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UNIVERSITYOFPENNSYLVANIAAFRICANSTUDIESCENTER

UNDPEUE:GuidelinesandProposalforFood
SecurityAssessmentinNorthandSouthGonder
Zones,06/99
Introductionandbackground
Objectivesofmissionandmethodologyused
Generaloverview
Aboutthedifficultytorestorelosthouseholdassetsandresourcesafterfamine
Socialstrataofthepopulationinthevisitedareas:thenonsubsistentmajority
TheDestitute
TheDestitute
Currentreliefanddevelopmentactivities
Infrastructuredevelopment:basicprogrammesinitiated
Foodforworkroadconstruction:paymoreandconstructbetterroads
Foodforworkdamconstructionsandsmallscaleirrigation:designedtobenefita
limitedandprivilegedtargetgroup
Environmentalrehabilitationthroughfoodforworktreeplantingandterracing
activities
Theproblemofsustainabilityanddevelopmentthroughfoodforworkprojects
Basichealthstructureandfamilyplanning:developmenteffortstobeincreased
significantly
Agriculturaldevelopmentandextensionservicesneedappropriateattention
Foodsecurityandcopingmechanisms
Cropdiversificationforriskminimisation
Dailylabour
Migratorylabour
Pettytrade
Spinning,cottonprocessingandweaving
Beveragemaking(Tej,TellaandArakibrewing)
Livestocksales
Firewoodsales
Sellingofstraw
Prostitution
Otherofffarmincomeopportunities
Underdevelopmentandfoodshortageindicators
Pooraccesstopotablewater
Pasture,livestockandherdsize(deteriorationoflivestockcondition)
Nutritionalstatus,decreasinggeneralhumanhealthcondition
Deterioratingtermsoftrade
Abnormalfoodstressandchangingeatinghabits
Sellingoffpermanenthouseholdassets
Increasingtemporaryandpermanentoutmigration
Increasingnumberofschooldropouts
Increasedrelieffoodrequirements
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Beneficiariesandfoodrequirements
Conclusionsandrecommendations
Specialgovernmentalattentionmakesthedifferenceforchronicfoodshortageareas
Targetingreliefandfoodaidtowardsthedestituteandthepoorestcausesfurthererosionof
assetswithinthesociety
Short,midandlongtermdevelopmentincentives
LiteraturelistofreferredpapersandpreviousUNEUESouthandNorthGondermissionreports
NGOsandotherorganisationsoperatinginSouthandNorthGonder
Itinerary
Distancesandtimetable
NorthandSouthGonderFoodsecurityassessmentinpartsoftheTekezeRiverwatershed
AssessmentMission:May26June7,1999
ByYvesGuinand,UNEmergenciesUnitforEthiopia

Introductionandbackground
Objectivesofmissionandmethodologyused
TheobjectiveoftheUNEUEmissiontoNorthandSouthGonderwastoassessthefoodsecurity
situationinweredasborderingorbeingpartoftheTekezeRiverwatershed.Furthermore,themission
triedtounderstandavarietyofhistoricalaspectsconcerningagriculturalandotherdevelopmentactivities
aswellasfoodaidandreliefactivitiesintheseareas.Pleaserefertothemapannexedtothisreportfor
itineraryandplacesvisited.
TheinformationandresultspresentedinthisreportwerecollectedduringthefieldmissionusingRapid
RuralAssessment(RRA)andthemoreadequatefieldlevelParticipatoryRuralAssessment(PRA)
techniques.Apartfromhavingmetmostoftheprincipalgovernmentalandnongovernmentalactorsat
regional,zonal,weredaandkebelelevel,themissionconductedanumberofgroupdiscussionswith
farmersaswellasdiscussionswithexperiencedandknowledgeablekeyinformantsinthetargetareas.In
twoplaces(Qualissa,IbnatweredaandHamusit,Belessawereda)resourcerankinggameswere
conductedwithrepresentativesoftwo`Gots'[1].Resourcerankinggivesindicationsconcerningthe
stratificationofthepopulationlivinginthearea.Furthermoreitgivesindicationsaboutavailable
resourcesandtheirrespectiveimportanceforhouseholdsofeachdefinedcategory[2].Inaddition
spontaneousfarmerinterviewsatmarkets,inthefield,alongtheroadetc.wereconducted.
Alsoavailablesecondaryliteratureanddatawereconsultedinordertocomparethecurrentsituationwith
previousyearsaswellastoreviewtheworkandachievementsofotherinstitutionsandorganisations
involvedindevelopmentandhumanitarianactivitiesinthevisitedareas.

Generaloverview
TheTekezeRiverwatershedisconsideredasoneofthemostremoteareasinEthiopia.Theclimateis
hotthelandisrockyandarid.Thesandysoilsareofpoorqualityandwerelongconsideredunsuitable
forfarming.OriginalsettlersusedtheTekezeRiverlowlandsmorefortheirlivestockaspasturelandthan
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foragriculture.Theareawasalsoneglectedformanyyearsandtherewerefewifanydevelopment
activities.Thetwomajorreasonsforitsneglectwereitsremotenessandthefactthattheareabecamea
TPLF(TigreanPeople'sLiberationFront)strongholdduringtheformersocialistgovernment.
Lookingatthedemographyofthearea,thepopulationdensitytodayiswellabovethesustainability
marginofthearea'sfragileecologicalsystem.Increasedpopulationpressures,especiallyinthehighland
areas,putmoreandmorepressureonavailablelandandpartsoftheformerlyrichhighlandsarecurrently
changingintofooddeficiencyareas.Manypoorfarmfamilieswereforcedtoleavethehighlandsandto
openvulnerableareassuchasescarpmentareasandsteepslopesforcultivation.Eventually,theTekeze
Riverwatershedwastheonlyplacelefttoopennewlandforcultivation.InsomeoftheTekezeRiver
lowlandareaspeoplebegantosettleasfarasfortyyearsago.Thentherewereonlyfew.Butnowadays
thepersistentsearchforcultivablecroplands,forexampleonsteepslopes,hasresultedinmassive
deforestationwhichinturnhasledtosignificantsoilerosion,decreasingsoilfertilityandeven
marginalisationandcompletedepletionofland(seepictureinannex).
Theareaismeherdependentwithonlyoneharvestperyear.Themaincropplantedissorghum.Forthe
lasttentotwentyyearsrainsaresaidtohavebecomeerratic,withpoorkiremtrainseasonsbecomingthe
normratherthantheexception.Erraticrainfallpatternsandperiodicrainshortageshavebecomeafactof
lifeforfarmersinandaroundtheTekezeRiverlowlandswithlongdryperiodsbeingfollowedbyheavy
rainsandhailstorms,whichdamagecrops.Theseheavyrainscausefloodingandsubstantialerosion
whileonthedegradedsurfacewaterrunoffratearehighandwaterinfiltrationlow.Nowadayslesswater
flowsfrompermanentspringsandsomeoftheseasonalspringsprovidewaterforonlyashortperiodof
timeorhavedriedoutforgood.Thecausesandtheremedyareunknownoratleastvaguetofarmers
whosay`onlygodknows'.
Nevertheless,withthenewgovernmentinplacesince1991,somebasicdevelopmenteffortshavebeen
undertakeninselectedweredasborderingorbeingpartoftheTekezeRiverwatershed.EspeciallyIbnat
weredaofSouthGonderzoneanditsneighbouringBelessaweredaofNorthGonderzonereceived
considerableattentionandbenefitedfromroadconstructionprograms,terracingandsmallscaleirrigation
projectsmostlycarriedoutunderfoodforwork(FFW)developmentactivitiesandemployment
generationscheme(EGS)reliefactivities.Manyfarmfamiliesaregainingincomeandarereceivingfood
aidthroughthesechannels.Butapartfromcreatingtemporaryemploymentopportunitiesforfarm
households,someoftheseprojectsareofquestionableeffectivenessandtheirsustainability.

Aboutthedifficultytorestorelosthouseholdassetsandresources
afterfamine
Allweredasthemissionfocusedonareincludedamongthe47weredas(outof105inAmharaRegion)
definedas"foodinsecure"bytheregion.AllfoodinsecureweredasaresituatedintheeastofAmhara
Region,i.e.inthebelgbeltanditsadjacentareasofbothGonderzonesaroundtheTekezeRiver
watershed.
Sincethelastseriousdroughtin1984,farmhouseholdstriedtoaccumulateassetssuchascattle,plough
oxen,`shoats'(sheepandgoats)andcash.Butonlyfewmanagedtogainbackwhattheylost.Nowadays
themajorityofthepopulationisleftmoreimpoverishedthanbefore1984.Thecycleofnaturaland
especiallymanmadedisastersisbecomingshortertoapointwherereestablishmentofpredisaster
conditionsbecomesimpossiblewithoutmassiveinputsandhelpfromoutside.Reestablishmentofpre
disasterconditionshasbecomevirtuallyimpossibleduetohighpopulationgrowthrates,highratesof
naturalresourcedegradation,poorhealthandsanitationconditions,lowlevelsoffarmtechnology,
limitedofffarmemploymentopportunities,noneorverylimitedmarketaccess,highlevelsofilliteracy
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andschoolnonattendance,othergovernmentprioritiesleadingtothediversionofneededandalready
scarceresourcesandmanymoresuchfactorsindicatinganddefiningsevereunderdevelopment.
Asamatteroffact,subsistencefarmingisnowwishfulthinkingforthemajorityoffarmhouseholdsin
thevisitedareas.Furthermore,in1997thegovernment,forthefirsttimesince1975,undertookyet
anotherlanddistribution,leavingquiteanumberofpeoplelandlessandmanymorewithaninsufficient
amountofland.
Whilerealisingthattargetingthepoorestisaprimarynecessity,foodhastobesuppliedinsufficient
amounteventothebetteroffsegmentofthepopulationtopreventageneralerosionofassetsin
chroniclefoodshortageareas.Thewayfoodaidstillistargetedtowardsthepooreststrataofapopulation
inanalreadyverypoor,underdevelopedandimpoverishedenvironmentrepresentsanimportantobstacle
totherestorationoflosthouseholdassets.

