die of fright, the door
may be battered down in order to release it. It is
forbidden to hinder even the desecration of the Sabbath when a life is at stake; "f(n' the laws of the
Torah are not laws of vengeance against the world,
tlie
danger to
When
but laws of pity, mercy, and peace" ("Yad,"/.c

ii.
3).
The regular work of
the Temple service was not

interrupted on the Sabbatli (see Sackifices; Temple). \Vars of defense might be waged on the Sabbath.
Wars of offense were not to be begun during
the three days before Sabbath, but if begun earlier
thev might be continued on that day (Shab. 19a;
"Yad,"
I.e. ii.
23-2,5).
in theirendeavor to insure the proper

observance of the Sabbath, prohibited a Jew from
ordering a non-.Jew to do any kind of work for him
on the Sabbath-day ("sliebut"). If. however, the
non-Jew perf(nined some work for himself, without
intending that the Jew should benefit by it. the Jew
The Rabbis,
"
Sabbath
any purpose not connected

Thus a man is forbidden
to examine his fields, to hire workSpeaking men, to walk (even less tlian the foron Business bidden distance) from the town and
Matters
wait on the way till sunset and then
Forbidden, proceed on his journey, to calculate,
might enjoy the product of such work. Thus the

use a light kindled by a non-Jew or
grass gathered by a non-Jew for ids own benefit
(Shab. l!)a, 132a; "Yad," I.e. vi.). The Jew might
even order the non-Jew to do certain work for him,
when sueh work was forbidden only by rabbinic
Similarly, in cast; there was a sick jierson
ilecree.
who was not in dangerof deatli, and in whose behalf
ertion, as running, for
himself dared not violate the Sabbath, the

non-Jew might be instructed to do the work {" Yad,
When a non-Jew was engaged by conI.e. ii. 10).
tract to do a piece of work for a Jew, the Jew did
not need to inquire whether the nonSabbath Jew worked on the Sabbath or not.
except when the work was to be perWork
ters, to
Jew might
the
Jew
by Gentile formed openly and
it
was known
that
was being (lone for the Jew. Thu.s,

a non-Jew entered into an agreement with a Jew to build him a house, the Jew had to
stipulate in the contract that the non-Jew should do
no work on that house on the Sabbath, unless it was
to be erected in a place where no Jews passed {ib. vi.
When a Jew and a non-Jew entered into
12-15).
Jew.
for
it
if
partnership, the Jew had to stipulate beforehand that

the non-Jew was to receive all the profits made on
the Sabbath and that the Jew should take all the
If sueh a condiprofits made on some other day.
tion was not made, the Jew forfeited hisshareof the
Acprofits made on the Sabbath (Ab. Zarah 22a).

cording to a later opinion, when the partnership
was of such a nature that both partners worked together every day, the non-Jew might attend to the
work on the Sabbath and the Jew might take his
share of the aggregate profits ("habla'ah " R. Nissim on Alfasi, 'Ab. Zarah i., end, s.i<. " Umeha," and
Shab. .\vi., end, s.c. " We-Yisrael " Shulhan 'Aruk,
;
Orali
Hayyim,
24.5, 1, Isserles' gloss).
Tlie Kabbis forbid also the handling on tlie Sal)bath-day of objects tliat are ".set aside " (" niuk/.eli ")
For instance, it is
for work prohibited on that day.
forbidden to handle money, .stones, boanls, and objects not regarded as vessels (e.f/., a candlestick in
which candles have burned, although they are now
ixtingiMshed, or a purse in whieli money has been
held, although now empty), since tliesc objects were
" set aside " for service sueh as is not permitted on the
Sabbath. Vessels or other objects that are used in
w<n-k prohibited on the Sabbath may not be handled unless they are needed for an action that may
be performed. For instance, a hammer may be
liandled if it is needed for the jnirpose of cracking
nuts, or if the place whereon it lies is needed but it
may not be handled for its own sake, e.r/., to provide against its being stolen or damaged. It is also
forbidden to handle objects tliat came into their
present form of existence on the Sabbath ("nolad"),
as an egg laid, fruit that fell from a tree, or milk
milked by a non-Jew, on that day (" Vad," I.e. x.\v.,
;
.xxvi.
oVah Hayyim.
308, 13).
with worship or study.
is,
to read business or even personal letspeak of profane objects, and the like. It
however, permitted to speak or calculate about
matters pertaining to holj' purp(jsesor to communal