Socialstrataofthepopulationinthevisitedareas:thenon
subsistentmajority
representsacompilationofresourceindicatorsandwealthcategoriesfromdifferentsources,i.e.author's
resourcerankinginQualissa(seepictureintheannex)andHamusitkebeles,keyinformantassessments,
FHI(FoodfortheHungryInternational)wealthrankingforLayGayint,andSCFUK(SavetheChildren
FundUnitedKingdom)wealthcharacteristicsfortheTekezeRiverlowlands.
Fromthecompiledresourceindicatorsandfrominterviewsconductedthroughouttheassessedareasit
becameclearthatthenumberandtypeofanimalsaretheprimedeterminantsofwealth.Especially
ploughoxenareastatussymbolindicatingwealth.Surprisinglytheamountofcultivablelandisnotan
importantcriteriafordefiningwealth.FarmerinQualissa,forexample,explainedthathouseholds
owningenoughlandforsubsistencefarmingbutwhodon'townoxenoronlyone,areconsideredaspoor
becausewithoutoxentheywontbeabletoploughalltheirlandandconsequentlywouldhavetogive
awaypartoftheirlandforcultivation.Ontheotherhand,ahouseholdwhichownsacoupleofoxencan
makealivingalmostwithoutowninglandasrentingoutoxenwillprovideenoughrevenuetolive.
Householdsthatmanagetoraiseandkeepasubstantialnumberofcattleareabletosellsomeoffona
regularbasisandacquirelandwiththemoneytheyearn.Theprevailingfreegrazingsystemalsohasa
significantinfluenceontherelativeimportanceofresources.Forkeepingcattleandoxennoprivateland
isneeded.Animalsfreelygrazeeverywhere.Butthisinappropriatelandandlivestockmanagement
systemseemstobeoneofthekeycausesoftheseriousenvironmentaldegradationanditsvarious
consequences.
Table:Wealthcategoriesandcompiledresourceindicatorsforassessedareas
Resourceindicators
TheDestitute

`TheVery
Poor'
Number
andtypeof
animals

`ThePoor'

`TheMiddle'
Nooxen

No
animals

Havepoultry

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Acoupleofshoats

`TheRich'
1to2oxen
Somecattle
Canhaveup

>2oxen,>5
cattle,>2
donkeys/mules,
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Levelof
Not
subsistence subsistent
Eligibility
forEGS
andFFW
activities

Are
unableto
workin
EGSand
FFW

Amountof Nolandor
cultivable
onlyone
land
plot

Income
generating
activities

Seasonal
migration

None

None

Old
people

Notsubsistent

0.5to1.5ha

>40shoats

Notsubsistent

Subsistent

Subsistent

1.5to2.5ha

Enoughland
forsubsistence
farming,
usuallymore
than4ha

Womenwhobrew
andsell`Tella'in
localbars
Pettytraders,tradingwith
basicconsumptiongoods,
Farmersinthese
croptrading,transport
categoriesarenot
businesswithdonkeys
abletotrade
andmules
Dailyandcasual
labourers
Seasonalmigration
ofusuallyone
Migrationforwagelabour
familymember
notusual
(usuallymalehead
ofhousehold)
Manyfemale
Manyfemaleheaded
headedhouseholds
households

Typeof
household,
Disabledpeople
marital
Widows,
status
abandoned
Widows,
and
abandonedand
divorced
divorcedwomen
women

to40shoats

Primarytarget
CangetinvolvedinEGS
groupforEGSand
andFFWifnecessary
FFWactivities

Disabled
Oldpeople
people

Educational
level

Somepoultry

None

Oldpeople

Majorityare Majorityare
maleheaded maleheaded
households
households

Disabledpeople

Husbandand Husbandand
wifework
wifework
Widows,abandonedand together
together
divorcedwomen

None

Basic
Basic
education,can
education,
alsogetupto
primary
secondary
schoollevel
schoollevel

Allthethree`poor'categories,i.e.`thedestitute',`theverypoor'and`thepoor',arenotabletomakea
livingfromtheiravailableresources.Consequentlythefarmhouseholdsclassifiedinthesecategoriesare
`nonsubsistent'.Thefourexamplesin,whereassessedhouseholdsarestratifiedintowealthcategories,
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showthatmorethan50%ofthesehouseholdsarefoundwithinthe`nonsubsistent'categories.Thetwo
resourcerankingsthemissiondidintwodroughtproneandfoodshortagekebelesinthelowlandsof
TekezeRiverindicatesthatinsuchstructuraldeficitareas3/4ofthefarmhouseholdsmaynotbeableto
practicesubsistencefarming.Furthermore,ahighpercentageofthesehouseholdsmaynot,evenin
`normal'years,beabletomeettheirfoodneedswithoutsomeformofassistanceandsupport,i.e.relief
fooddistributions,EGSorFFW.
Peoplefromthe`poor'andthe`verypoor'wealthcategoriesaretheprimarytargetgroupsforEGSand
FFWactivities(see).Thisseemsreasonablesincehouseholdsfromthesecategoriesneedadditional
incomesourcestomakeupthefoodproductiondeficitontheirfarms.Freerelieffoodisdistributedto
thelowestwealthcategory.AndhouseholdsfrombetteroffcategoriescangetinvolvedinEGSandFFW
activitiesifnecessary.
Thenumberoffemaleheadedhouseholdsismoreprevalentinthe`poor',`verypoor'and`destitute'
categoriesthaninthetwobetteroffcategories.
Table:Examplesofhouseholdsclassifiedwithinwealthcategories
Householdsranked
TheDestitute

Ibnatwereda,Qualissa,`Got'No.1

Belessawereda,Hamusit,`Got'No.2`Bisraleo'
LayGayint,KebeleNo.26`DebreSina'
(FHIsurvey)
ZequallaworedaandaroundTekezeRiver(SCF
UKestimations)

`TheVery
Poor'

`The
Poor'

`The
Middle'

`The
Rich'

12HH

12HH

21HH

6HH

21%

21%

38%

11%

50HH

12HH

3HH

77%
598HH

18%
408HH

5%
162HH

50.3%

34.3%

13.6%

~60%

~20%

~20%

5
HH
9%

Whenlookingatthenecessaryresourcesavailableandassumingthatthefourexamplesofhousehold
classificationarerepresentativeforthesurveyedareas(eventhoughtheymaynot),onlythe`rich'arenot
yetindangerofslippingfurtherdownthesocialladder.Inconsecutivedroughtsituationsthe`middle',
noteligibletofoodaid,willsoonerorlaterbeforcedtoselltheironeortwooxenforfoodpurchasesand
willundoubtedlyloosetheirsocialstatusandbecomefoodaiddependant.Lookingatthepercentages,
onlyroughly10%oftheexamplehouseholdsareonthesafeside,beingabletolookafterthemselves
evenintimesoffoodshortage.Theremaining90%willnotbeabletocopeforanextendedperiodof
hardship.Thismeanseveninrelativelygoodtimeswithenoughrainandgoodharvests,themajorityof
thepopulationremainsathighriskbecausearangeofinternalandexternalcircumstancesdonotallow
themtoaccumulatethenecessaryassetswhichwouldallowthemtopullawayfromthestrugglefor
survivaltowardsalifewithaprospectfordevelopment.

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Currentreliefanddevelopmentactivities
Infrastructuredevelopment:basicprogrammesinitiated
OverthepreviousdecadepeoplelivinginandaroundtheTekezeRiverwatershedwererepeatedlyand
severelyaffectedbycivilwarwhichdevastatedthephysicalandsocialinfrastructure.Furthermore,part
oftheareawasrepeatedlydroughtstricken.Inthepastyears,approximately1/3to1/2ofthepopulation
ofIbnat,BelessaandLayGayintweredasdependedonexternalfoodaid.TheGovernmentofEthiopia,
togetherwithinternationalpartners,initiatedanintegratedfoodsecurityprogramtostabilisefood
securitythroughbasicinfrastructuredevelopmentandanumberofnaturalresourcerehabilitation
activities.
Foodforworkroadconstruction:paymoreandconstructbetterroads
Substantialeffortshavebeenputintoroadconstructions,whicharepartlycarriedoutthrough
EmploymentGenerationSchemes(EGS)andFoodForWork(FFW)andpartlythroughtheRegional
RoadConstructionAuthority.Withinthelastfiveyearsareasonablygoodroadsystemhasbeen
established(especiallyinIbnatandBelessaweredas)toallowaccesstoremoteareaswithchronicfood
shortageintheTekezeRiverlowlands.InotherweredassuchasLayGayint,TouchGayintandSemada,
localroadinfrastructuredoesnotyetalloweasyaccess.Buttheimportanceofaccessibilitytodrought
proneareasthroughanallweatherroadnetworkhaswidelybeenrecognised.
Roadsareanessentialbasicneedforremotecommunities,especiallyindroughtproneareasastheycan
openthewaytosignificantdevelopmentactivities.Asamatteroffact,developmentprojectsusually
avoidareaswherethereisnoaccessbyroad.Roadsbringaccesstoeducation,healthandmarketsthey
promotecommunicationandtheexchangeofideas.Roadsbringfooddistributionpointsneartothe
affectedpopulation.Peoplecanreachthedistributionpointsandfetchfoodwithoutwalkingforseveral
days.Inotherwordsroadsarethebasicmeansfortakeoffofdevelopmentingeneral.
Roadconstructionthroughfoodforworkwerebeingcarriedoutinallthevisitedchronicfooddeficit
weredas.InIbnatandBelessawereda,itisORDA,inDebreTaborandFartaitisGTZ's`IntegratedFood
SecurityProject'andinLayGayintitisORDAandFHIwhichareinchargeoftheseactivities.Butin
theseareasthequalityoftheroadsdiffersimmenselyanddependsonperson/daysinvestedandonthe
materialandtoolsemployed.Generally,themoreperson/daysinvestedperconstructedkilometre,the
bettertoolsandmaterialssuppliedtotheworkers,thebetterthequalityoftheroad.Appropriatetools
havetobesuppliedbytheimplementingprojectand/orthegovernmentalauthorities.Roadscannotbe
constructedbyhandappropriatetoolsareessential.Basic,cheapdryweatherroadsneedregularand
significantmaintenanceandcannotbeusedduringpartoftherainyseason.Feederroadstochronicfood
shortageareashavetobeaccessibleatanytimeoftheyear.Therefore,theyhavetobeallweatherroads
withanacceptabledrainagesystem.
Howmanyperson/daysshouldbeinvestedtobuildanacceptableallweatherfeederroad?WFPsuggests
2,000person/daysperkilometre.Thesenormsweredevelopedinthebeginningofthe1980s,hastilyand
underpressureoffaminewhenEthiopiasufferedfrombaddroughts.Theonlyobjectivewastogetfood
asquicklyandeffectivelytotheaffectedpopulations.Untilnowitremainsunclearunderwhatcriteria
thisworknormwasbased.Alltheprojectsthemissionvisitedstatedthat2,000person/daysarenot
sufficientandcanonlybeseenasarealisticcalculationforroadsconstructedonflatgroundwithaneasy
workablesurface.Andfurthermore,these2,000person/dayperkilometreroadsonlygive`(...)avery
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roughdryweatherroadofbadquality,demandingeveryyearahighmaintenancework'(Berhanuand
Waeldele,1999).Topography,soilandsurfacetypesandauxiliaryactivitiessuchasstonecollectionetc.
havetobeincludedamongotherconsiderationsintheperson/daysperkilometrecalculation.ORDA,for
example,investedupto6,000person/daysperkilometreconstructedroadintheirinterventionareasin
IbnatandBelessa.Thesteeptopographywithitspartlyrockyundergroundisverylabourintensivewhen
workedbyhand.Appropriatetoolsandmechanicsupportareindispensableforconstructinganall
weathergravelroadofgoodquality.
Recommendedpaymentofroadworkersis3kgofgrainplus120gramsofvegetableoilperworker/day.
Specialistssuchasmasonsgetcashpaymentaccordingtolocalrates.Unskilledlabourcanalsogetcash
payment,usually5Birrperworker/day.ORDAalsodistributespulsesbesidegrainandoilforpayment.
TheGTZprojectinDebreTaborsuggestsarevisionofthequantityandtypeoffoodgiveninexchange
oflabour.Incertainareasthevegetableoilisdirectlysoldandnotconsumed.
Noneoftheareasvisitedhadapermanentandinstitutionalisedroadmaintenancesysteminplace,mainly
duetofinancialconstraints.GTZinDebreTaborisplanningtocreatelocalstructuresforroad
maintenanceandisalreadytrainingfutureroadworkersdirectlyonthejob.Similarstructuresandon
thejobtrainingareencouragedandundertakenbyORDAinIbnatandBelessaweredas.Buttokeepsuch
amaintenanceunitrunning,thegovernmentmustbewillingtoprovidethefinancialmeanstodoso.
TheRuralRoadConstructionAgencyundertheRegionalAdministrationofAmharaalsodoesRoad
construction.Theseroadsareofprofessionalquality.Oneoftheseroadsunderconstructionwillcrossthe
TekezeRiverandconnectBelessawithWagHamraZone,finallyendingupinMekelle,TigrayRegion.
InIbnatandBelessaweredastheeffectsthenewroadaccessibilityareobviousforthosekebelesthatare
connectedtotheroadnetwork.InQualissatheschoolhasagainateacherforthefirsttimesincelong.
Warehouseshavebeeninstalleddirectlyinthedroughtproneareassopeopledonothavetowalklong
distancestofetchtheirfoodallocations.
Foodforworkdamconstructionsandsmallscaleirrigation:designedtobenefitalimitedand
privilegedtargetgroup
Thedevelopmentorganisation`SustainableAgricultureandEnvironmentalRehabilitationinAmhara
Region'(SAERAR)isconstructinganumberofwaterdamsandsmallscaleriverdiversionsinIbnatand
Belessaweredas.Someprojectshaverecentlybeencompletedandsomearestillunderconstruction.The
missionvisitedtheAterkaynaEarthDaminthevicinityofGuhala,weredacapitalofBelessa(seepicture
ofdaminannex).AlltheSAERARprojectsseemtohavesomecommoncharacteristic:althoughmostly
constructedthroughfoodforworkactivities,thedesignissophisticated,overdimensioned,the
technologyappliediscomplex,theperson/daysinvestedareveryhighandthesustainabilityinsome
casesremainsquestionable.TheAterkaynadamnhasjustbeencompletedandisinuseforthefirsttime.
Ithasbeenobserved,thatdespiteitsimpressivedimension,thedamisnotabletoholdallthewaterfrom
thecatchmentareabecausepartofitseepsoutunderground.Furthermore,notenoughattentionwaspaid
tothecatchmentareainthenearbymountains.Nothavingconstructedthenecessaryerosioncontrol
measures,thesteamscarryalotofmaterialandthedamisalreadysilting.Itisonlyamatteroftimeuntil
thedamwillbefilledwitherodedmaterial.Fromtheplanned70haoflandtobeirrigated,only30ha
canactuallybeirrigated.Itisverylimitedincomparisontothesizeofthedamandthequantityofwater
thatcouldbeheldandgraduallyreleased.
OtherirrigationprojectsconstructedbySAERARfacesimilardifficulties.Someofthemmayneverbe
operational.Consideringtheworkandeffortinvested,theeconomicoutputandthebenefitforthelocal
populationseemslimited.Onlyveryfewfarmersbenefitfromsuchconstructions,withthemajorityjust
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benefitingtemporarilyduringtheconstructionperiod.
Environmentalrehabilitationthroughfoodforworktreeplantingandterracingactivities
Treenurseriesandtreeplantingactivitieshavebeeninitiatedinseveralplaces.ORDAhasanumberof
nurserieswheretheyriseavarietyoftreeseedlings(seepictureofanORDAtreenurseryintheannex).
Fromthetotalareaof249,427hainIbnatwereda,681haareforestedandonly150haofnaturalforest
remain,andthesehavetobeguarded.Poorfarmersstilltaketheriskandcuttreesduringthenight.A
bundleof10kgissoldinIbnattownfor4to7Birr.ORDAdevelopmentandextensionexpertsadmit
thatfarmershavesurprisinglylittleknowledgeoftheimportanceoftrees.Nevertheless,inthehighlands
farmersarenowgrowingmoreEucalyptusduetomarketopportunitiesnowavailablethroughthenew
roadandconstructionactivitiesinIbnatandothercentres.InthedrylowlandsEucalyptuscannotbe
grown.Otherspecieshavebeentriedbutthesurvivalratesareverylowduetofreegrazinganimalsthat
eateverythingintheirway.
Roadsideplantationsareanothermeanstotrytoreintroducetreesintothearea.ORDAoptedforSchinus
molle,thepeppertree.AroundIbnatandGuhalavillagetreeshavebeenplantedfollowingtheroadfora
fewkilometresoutsideoftown(seepictureintheannex).Farmerswhoownfieldsbesidetheroadarethe
ownersofthetreesplantedonthelimitsoftheirplots.ButORDAhadtoemploypermanentguardsona
foodforworkbasistopatrolthegrowingtreesorthetreeswouldalreadyhavedisappearedasfoodfor
freegrazingdomesticanimals.
Unlessfarmershavepermanentcontroloverthetrees,promotingandplantingtreesinIbnatandBelessa
seemssomewhathopeless.Butfarmerscannotgrowtreeseedlingsaroundtheirhomesbecausetheyare
toofarfromthenearestwatersource.SomefarmersvisitedontheroadtoQualissaplantogrowfruit
treesalongapermanentriverwherethereisenoughwatertowaterthemintheirinitialgrowingstage.
Theyplantoguardthetreesdayandnighttopreventdestructionbyfreegrazinganimalsorbyjealous
neighbours.SuchsolutionsseemveryoptimisticconsideringtheconstraintstheyfacebutORDAtriesits
besttocarryoutatleastsomebasicdevelopmentactivitiesinsuchhostileenvironmentswhereall
resourcesareextremelyscarce.Muchoftheworkandfarmer'smotivationisacquiredthroughfoodfor
workpayments.Fewofthedevelopmentactivitiesarethroughfarmer'sowninitiatives.Thereforethe
questionofsustainabilitystillremains.
HillsideterracinghasbeenandisstillbeingcarriedoutinmanypartsofIbnatandBelessaweredas(see
pictureintheannex).Someofthefirststoneterracesestablishedafewyearsagoareinbadshapeand
partlydestroyed.Againfreegrazinganimalsdidmuchofthedamage,butalsoheavyrainscaused
landslides.Theseterraces,constructedthroughFFWandEGS,perfectlyreflectfarmers'attitudetowards
projectsandinitiativesplannedanddesignedwithouttheirparticipation.Theyarenotmotivatedanddo
notmanifestanysenseofresponsibilitytowardsmaintainingthembecausetheydonotseetheirutility.
Theproblemofsustainabilityanddevelopmentthroughfoodforworkprojects
Themajorproblemsfoodforworkanditsreliefbasedbrother,theemploymentgenerationschemes
facedandarestillfacingare,amongothers,limitedtechnicalresources,fewtools,insufficientfundsfor
materials,limitedmonitoringfacilitiesanddoubtfulprojectsustainability.Anysustainabilitythrough
foodforworkcanonlyberealisedwithaparticipatoryplanninganddesignoftheactivitiestogetherwith
theinvolvedcommunities.Participatoryplanninganddesignwouldalsominimisetheriskofstarting
projectsandinitiativeswhichdonotreflectthenecessitiesandwishesofthepeopleconfrontedand
affectedbyspecificproblemssuchasfoodandwatershortage.Developmentactivitiesaddressingfood
securityissuesarecurrentlyfacingsimilarproblemsasother,particularlyruralagriculturaldevelopment
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andresearchprogrammesandprojectsindevelopingcountries.Fortoomanyyearstopdownapproaches
haveandarestillbeingused.Iffoodforworkactivitiesaretobecomeselfreliantandsustainable,the
approachhastobechangedradicallytowardsparticipatoryinvolvementofthetargetpopulationwitha
longtermdevelopmentfocus.
Anumberofdevelopmentspecialistsbelievethatrelieffooddeliveredoverthelast20yearstochronic
fooddeficitareaslikeWeloandpartsofNorthandSouthGonderhassomehow"spoiled"farmersandled
themintoadangerousrelieffooddependency.GTZ's`IntegratedFoodSecurityProject'inDebreTabor
islikelytofacedifficultieswithsustainabilityoftheirvariousdevelopmentactivities,e.g.thehopethat
theseactivitieswillbetakenoverbythecommunityandthelocalauthorities.GTZ'sprojectcoordinator
saysthatitisbecomingincreasinglydifficulttomobilisefarmersforsustainabledevelopmentactivities
underFFWandotherdevelopmentprojects.Theconsistent,ongoingfoodaidhasminimisedinitiatives
withinthepopulationforselfrelianceandselfhelpactivities.
Basichealthstructureandfamilyplanning:developmenteffortstobeincreasedsignificantly
MalnutritionandAnaemia,thelackofiron,arepermanenthealthproblemsinallvisitedareas,indicating
chronicfoodshortageforsomesegmentsofthepopulationinsomeareas.Generallytheincidentratesof
themostcommondiseasesfluctuatethroughouttheyear,mainlydependingonandnegativelycorrelated
totheavailabilityoffood.Malaria,respiratoryinfections,e.g.tuberculosis,intestinalparasites,diseases
causingdiarrhoea,skininfections,malnutritionandanaemiaarethemostcommondiseasesreportedto
healthcentres.MerasmusandKwashiokorhavebeenreportedforsomeisolatedcases.Sofarnotrend
hasbeenobservedindicatinganincreaseinmalnourishedchildren.
Generallynonutritionalsurveysarecarriedoutduetolackofmaterial,personalandlogistics.The
missiondidnotencounteranyseverelyaffectedchildrenshowingacuteorchronicsignsofmalnutrition.
Familyplanningactivitiesarebeingcarriedoutbyanumberoforganisations.GTZisactiveinNorth
andSouthGonderzonessince1994.Theprojecttrainedapproximately8,000voluntarylocalhealth
workersinfourdifferentzones.Onthelocalandthehouseholdlevelthereisanobjectiveandsubjective
demandforfamilyplanninginformation.Butfamilyplanningfacesanumberofmajorconstraintsand
difficulties.Inmanyplaces,butparticularlyintheeasternpartsofNorthGonderzonearoundtheTekeze
Riverwatershed,localhealthfacilitiesandcapacitiesareoftentooweaktoimplementfamilyplanning
activitiesandaccessibilitytomanyhealthstationsisaproblem.Healthcentreequipmentandthequality
oftrainedpersonnelcannotevenmeetthemostbasicstandardsandrequirementstocarryoutfamily
planningactivities.MostofthevoluntarylocalhealthworkerstrainedbyGTZarenolongeravailable.
Byusingtraditionalchannelsandvolunteersforfamilyplanningactivities,projectsandprogrammesface
problemsofsustainability,partlybecausethereisnotenoughmonitoringofongoingactivities.Onthe
otherhand,eventhoughhealthandfamilyplanninghavebeenrecognisedaspriorityinterventionatthe
locallevel,thenationalpolicydoesnotattachtherequiredimportancetothedevelopmentofthehealth
sector.
PopulationgrowthratesinEthiopiaareamongthehighestintheworld.InmanypartsofEthiopiasuchas
thedroughtproneandchronicfoodshortageareasaroundTekezeRiverwatershed,populationdensity
hasreachedapointwheresubsistencelivelihoodandsustainablelandusearenolongerpracticable.
Agriculturaldevelopmentandextensionservicesneedappropriateattention
Theagriculturalsystemintheassessmentareacanbecharacterisedbylowtechnology,lowproductivity
andhighrisklevels.Yieldsandcropproductionarepoor,eveninsocalledbumperharvestyearssuchas
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forthe1998meherseason.Theareawasneglectedbyformergovernmentsandthefewdevelopmentand
extensionprogrammescarriedoutweredevelopedcentrallyinatypicaltopdownmanner.Peoplewere
forcedtoparticipateinFFWafforestationandsoilconservationactivities.Andeventhoughthenew
extensionstrategyissaidtobemoreparticipatory,developmentagentsandspecialistsstilloften
approachfarmerswitha`topdown'attitude.
Furthermore,anumberofproblemsarestillunsolved.Duetoshortageoffundsmanygovernmentalfield
stafflackexperience,practicaltrainingandindepthknowledge.Improperfertiliserapplication,for
example,candomoreharmthangood.Aspriorityisgiventoincreasefoodproduction.Agricultural
developmentactivitiesareconcentratedongrainandlittleextensionworkisdoneonpulses,oilcrops
andvegetables.
Herdsizeinthearea,especiallytowardstheTekezeRiverlowlands,istoohighfortheareaandlivestock
conditionatthetimeofthevisitlookedpoor.Duetothelackofgrazingmanagement,i.e.paddock
system,alllivestockcangrazefreelydamagingcropsandtrees.Thislivestockoverpopulation,combined
withinappropriatemanagement,iscertainlyamongthecausesfortheseriousenvironmentaldegradation.
Unfortunatelyagriculturalextensionservicesdonotattachenoughattentiontoproblemsrelatedto
livestock.Awarenessshouldbecreatedamongfarmerstokeepfewlivestockingoodconditionrather
thanmanyanimalsinpoorcondition.However,asnotedelsewhereinthispaper,livestockarebotha
statussymbolandthefamilies'socialsecuritysystem.Socialstatusandeconomicuncertaintiesaswellas
freegrazingallcombinetoencouragefarmerstohavemoreanimalsratherthanless.
Duetoaverybasicorincertainareasnonexistingallweatherroadsystem,marketingofagricultural
productsisverylimited.Alsoruralcreditandinputsupplysystemarenotyetwellestablished.Thecredit
systemofferedbygovernmentalinstitutionsneedsadjustmentsasfarmersfeelthattherepaymenttime
periodistooshortandinterestratesaretoohigh.