as the engaging of a teacher to teach one's
child religion or a trade, or to speculate about matters of congregational concern (Shab. 150a; "Yad,"
I.e. xxiv.
Orah Hayyim, 30(i-307).
With regard to tiie laws relating to the prohiliition
of the transportation of objects from one place to
another on the Sabbath, the Rabbis distinguish
several kinds of premises, e.r/., "reshut ha-yahid,"
premises belonging to an individual, measuring at
least four square handbreadths( " tefahim ''), and
surrounded by a fence at least ten handbreadths in
height; "reshut ha-rabbim." public premises, as
streets, market-places, or thoroughfares, measuring
at least sixteen cubits in width; "karmelit," premises that can be cousidered neither as public nor as
private property, as fields that are not enclosed,
streams that are at least ten handbreadths deep and
four wide, the sides and corners of streets, or stands
In the
erected in front of stores and similar places.
reshut ha-rabbim and in the karmelit it is forbidden
to carry an object a distance of four cubits.
In the
i-eshut ha-yahid transportation is jiermitted.
The
main prohibition is against removing an object
from private property to public premises, or vice
versa ("Yad, 'W.p. xiv.-xviii. Orid.i Hayyim, 3-15 et
xcfj.), the ditticulties attending which may be overcome by the institution of the 'Eiit'ii. The prohibition of the transportation of objects from an enclosed to an open place is extended also to the carrying upon one's garments of objects which can not be
regarded as ornaments and which are not necessary
for one's health.
An animal should not be permitted
to leave private premises with anything that m.ay be
considered as a burden (" Yad," I.e. xix., .xx. Orah
alTairs,
Hayyim, 301, 5).

The passage "let no man go out of his place on
the seventh day" (Ex. xvi. 29) was interpreted by
the Rabbis as a prohibition against going beyond
the limits ("tehum") of the city in
Sabbath which one resides. However, the
Journey
limits of the city in this connection
were regarded as being 2,000 cubits

beyond its actual limits. Thus it
was permitted to walk within the city, no matter
how large, and without the city 2,000 cubits on each
Limited,
side,
but not farther than that ("Yad,"i.^. xxvii.,

Orah Hayyim, 396 et seq. see Jew. Encyc.
xxviii.
V. 204, x.v.
Hasing their action on the Scriptural passage, "If

thou turn away thy foot from the Sabbath, from
doing thy pleasure on my lioly day
and shalt
honor him, not doing thine own ways, nor finding
thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine own words "
(Isa. Iviii. 13), the Rabbis forbid conversation about
ordinary matters of business; also unnecessary ex-
600
'Erube Tehumin).
II. From the expression "Remember the Sabbath

day, to keep it holy" (Ex. xx. 8), the Rabbis inferred that the holinessof the Sabbath should be announced at its inception, and thus instituted the
KiDDfSii service, to be recited while holding a cup
of wine.
From the passage "and call the Sabbath
a delight, the holy of the Lord, honorable "(Isa. Iviii.
601
13).

they further inferred
tliat
one should endeavor
to provide for the Sabbatli objefts tiiat delight

the
soul of man, and to honor it in every way.
It is an
upon every Israelile

meals (according to some four meals;
obligation resting
to eat three
see Hidk.v)
during the Sabbath-day (Sliab. 117b). For tliese

meals the best food tliatono is able to procure should
be prepared {ih. 118b). Even tlio.se able to enjoy
tlie best food every day of the week should arrange
for some change in tlie Sabbath meals, if it be only
in regard to the liours of eating.
The
Provisions poor also should endeavor to provide
for
Letter food for the Sabbath meals,
Sabbath even if it be only an additional kind of
Joy.
vegetable.
One is warned, however,
against going to too great an expense
in providing for the Sabbath: especially is one
warned against
soliciting charity for that purpose.