Foodsecurityandcopingmechanisms
Thefarmer'soptionsfordealingwithfoodshortagesandwithfaminearecommonlyreferredtoas
`copingmechanisms'.Thewayfarmhouseholdscopewithfoodshortagesislargelydeterminedbytheir
precrisispositionandinvolvesasuccessionofresponsestoincreasinglysevereconditions(Webband
Braun,1994).Activatingandusingcopingmechanismsisaresultof`(...)aprogressivenarrowingof
optionsthatleadsfrombroadattemptstominimiseriskinthelongtermthroughactionsdesignedtolimit
damagecausedbyacrisis,toextrememeasuresaimedatsavingindividuallives,evenattheexpenseof
householddissolution'(WebbandBraun,1994).Thesevariousmechanismsareaimedatrisk
minimisation,riskabsorptionandrisktaking.
Farmershavedevelopedarangeofcopingmechanismstoovercomecropproductionshortages.Butthe
readerhastokeepinmindthatnotallhouseholdswithinanareaarethesame.Eachhouseholdhasits
owntradeoffsbetweenandwithinvariouscopingoptionsaccordingtoitsavailableresourcebaseand
whereitsdevelopmentstandswithinthecontinuumoflife,i.e.new,andyoungversusoldhouseholds.In
theassessedtargetareathefollowingvarietyofcopingmechanismsareused.
Cropdiversificationforriskminimisation
AroundIbnattown,inthemorefertilehighlands,farmersgrowupto15differentcropsontheirfarms
adaptedtothedifferentsoiltypesandmicroclimaticconditions.Butfurthertowardsthelowlands,where
soilsarelessfertile,thechoiceofviablecropsisreducedtoamaximumof7.Thismeansthatlowland
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farmersareleftwithonlyhalfthecropchoicesand,evenmoresignificant,withdoubletherisk.Lowland
farmersarealsomuchmorevulnerabletoerraticclimaticconditionsandlackofrainfall.Farmerswere
pushedintothesehighriskareasinanefforttoescapetheevergrowingpopulationandlandpressurein
thehighlands.Itseemsverylikelythathouseholds'wealthstatusisdecreasingthefurtherdownintothe
TekezeRiverlowlandstheproceedwiththepoorestlivinginthelowlands,whilethewealthiestlivein
themorefertileareasandlessdegradedareasofthehighlands.
Dailylabour
The`rich'and`betteroff'households,whohavelargeherdsofsmallstock,hireshepherdsfrom`poorer'
householdstolookaftertheirherds.Usuallytheseshepherdsareyoungboys.AnSCFUKstudystates
thatsuchdailylabourmaycountasmuchas20%to30%ofahouseholdoffive'scalorificintake(SCF
UK,1998).LimiteddailylabouropportunitiesarealsoavailableinsmalltradingcentressuchasGuhala
andArbayainBelessawereda,IbnatandQualissainIbnatwereda,NefasMewchainLayGayintwereda
andothercentresalongtheChineseroad.Suchdailylabouropportunitiesconsistmostlyofcarrying,
loadingandunloadinggoods.
Migratorylabour
ManyheadsoffamiliestemporarilymigratetoGonder,BahirDarandotherurbancentresfordaily
labouropportunities.SomealsotrytofindworkfurtherawayintheHumeraareaoncommercialcotton
farms.
Pettytrade
Pettytradeasasourceofincomeandacopingmechanismappliestoonlyfewpeopleandhouseholdsin
theassessedareas,mostlyforpeoplefromthe`middle'and`rich'wealthcategories.Poorhouseholds
neitherhavethecapitaltostartasmalltradingbusinessnorthepackanimalsneeded.Mosttradeisin
grainandbasicconsumablesandwithpackanimalsasmeansoftransport.
Spinning,cottonprocessingandweaving
Spinning,cottonprocessingandweavingismostlypractisedbytheMuslimpartofthepopulationof
IbnatandBelessawereda.Menandwomenareinvolvedandsharethework.Therawcotton,either
locallyproducedorimportedfromMatama,isboughtonthemarket.Therawcottonisdirectlyspun,
washedandwoven.Ablanket(gabi)sellsfor12Birronthelocalmarket.NowadaysalsoChristian
householdsarelearningtheskillstodiversifytheirofffarmactivitiesandtoincreasetheirincome.
However,sincelessthan3%ofthepopulationisofMuslimoriginandChristianhouseholdsarejust
beingintroducedtothisincomegenerationactivity,itcannotberegardedasanimportantcoping
mechanism.
Beveragemaking(Tej,TellaandArakibrewing)
InlocalcentressuchasIbnat,Guhala,Qualissa,Arbayaetc.womenbrewTellaandAraki,localalcoholic
drinkssoldtofarmersinlocalbars.Womencanmakeaprofitoutofthebrewingthroughoutalmostall
theyear.Furthermore,manyfarmersownbeehiveswhichproducetherequiredhoneyforEthiopia'sTej,
ahoneybasedalcoholicdrink.Honeyisharvestedonceayearandthefarmercanearnasmuchas40
Birrperhive.InIbnatandBelessaweredahoneyproductionislimitedtothemidlands,wherethereare
stillenoughfloweringtreesandplants.
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Livestocksales
Surpluslivestockissoldtobuyadditionalfood,whichcannotbeproducedonfarm.Livestockisalso
keptforsocialsecurityreasons.Ifafamilymemberisill,thesellingofananimalmaycovertheexpense
fordrugsandtreatment.Livestockmaycontributearound25%ofthetotalannualfoodneedsofthe`rich'
and`middle'categories(SCF/UK,1998),butisoflittleimportanceforthe`poor'and`verypoor'
categorieswithonlyfewornoanimals.
Firewoodsales
Onlyaverylimitednumberofpeopleusefirewoodcuttingasasourceofincome.Itisonlypractisedin
thelowlandareas.Inthedegaand'highdega'highlandsofallthevisitedareastherearenotenoughtrees
leftorplantedtomakeitasourceofincomeforfarmers.
Sellingofstraw
The`verypoor'andthe`poor'householdsdonotownsignificantnumbersoflivestockandthereforeare
willingtosellthestrawremainingfromtheircropstofarmerswhohaveanimalstofeed.Especiallyin
thelowlandsandeveninpooryears,strawforfoddercanbeproduced.TheSCFUKstudy(1998)states
fortheirsurveyedweredathat`(...)thesaleofstrawfromtheir[farmers]fieldsbringsmoreincomethan
thesaleofthe2040kgofgrainavailable.'Butitisnotsaidwhetherthesellingofstrawisanimportant
sourceofincomeornot.Themissioncouldnotverifythisfindingbutforthe`poor'withsomelandit
contributestotheirincome.
Prostitution
AstudydonebyORDAinIbnatwereda(Mach,1997)investigatingofffarmincomeopportunities,
identified26differentactivities.Interviewedfarmersrankedtheactivitiesaccordingtotheirrelative
importanceandprostitutionwasrankedmostimportant.Unfortunately,thestudydoesnotgiveany
explanationandreasons.
Otherofffarmincomeopportunities
Anumberofotherofffarmactivitiesarepractisedwithintheassessedareas,butonlyaminorityof
peopleareinvolvedandmainlyinurbancentres.Furthermore,activitieslikecarpentry,masonry,pottery,
tanneryandfoodservicesarenotnormallyregardedascopingmechanisms.

Underdevelopmentandfoodshortageindicators
Thefollowingunderdevelopmentandfoodshortageindicatorscouldbeidentifiedintheareasvisited.
Pooraccesstopotablewater
IntheTekezeRiverlowlandsthepercentageofruralpopulationhavingaccesstosafedrinkingwater,
tapsorprotectedwellsislikelytobelessthan5%[3],whichmeanstheareaisamongthepoorest
concerningaccesstosafewater.
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Pasture,livestockandherdsize(deteriorationoflivestockcondition)
Generallythelivestockpopulationistoohighinthearea.Consequently,livestockconditionispoorand
theremainingpastureareaschronicallyovergrazed.Afurtherdeteriorationoflivestockconditionhasnot
beenobservedinIbnatandBelessaweredasbutinLayGayintthesituationseemsdeterioratedcompared
tootheryears.MarketpricesarestillmoreorlessstableinIbnatandBelessa,buthavedramatically
decreasedinLayGayint(seesectiononmarketconditionsbelow).
Nutritionalstatus,decreasinggeneralhumanhealthcondition
Nutritionalsurveysarenotcarriedoutonaregularbasis.GTZdidanutritionalbaselinesurveyfortheir
interventionareasinSouthGonder.Thesurvey,donein1997,showsasatisfactorysituationwithweight
forlengthabove90[4].Generallythehealthsituation,whichislowintheseunderdevelopedareas
anyway,doesnotlookmorealarmingthanusualwiththeexceptionmaybeofLayGayint.InLayGayint
ithasbeenreportedthatmanypeoplecometoNefasMewchaforbeggingbecausetheyhavenomore
foodintheirhomes.Butnutritionalstatusofthepopulationremainsunknown.Seealsothesectionon
basichealthstructureandfamilyplanning.
Deterioratingtermsoftrade
TermsoftradeinruralareasofEthiopiaaredefinedbytheamountofgrainthatcanbeboughtbyselling
livestock.InIbnatandBelessaweredascommoncropandlivestockpricesremainedmoreorlessstable
duetolastyear'sgoodmeherharvestandthefactthatORDAissupplyingenoughrelieffoodtothearea.
Therefore,alsolivestockprices,eventhoughlivestockconditionispoor,remainedstable.Also,inthese
areasfarmershavenotyethadtoselllivestockinordertobuyfood.InLayGayint,however,aslight
deteriorationoftermsoftradecanbeobserved.Livestockpricesarelowercomparedtothesameperiod
lastyearandmorepeopleareofferinglivestockforsale,needingcashtobuyfood.Grainpricesonthe
otherhandincreasedandarehigher.InactualmarketpricesinLayGayintformostcommoncropand
livestockarelistedandcomparedwithJune1998prices.Thepricegapbetweenlastyearandthisyear
givesindicationforfoodstressinpartsofLayGayintwereda.
Table:AveragemarketpricesincentralmarketsofLayGayintwereda
Tradedgoods June1999prices June1998prices Trend
Crops
Barley
Wheat