point the rabbinic ma.\inv is "Make thy
Sabbath an oidinary day rather than render thyself
dependent on the charity of other men " (/A. llSa).
It is forbidden to eat a full meal on Friday afternoon, so that one may enjoy one's Sabbath-eve meal
witli greater relish (see Eve ok Hoi.id.vys).
Every
Israelite, even thougli he may have many servants,
should himself engage in the preparation of tlie Sabbath meal. It is customary to have two loaves of
bread (' barches " comp. Jew. Enctc. ii. 52!l) on the
table at each of the meals, symbolizing tlie double
portion of manna gathered by the Israelites on Friday ill the wihlerness ((7/. llTb).
Tlie honoring (" kilibud ") of the Sabbath consists
in wearing tiner garments than usual, in being
bathed and shaven, and in showing reverence for
the day in ever}' manner possible {ib. 2.5b). The
lighting of special lights bj' the housewife on Sabbath eve (see L.\mp, S.\BB.\-rn), the spreading of
a special table-cloth, the use of special dishes, niaj'
be included under the same lieading ("Yad," I.e.
On
this
XXX.:
Oral.i
Hayyim,
242,
249,
250,
260,
262
et
The public worship on
tlie
Before the
reguhir evening prayers on Friday night, the Sabbath is introduced ("kabbalat Sliabbat") by tlie
chanting of Ps. xcv.-xcix. (the Sepliardim omit
these) and xxix., " Lekah Dodi," and Ps. xcii.-xciii.
Some read also before the evening service tlie Song
of Solomon, selections from the Zohar, and some
cabalistic poems.
The service proper is tlie same
as on week-days, except that the hist blessing before
The 'Amidah is replaced by the two verses Ex.
xxxi. 16, 17. Achangefrom the regular form is made
"
also at the end of the benediction "Hashkibeuu
(the
changes made by
tlie
Sephardim
are greater than those made by tlie

Ritual.
Ashkenziin). Tlie 'Amidah itself, as
well as the 'Amidalis for the other
services of the Sabbath, contains only seven instead
of tlie nineteen blessings, the first three and the hist
Sabbath
being retained, while tlie middle

thirteen are replaced by one blessing varying in conof
tlic latter
Kiddush
is recited by the reader after the 'Amidah so that
even those who have no homes may liear this blessIn many synagogues the Mishnah of the secing.
tent in
tlie
different services of
tlie
day.
treatise
Shabbat
read before
Is
Kiddush.
In the morning service the "Zemirot" are augmented by the addition of Ps. xix., xxxiv.. xc. xci.,
cxxxv., cxxxvi., xxxii., xcii., xciii., while Ps. c'

read on week-days at tliis point, is omitted (.Sephar-
dim read
Ps. xix., xxxiii.. xxxiv., xc, xci.. xcviii.,

cxxi., (-xxii., cxxiii.. cxxiv., cxxxv., cxxxvi.,
and
then HarukShe-Aniar" foMowed by Ps. xcii.. xoiil).

After the Song of Moses, a special prayer, "Xi.shmat," is used and in the " Yo/er," the first part (" llaMe'ir ') is replaced by three other select Ions ( Ha-Kol
:
Yoduka," "El Adon,"and
"
IîEl Asher .Shabbat
").
The
characteristic feature of the Sabbath-morning

service is tlie Heading from the L.\w.
Tlie taking
out of the scroll from the Ark and the replacing of it

are usually accompanied by the chanting of various
hymns and
psalms.
After the scroll
is
replaced the
Mis.\F prayer is recited.

Sabbath afternoon is usually spent by pious Jews
in the study of various sacred subjects, each one
according to his knowledge and ability. It is not
an unusual sight on Sabbath afternoons to see the
bet ha-midrash full of people, some reading psalms,
others readhig from the Scriptures the portion of the
week with various conimentaries, others studying
the haggadic portions of the Talmud, and others
again engaged in the study of the more didiciilt
portions of the Talmud and of the codes.
These
studies are pursued by the people either singly or in
groups, each group having its leader or readir.
In
some synagogues there is a permanent preacher
("maggid "), who delivers a homiletic address during the afternoon in more modern synagogues the
address is delivered by the rabbi during the morning service after the scroll is replaced in the Ark.
The Mixn.Mi service begins with the reading of
"Ashre" (Ps. cxlv.) and "I'ba le-Ziyyon GoY-l."
after which the first section of the next week's portion of the Law is read, when only three persons
:
a Levite, and a lay
Sabbath has many char-
acteristic features peculiar to the day.
tliree
ond chapter of the
kolien,
serj.).
Sabbath
Israelite
are
called
up
to pronounce' the lilessing.
SabbathAfternoon
Service.
Amidah
it is
After the
customary to read one of
the chapters of the treatise Abot on