195Birr/quintal
192Birr/quintal

187Birr/quintal
172Birr/quintal

Teff
Sorghum

230Birr/quintal
170Birr/quintal

210Birr/quintal
148Birr/quintal

Maize
Livestock

150Birr/quintal 217.5Birr/quintal

Oxenandcows 250300Birr/piece 500550Birr/piece

Goat
50Birr/piece
57Birr/piece
Sheep
50Birr/piece
62Birr/piece
(Source:FHINefasMewchaandAddisAbaba)
Abnormalfoodstressandchangingeatinghabits
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NoabnormalfoodstresshasbeenreportedorhasbeenobservedinIbnatandBelessaweredas.
InLayGayintweredaFHIreportedpeopleeatingwildplantssuchasGetinandSama.Getinisa
nettleplantandSamahasthickdroughtresistantleaves.Bothplantshavetobecookedandare
consumedasasortofvegetable.OtherwildplantssuchasWushesh,WofeandGilmanawere
mentioned.Theconsumptionofwildplantsisincreasing.Cookingandeatingfrequenciesmay
changeaswell.Towhatextendthesehabitschangedormaychangeinthecomingmonthscould
notbeevaluated.
Grasspea,alsoknownas`vetch'andinAmharicasGuaya,iscultivatedinvariousplacesespecially
inthedrierlowlands.InLayGayintFHIpromotesgrasspeaasanimalfodder.Butpeople,likein
otherareassufferingfromchronicfoodshortages,alsoeatitassurvivalfood,riskinglathyrism,a
diseasecausingirreversiblecripplingeffects[5].
Sellingoffpermanenthouseholdassets
Toselloffpermanenthouseholdassetstobuyfoodisanactofdesperationandisonlytakenasa
lastditchmeasure.Draftoxenarepermanenthouseholdassetsrepresentingwealthandprideofa
family.UnlikeinneighbouringNorthWelo,notmanyoxenhadtobesold.Therearesignsof
unusualsellingofshoatsinLayGayint,butthesituationhasnotyetdeterioratedtothepoint
wherehouseholdsbegintosellofftheiroxen.Theselloffofpermanenthouseholdassetshasalso
notbeenmentionedasaparticularstressfactorineitherIbnat,Belessa,orinLayGayintwereda.
Increasingtemporaryandpermanentoutmigration
Apartfromthenormalseasonalmigrationfordailyworktothehighlands,intourbancentresof
NorthandSouthGonderandGojamandoncottonandsorghumfarmsinthewesternpartof
GonderandTigray,noparticularstressmigrationhasbeenreportedsofarfromIbnatandBelessa
weredas.Peoplearegettingenoughfoodthroughthevariousreliefanddevelopmentactivities
organisedbyORDA.
AslightlydifferentsituationhasbeenreportedbyFHIofficialsinNefasMewchaforLayGayint.
Temporarymigrationhasacceleratedandthenumberofpeoplelookingfordailylabourisunusual
forthistimeoftheyear.EveninNefasMewcha,theweredacapitalofLayGayint,anunusual
numberofpeopleareroamingthestreetsbeggingandlookingforwork.
Increasingnumberofschooldropouts
Themissioncouldnotgatheranyrelevantdataconcerningschooldropoutsintheareasvisited.
However,inIbnatandBelessathetwoschoolsinHamusitandQualissawerevisitedandneither
mentionanunusualnumberofschoolabsentees.
Increasedrelieffoodrequirements
InIbnatandBelessaweredasfooddistributionquantitieshaveconstantlyrisensincethefirst
distributionstookplaceaftertheendofthewarin1992.Whereasin1992atotalof5,000MTwere
distributed,theamountreached20,000MTin1997withtheupwardtrendcontinuing.Butitis
worthemphasisingthattheamountoffooddistributedin1992couldbyfarnotmeetthe
population'sneeds.Theamountoffooddistributedeachyearcouldberisenbecausethe
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availabilityforfoodandthedistributionmeanssuchasallweatherfeederroadsandstocking
facilitiesweregreatlyenhancedandmoreneedypeoplecouldbereached.NowadaysIbnatand
Belessaweredasrepresenttwoexceptionalcasesofchronicfoodshortageweredaswherefood
requirementsareactuallymetandallthebeneficiariesgettheirfoodrationsthroughoutthe
requiredperiodoftime.
ForLayGayintandmostoftheother47foodinsecureweredasofAmharaRegion,fooddeliveries
rarelymeetnormalrequirements.Whenrequirementsshouldbeincreasedduetoanaggravated
foodshortage,authoritiesandinternationalorganisationsarehardlyevercapableofmeetingthese
needs.Formoredetailsseealsothenextsectionwherebeneficiariesandfoodrequirementsare
discussed.

Beneficiariesandfoodrequirements
MostrelieffoodintheweredasandareasvisitedisneededanddistributedintheTekezeRiver
lowlandareas.FHIinLayGayintestimatesthat50%ofitstotal191,000peoplearenormallyin
needofadditionalfoodforacertainperiodoftime.EstimationsforIbnatandBelessaaresimilar
andoverthelastfewyearsbeneficiarynumbersforeachweredawerearound80,000to100,000,
i.e.approximatelyhalfofthepopulation.IntheweredasinandaroundtheTekezeRiver
watersheditisnoexaggerationtoestimatethatapproximately50%ofthepopulationdependon
relieffoodforapproximately5monthsperyear,usuallybetweenAprilandSeptember.InLay
Gayintweredaaveragefoodproduction,forexample,coversonly5.6monthsofthetotalannual
foodrequirements.Inotherweredasthetotalannualfoodproductionissimilarlylow.
Dueto1998bumpermeherharvestexpectationsatpreharvestassessmenttime,onlyaround
10,000beneficiarieswereestimatedtohavebeenaffectedinIbnatandBelessaweredas.Butthere
aremorepeopleinneedasbeneficiarynumberswereunderestimatedduringlastyear'spre
harvestassessment.Unfortunately,nopostharvestassessmentwascarriedoutanditisdifficultto
knoweithertheeffectivecropproductionortheexactnumberofaffectedpeople.Postharvest
assessmentsarealsomissinginmanyareas,paradoxicallyespeciallyinvulnerabledroughtaffected
areaswherepostharvestassessmentswouldactuallybeveryhelpfulintargetingfoodaid
interventions.
NorthGonder'sTekezeRiverlowlandweredassuchasBeyedaandJanaMora,situatedonthe
vergeoftheSimienMountains,arenotaccessiblebyroad.WalkingfromBeyedaweredatoAdi
ArkayvillageonthemainroadtoTigrayRegion,takesafarmerapproximatelythreedays.Forthe
populationofBeyedawereda,AdiArkayisthenearestfooddistributionsite.Veryfewfarmers
pickuptheirfoodandmostselltheirrationsimmediatelyaftercollectionastheywouldrather
havethemoneythatiseasilytransportedbackhome.ADPPBofficialinGondertoldthemission
thatbeneficiariesselltheirrelieffoodinAdiArkayatpricesevenbelowtransportcosts.Therefore,
itseemslegitimatetoproposecashpaymentsforbeneficiariesinremotedroughtproneand
chronicfoodshortageareas.Subsidisingfoodbeneficiarieswithcashinsteadoffoodwouldbe
muchmorecosteffectiveandeconomic.Butsomehowthispropositionofcashsubsidypayments
forfoodshortagesisnotdiscussedatnationalandinternationaldecisionmakinglevels.
InIbnatandBelessaORDAismanagingagoodearlywarningsystem.Foodisreaching
beneficiariesontimeandinsufficientamounts.MostofthefoodisdistributedthroughFFWand
EGS.ORDA'sFFWandEGSemployeescangetaround60kgofgrainpermonth.ManyFFW
roademployeeswespoketoinIbnatandBelessaweredashavemorethanonefamilymember
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workingperiodicallyinORDA'sFFWandEGSprojects.Consequently,eachfamilyenrolledfor
FFWorEGSgetsonaveragemorethan60kgofgrainpermonths.Manyfarmersareabletosell
partoftheirharvestonthemarket,whichissortofparadoxforachronicfoodshortagearea.
Withoutrelieffoodtheywouldnotevenbeabletomeettheirbasicneedsandfeedthemselves.
Hence,withregularandsufficientrelieffoodsupplies,farmersareabletosellupto50%oftheir
harvesttobuybasicgoodsandpaygovernmenttaxesand,moreimportantly,theydonothaveto
sellproductiveassetstosurvive.