suininer Sabbaths an<l Ps. civ., cxx.-
cxxxiv. on winter Sabbaths. After

meals ("slialosh seuddot") is partaken of. after which the people
again assemble in the synagogue to read jisalms in
unison.
Ps. cxix. is recited at dusk: and Ps. cxiiv.
and Ixviii. are sung just before tlie evening service.
In the ]irayers for the Sabbath-day all references
It is forbidden to
to sad events should be omitted.
fast on the Sabbath, even for a part of the da}' (see
F.vsrixG), or to lament or to supplicate for relief
when one is in distress. On visiting the sick on the
Sabbath one should say. " It is Sabbath we dare not
lament: healing will soon come: celebrate your Sabbath in peace " (Shab. I2a). Similarly, on visiting
mourners one should say, "It is Sabliath we dare
not console: consolation will soon come" (Oral.i
!Minh:ih the last of the three prescribed
Prayei-s
287, and "Ture Zahab " ndloc.).
dead are read in some synagogues before (he
scroll is replaced in the Ark. after which a general
prayer for the soulsof Jewish martyrs of all generaThese prayers
tions ("ab harahamim ") is recited.
Hayyim,
for the
Sabbath Leaves
Sabbath and Sunday
should be omitted when there is present in the synagogue !i bridegroom or the father of a child that is
to be circumcised on that day, or when the day of
the approaching new moon is proclaimed, or on any
other joyous occasion (Orah Hayyira, 284, 7, Isserles' gloss).
The observance of tlie Sabbath in all its details is

highly extolled in tlie rabbinic haggadah. If all
Israel observes two Sabbaths (or even one Sabbath
Lev. R. iii. 1) in all their details, it will immeThe
diately be redeemed from e.xile (Shab. 118b).
Sabbath is a costly present given by
Exaltation God
to Israel (ib. 10b).
The
pleasures
of the Sabbath are one-si.xtieth of the

Sabbath, delights of the world to come (Ber.
He who honors the Sabbath
57b).
with the preparation of delightful things will receive all that his heart desires: his portion will be
He who
limitless, and his sins will be forgiven.
eats the three prescribed meals on the Sabbath will
be saved from the troubles of the Messianic age,
from the judgment of Gehenna, and from the wars
Had the Israelof Gog and JIagog (Shab. 118a, b).
ites ob-served the first Sabbath in all its details,
no nation or tongue could have prevailed against
them (i/).; comp. ib. 87b; Tos. to Shab, s.i: "KashMaimonides concludes the chapters on the
er").
laws of the Sabbath in his code with the following
of the
paragraph
"The institution of the Sabbath and the prohibition against
idolatry are each equal in importance to all the other laws of
the Torali [oomp. Hul. .'la].
The Sabbath is also a sign between the Holy One, blessed be He and us forever. Therefore while he who transgresses all the other laws of the Torah
is regarded merely as one of the wicked ones of Israel, he who
publicly desecrates the Sabbath is placed on the same level with
tlie idolater.
Thus the prophet Isaiah says, Blessed is the
man that doetb this, and the son of man that layeth hold on it;
that Ijeepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, and keepeth his
hand from doing any evil' [Isa. Ivi. 2]. Tradition plainly declares that the reward of him who obsen'es the Sabbath in all
Its details will be greater in this world than in the world to
come, as it is written, Then shall thou delight thyself in the
Lord and I will cau.se thee to ride upon the high places of the
earth, and teed thee with the heritage of Jacob thy father; for
" Yad,"
the mouth of the Lord hath spoken It '" (ift. Iviii.
;
I.e. XXX. 15; comp. Maimonides, " Moreh," ii. 31).
.
'
E. c.
J.
G.
See
SABBATH-SCHOOLS
(termed also
See Periodicals.
L.tiip,
Schools and Religious Schools):
Sabbath.
Sunday-
Among
the
Sabbath-sthoul or cougiegational religious

school is a product of the nineteenth century. True,
in iiast times every .Jewish community of any size
had its school for the teaching of the young; but
this was a day-school where the children received all
their instruction.
Moreover, this school, or " heder "
as it was called, was a private enterprise of the
" melammed " or teacher, and was not
a school instituted and supported as such by the congregation.
The distinction between secular and religious education which became current in .Jewry in the nineteenth century was hardly known before the Mendelssohnian period.
The only instruction that the
Jewish child had received was in the Hebrew disciplines, Bible, Mishnah, Talmud, and the like.
The closing quarter of the eighteenth century witllie
nessed the establishment in Germany of schools for

.Jewish children in wliich secular subjects were
taught in addition to the Hebrew branches. The
first of these schools in point of time was the Freiscliule founded in Berlin in 1778 by David Friedlander and others. Similar schools were opened
during the next few decades in Breslau, Seesen.
Dessau, Wolfenbilltel. Fiankfort, Cassel, and Hamburg, and gradually throughout Germany and other
Pluropean countries in which the Jews were being
emancipated from medieval conditions. See Education*; Pedagogics.