Conclusionsandrecommendations
Specialgovernmentalattentionmakesthedifferenceforchronicfoodshortageareas
TheTekezeRiverlowlandswereneglectedforalongtime.Havingservedasastrongholdforthe
TPLFintheirfightwiththeformersocialistgovernment,onlyverylittledevelopmentassistance
wasaccordedtothearea.Itwasonlyatthebeginningofthe1990sthatsomeeffortswere
undertakentoaddressbasicdevelopmentissues.Todaytheareaisstilllargelyunderdevelopedand
farfrombeingabletocoveritsbasicneeds.Basicinfrastructuredevelopmentisunderway,but
agriculturalassistance,forexample,isnotsufficientandthepotentialforintensiveagriculturalis
limitedduetounfavourableagroecologicalconditions.Recentlanddistributionsdidnoteasethe
pressureforlandandvoluntarymigrationandresettlementarenotreallyoptionsatthistime.
Inthetwo"showcases"ofIbnatandBelessathegovernmentproveditsemergencyand
developmentcapabilities.Bothweredasshowthatwithspecialgovernmentalattentionanda
certainpoliticalwillandinterestitispossibletoprovideenoughrelieffoodthroughEGSandFFW
tofeedthepopulationandcontributetothedevelopmentofbasicinfrastructure.Butthetwocases
alsoshowthatpoliticalwillingnessisanecessarypreconditionforeffectiveinterventionandefforts
undertakentomovetowardsreestablishingfoodsecurityinchronicfoodshortageareas.Onthe
otherhand,thegovernmentmaynothavethenecessaryresourcesavailabletoduplicateand
spreadeffortsundertakeninIbnatandBelessatoalltheotherdroughtproneandchronicfood
shortageareasofthecountry.
Targetingreliefandfoodaidtowardsthedestituteandthepoorestcausesfurthererosionofassets
withinthesociety
Inmanyfooddeficitareasofthecountryfooddistributionshavefallenwellbelowrequirements.In
someareaswhererequirementswerenotmetforthelastcoupleofyears,peoplecopedatthe
expenseoftheirproductiveassets.Furtherlanddegradationthroughdeforestationandmassive
soilerosionhastakenplace.Manyfamiliesareusingtheirlastreserves.Byprovidinginsufficient
foodtoaneedyareaforsomeyears,sayonly60to70%oftherequirements,thewholepopulation
ofanareamaybecomesdestitute.Furthermore,reliefandfoodaid,becauseoflimitedsupplies,are
usuallytargetingthe`poorestofthepoor'withinaninterventionarea.The`rich'and`middle'
families,whichtraditionallyprovideemploymentopportunitiesfortheirpoorerneighbours
throughdailywagelabourinthefields,herdingopportunities,employmentwithinthehousehold
andtherentalofpackanimalsarenotincluded.However,the`rich'and`middle'arecrucialfor
thesurvivalofthe`poor'.Intimesofseverestressitisjustasimportanttomakeprovisionsforthis
strataofthepopulationasitistoprovideassistancetothepoorestsegmentofthepopulation.Ifthe
`richand`middle'areimpoverishedtraditionalsocialstructuresandmutualsupportsystems
breakdownandthereareevenfewerofffarmopportunitiesforthepoorestsegmentsofthe
population.Erosionofassetsofthe`rich'and`middle'makesthestruggleforsurvivalevenharder
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andincreasesdependenceonoutsideaid.
Relativeandabsolutepovertyhastobemeasuredwithinanareaofintervention.Itisverylikely
thateventheavailableresourcesofthesocalledanddefined`rich'familiesofanareamaybe
insufficientforsubsistencefarming.ThishasprovedtobethecaseinareasvisitedinNorthand
SouthGonderandalsoinotherchronicfoodshortageareasvisitedearlier(seeGuinand,1999b).
Whenlookingattheavailableresources(seesectiononsocialstrataofthepopulation),the
majorityofthefamiliesareleftwithanonsubsistentfarmingsystemwithinsufficientofffarm
incomeopportunitiestocompensatefortheagriculturalproductiongap.Hence,insuchareasa
largerpartofthepopulationhastobesupportedbyoutsidedevelopmenteffortstopreventthe
erosionofassetswithinthewholepopulation.
FoodaidinEthiopiadoesnotseemtohaveaclearpurposeandobjective.Oftenfoodaidisonly
providedtosavelives.Lessoftenfoodaidisdesignedtoprotectlivesandtheproductiveassets
necessarytomakealiving.Rarelyhasfoodaidreallycontributedtotherestorationofassetsand
resourcesinfaminestrickenareas.Hence,longtermfoodcommitmentsforfooddeficitareaswith
structuralproblemsareneeded.Developmentincentivescreatedthroughandwiththeprovisionof
foodunderadhocinterventionsdiscouragesgoodplanningandcreates`stopandgo'interventions
whichcontributelittletothecreationofeffectivefoodsecuritymechanismsandstructures.
Short,midandlongtermdevelopmentincentives
[6]
IntheshorttermreliefandfoodaidinformofEGSandFFWforinfrastructuredevelopmenthas
tobemaintainedandintensifiedinsomeareassuchasLayGayinttomeetfoodrequirementsof
thepopulation.
Anextstepwouldbetocreatesustainableselfhelpstructureswithoutsidefinancialsupport(from
governmentalorothersources)formaintaininginfrastructuresbuildundertheseschemese.g.
roadsandhealthcentres.
Agriculturalandhealthextensionserviceswouldhavetobesubstantiallyenhancedasdescribedin
therespectivesectionsofthereport.Reforestationandotherdevelopmentprogrammesforsoil
conservationhavetoincludeeconomiccomponentsandcreatemarketopportunitiesforthe
productspromoted.Trees,forexample,shouldbetreatedandseenasanessentialcashcropfor
incomegeneration.
InviewoftheimmensedevelopmentproblemsEthiopiaisfacing,itmaybeworthinvestigatingifit
isworthwhiletoconcentrateandinvestmajordevelopmentresourcesinextremelyvulnerable
areaswithoutcombiningthesemeasureswithdevelopmentprogrammesinothermoreprogressive
andlessvulnerableareasofthecountry.Thegovernmentdecidedtochoosetwooftheseverely
affectedweredasduringthe1984/85famineandtodevelopthemasexamplesforsimilar,future,
interventionsinotherweredas.Bygivingspecialattentiontofoodsecuritystabilisation,more
effortshavetobedirectedtowardsthedevelopmentanddiversificationofofffarmactivities.As
mentionedinseveralsectionsofthisreport,agriculturalintensificationisverylimitedandcannot
solvetheproblemofchronicfoodshortageintheseoverpopulated,ecologicallylabileandfragile
environments.
Intheareaswherebasicinfrastructuredevelopmentisunderway,offfarmactivitiesmaysoonbe
developedandavailableforsomefarmers.Allweatherroadsprovideaccessandrepresentthe
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basisfortrading,constructionandotherdevelopmentactivities.Thecollectionandsellingof
`incense'resinfromBoswelliapapyriferatreesmayonlybeoneofthenewmarketingpotentialsfor
theTekezeRiverlowlandareas.Thesefrankincensetreesgrowinthedrykollaagroclimaticzone
inshallowsandyrivervalleysunsuitableforagriculture.Thetreesareprotectedanditis
forbiddentocutthem.Unfortunately,however,themanagementfor`incense'collectionis
sometimesdoneimproperly.Partofthetappedtreedieaftersomeyearsofimpropertapping
management.MarketingstructuresarealreadyinplacewiththeGonderbased`NaturalGum
ProcessingandMarketingEnterprise',agovernmentalenterprisewhichcollectsandexports
`incense'.`Incense'isexportedtoArabandEuropeancountriesandisusedforpharmaceutical
purposesandinEthiopiaessentiallyfortraditionalceremonies.Unfortunately,the`NaturalGum
ProcessingandMarketingEnterprise'inGonderhasnoyetshownanyinterestinworkingin
BelessaorinIbnatbecauseitisnotyetcosteffective.
Oncemorediscussionswillhavetotakeplaceontheissueofmigrationandresettlementasthisis
oneoftheoptionstorestorefoodsecurityinfoodshortageareasofEthiopia.Free,voluntary
migrationshouldbeencouragedandsupportedbymakingalternativesettlementareasavailableto
willingmigrants.
Ingeneral,anydevelopmentincentive,inwhateversector,thataimstobecomesustainable,needs
tobedesigned,plannedandimplementedtogetherwiththetargetpopulation.Directparticipation,
asalreadydiscussedforFFWactivities,minimisestheriskofstartingprogrammesandprojects
thatdonotreflectneedsfeltbythetargetedbeneficiaries.Emergencyandrehabilitation
programmesandprojects,especiallyconcerningfoodaid,areverymuchconcernedwithsaving
livesbymovingrelieftotheaffectedareas.Decisionsaremadecentrallyamongthegovernment,
donorsandrelieforganisations.Theaffectedpopulationisgenerallynotconsulted.Butevenin
emergencyandrehabilitationsituationsitmaybecrucialtolettheaffectedpopulationparticipate
inthedevelopmentofthereliefactivities.Otherwiseinthefuturewewillencounterevenmoreof
this`spoiled'farmerattitude,reliefdependencyandlethargywhichabolishesallinitiativesforself
relianceandselfhelpamongpeoplelivinginfoodshortageareas.

LiteraturelistofreferredpapersandpreviousUNEUESouth
andNorthGondermissionreports
AhrensJD(1997a)Beneficiarynumberstobeincreased:AmharaRegionafterthefailedBelg,
UNEUEFieldMissionReport,20to26July,AddisAbaba
AhrensJD(1997b)PartsofGonderexpectingpoormeherharvest:ObservationsfromIbnatand
Belessa,UNEUEFieldMissionReport,21to27September,AddisAbaba
AhrensJD(1998)SouthWeloexpectsabadBelgseason,UNEUEFieldMissionReport,18to23
May,AddisAbaba
AnnenCh(1997)PlanofActionApril1997toDecember2000,IntegratedFoodSecurity
ProgrammeIbnat&BelessaWeredas,ORDAandGAA,AddisAbaba
ArmstrongC(1998)NaturalResourceProtection,aninformalstudycarriedoutfortheBureauof
AgricultureandGTZ,SouthGondarZone,AmharaRegion,BahirDar
BerhanuH,WaeldeleKA(1999)WorkNormsUsedforFoodAidinEthiopia,consultancyreport
bytheWorldFoodProgrammeandtheMinistryofAgricultureNationalProjectSupportUnit
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(NPSU),AddisAbaba
CentralStatisticalAuthority(1998)The1994PopulationandHousingCensusforEthiopia,Results
atCountryLevel,VolumeI,StatisticalReport,AddisAbaba
GetahunHandHaimanotRT(1998)ReportonnewLathyrismepidemicinEthiopia,Report
submittedtoWHO,DepartmentofInternalMedicine,AddisAbabaUniversity,AddisAbaba
GuinandYF(1999a)TargetGroupandDevelopmentOrientedParticipatoryApproachfor
AgriculturalResearch.TheCaseofAgroforestryintheEastCentralAfricanHighlands,African
StudiesSeriesA15,CentreforDevelopmentandEnvironment(CDE),InstateofGeography,
UniversityofBerne,Switzerland
GuinandYF(1999b)NorthWeloFoodSecuritySituation:EffectsofConsecutiveCropLosseson
FarmHouseholdsinSelctedAreas,UNEUERapidAssessmentMission,15to20March,Addis
Ababa
KlingeleR(1998)LoomingCrisisinSouthWelo,UNEUEFieldMissionReport,11to18
November,AddisAbaba
MachW(1997)OffFarmIncomeOpportunities,FieldVerificationReportforIbnatWereda,
ORDAGAACooperationProject,IFSPIbnat/Belessa,BahirDar
SCF/UK(1998)HouseholdFoodEconomyAnalysisTekezeLowlands,NorthEastEthiopia,Save
TheChildrenFundUK,FoodEconomyAssessmentTeam(FEAT),East&CentralAfrican
RegionalOffice,Nairobi
SpiessH(1994)FieldTriptotheNorthandSouthGonderZonesofRegion3,UNEUEField
MissionReport,26Aprilto6May,AddisAbaba
SpohnH(1996)SurveyontheSituationinAgriculture,consultancystudyforGTZIntegrated
FoodSecurityProgramme(IFSP)inSouthGonder,BahirDar
TekleHaimanot(1994)Lathyrism,inTropicalNeurology,eds.RaadAShakir,PeterKNewman
andCharlesMPoser,p.365374
WebbPandvonBraunJ(1994)FamineandFoodSecurityinEthiopiaLessonsforAfrica,the
InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute,Chichester
?(1985)DisasterProfileofGonderAdministrativeRegion,EarlyWarningandPlanningServices
DisasterAssessmentandPreparednessPlanningTeam,AddisAbaba

NGOsandotherorganisationsoperatinginSouthandNorth
Gonder
ACTActionbyChurchesTogether
ARAAfarReliefAssociation
ARRAAdministrationforRefugeesandReturneesAffairs
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DPPBDisasterPreventionandPreparednessBureau(mostlyat
Regionallevel)
DPPCDisasterPreventionandPreparednessCommission(Federal
Governmentlevel)
DPPDDisasterPreventionandPreparednessDepartment(mostlyatzonallevel)
ECHOEuropeanCommunityHumanitarianOffice
EGSEmploymentGenerationSchemes
EOCEthiopianOrthodoxChurch
ERCSEthiopianRedCrossSociety
FHIFoodfortheHungryInternational
FFWFoodForWork
GAAGermanAgroAction(DeutscheWelthungerhilfe)
GTZGesellschaftfrTechnischeZusammenarbeit(German
DevelopmentCooperation)
JACHJerusalemAssociationChildren'sHomes
MoHMinistryofHealth
ORDAOrganisationforReliefandDevelopmentinAmhara
RHBRegionalHealthBureau
SCFSavetheChildrenFund
UNCDFUnitedNationsCapitalDevelopmentFund(workinNorthGonder)
WABEEthiopianNGOworkingwithChildreninNefasMewcha,TachGayintwereda
WFPWorldFoodProgramme
WHOWorldHealthOrganisation
DISCLAIMER
Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthisdocumentdonotimplythe
expressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveroftheUNconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,
territory,cityorareaofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersor
boundaries.
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SOURCES:
InformationinthisupdatehasbeenobtainedfromUN,NGOandmediareportsreferenceismade
tosourcesasappropriate.NoclaimsaremadebytheUNEUEastotheaccuracyofthesereports.
ThisandotherreportsproducedbytheUNEUEwillsoonbeavailablefromthenewUNEthiopia
CountryTeamwebsiteatwww.telecom.net.et/unresco/
30June1999
UNEUETel.:(251)(1)511028/29
POBox5580,Fax:(251)(1)511292
AddisAbaba,Ethiopiaemail:UNEUE@telecom.net.et

Itinerary
AddisAbabaBahirDar(26.5.99),BahirDar(27.5.99),BahirDarDebreTabor(28.5.99),Debre
TaborGasayMekaneEyesusArbGebeyaBahirDar(29.5.99),BahirDar(30.5.99),Bahir
DarIbnat(31.5.99),IbnatQualissaIbnat(1.6.99),IbnatGuhalaHamusitGuhala(2.6.99),
ArbayaMeksenyitGonder(3.6.99),Gonder(4.6.99),GonderNefasMewchaWoldyia(5.6.99),
WoldyiaDessieAddisAbaba(6.6.99)

Distancesandtimetable
[1]A`Got'representsthelowestandsmallestofficiallyorganisedunitconsistingusuallyof40to70
households.TherepresentativeofaGotiselectedbyalltherepresentedhouseholds.
[2]Formoreelaborateinformationanddiscussionsonresourcerankinganditsusefulnessfor
agriculturalandotherresearchactivitiesinruralareas,pleaserefertothemanifoldliterature
availableonthissubject.SeealsoGuinand(1999a).
[3]ThestatisticmadebyWFP/VAMunitismadeonweredalevelwherebygenerallythebetter
accessibleandmoredevelopedhighlandsofthevisitedweredashavebetteraccesstosavewater
sourcesthanthelessdevelopedlowlands.
[4]ThemissioncouldnotgetholdofacopyfromGTZ,buttheresultwasstatedbytheGTZ
projectcoordinatorinDebreTabor.
[5]ForfurtherreadinganddetailsonhumanlathyrismseethefollowingpreviousUNEUE
reports:Ahrens,1997a,1998Klingele,1998GetahunandHaimanot,1998TekleHaimanot,1994
[6]PleaserefertotheUNDPEUEmissionreportdoneinMarchforNorthWelo(Guinand,1999b).
Thereinanumberofsolutionsandoptionsarediscussedforchronicfoodshortageareas.

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