The absolute separation of secular and religious
education through the medium of distinct schools
was first achieved in the United States. This was
due without doubt to the national policy of the
separation of church and state. The
In the
public-school sy.stem, altogether sec-
United
ular in
States,
suits of this policy.
its
nature,
was one of the
re-
If religious in-
struction was to be given at all to the

children of various denominations it had to be imparted in separate religious schools organized and
supported by these denominations. In the few cities
of the United States that contained Jewish congregations before the fourth decade of the nineteenth
century the children received Hebrew instruction
either in a heder or from private teachers at home,
but the methods of the heder were too much at
variance with the American spirit to be continued
for any length of time after the Jewish child had
become tlioroughly imbued with that spirit.
The fourth decade of the nineteenth century ma_v
be regarded as the dividing-line between the old and
the new religious educational methods in the United
States, as obtaining in the heder, on the one hand,
and in the Sabbath-school on the other, because it
was in the year 1838 that the first Sunday-school
for Jewish children was established.
This school
was founded in the city of Philadelphia by Rebecca
Gratz with the assistance of some ladies of the Mikveh Israel congregation. The school was intended
for any Jewish child of the city that desired to attend, and was not therefore, strictly spe;iking, a
congregational school it was a free religious .school,
;
SABBATH LEAVES.
SABBATH LIGHTS.
.Jews
II.
602
and was conducted along the lines of Christian Sunday-schools.

In the same year the Beth Elohim
congregation of Charleston, S. C, organized a Sunday-school; and in the following year a similar institution was opened in Richmond, Va., by Congregation Beth Shalome.
A number of ladies of the
B'ue Israel congregation instituted another such
school in Cincinnati in 1842.
At that time there were not twenty congregations
in the country; but soon afterward a remarkable
congregational activity began which has continued
to the present day.
New congregations were formed
constantly, and these almost invariably made provision for the religious instruction of the children in
their Sabbath-schools.
At present this is so generally the case that the exception thereto proves the
rule.
The sessions of these schools are usually held
on Sunday mornings, in some instances on Saturday
and Sunday moinings, in a few cases on Sunday
afternoons, and exceptionally on some week-day
afternoon.
The subjects taught are Biblical and

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;

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

SAALSCHtJTZ, LOUIS: German

Prussia, Dec. 1, 1S35;

tiuss<les Xiclit-periodischen Teinpcraturwechsels

During the same period he lectured at the

word derived from the root

that old man ") it was assumed to refer to the

Hai Gaon in a responsum

used also as au honorific title, so that

Pumbedita" (Sanh. 17a).

occurs in the phrase "sabe debe Atuna" =

BiBi.iOGRAPHT Kohut, Anich Cnmpletttm,

ABRAHAM. See Abk.\h.\m Sab.\.

Data On the completion of His

day as the Sabbath (Gen. ii. 1-3). The Decalogue

excision (xxxi. 14, 15) was the penalty for its

profanation of the lioly Sabbath; and the kindling

Israel's redemption from Egyptian bondage.

From II Kings xi. 5 it appears that the royal

That the Sabbath was either improperly ob.served

terferes with their usurious business

" the wise

his contemporaries for

his people to refrain

its observance shouhl be a delight

from one Sabbath to

all tiesh will

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

task for profiuiing Hie day

(xiii. 16, 17),

come to be f(irf.'oll<'n in ZUm.

der the stress of the Syrian persecution, faithful

This made it necessary for

The IJook of Jubilees calls the Sabbath the great

works, walks any distance, tills his land, kindles a

Apokryphen," ii. ryiH).

the main, follows the ISiblical narrative, giving the

name upheld by Apion, according

were forced to observe the Sabbath

themselves to be destroj'cd for the sake of literal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

week to make provision for the proper

threefold judgment the Jlessianic sulTering.s, the

sends forth smoke during the six week-days, but

Tlie Sabbath expresses the intimacy between God

Sabbath stands alone.

In answer to its complaint at

be the case also on the following Sabbath, and

holy after, itsad vent Pesik. R. 23). The Sabbath is

ing to Ps.cxxxix. 16, the Sabbath according to some

to teach that all work, however important,

special blessing for the Sabbath

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day (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i.

Shab. 113b). The Jews

not being able to celebrate the day, are advised

The origin of the Sabl)ath, as

(Ilommel, "Der Gestirndienst der

tins idea (the derivation

Prof. Sayce (in bis flibbert

of the Assyrian list of foreign words,

Dissociated from the moon, the Sabbath develo]>ed

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