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Modeling Structural Elements (Bars, Beams,

Arches,Frames, Surfaces)
We begin by looking at specific models of structural elements in greater detail. There
are two broad categories of structures:
Those whose principal direction or line of action is coincident with the
loads to which they are subjected
Those whose principal direction or action is perpendicular to the direction
of the applied loads.
Within these broad confines we can further subdivide the domain of structural
elements according to the number of physical dimensions needed to properly account
for the behavior of interest Thus, structures are often viewed as one,two or threedimensional structures. It is easier to create simplified, idealized models of structural
elements or types than it is to ensure that all structures act in just such simple ways.
However, we will also suggest that our idealized models are widely representative of
basic structural forms, so that these models are useful for analyzing more
complicated structural forms.
There are cases where one- and two-dimensional idealizations won't do. For example,
stress analysis of holes and cracks require more detailed analysis.

One-Dimensional Basic Structural Elements

We will first show the basic one-dimensional structural elements and their dominant
or major stresses. For this discussion, we will denote such dominant stresses by ( n
for normal stresses and by s for shear stresses. We also note that each of these
elements is far longer than it is deep or wide. Stated otherwise, the depth h and the
width b of each of these elements are small compared to its length L, and "small"
typically means less than one-tenth.
Some one-dimensional structures and their dominant stresses
Description

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We begin with the

cables of Fig.
2.1(a) wherein the
loads are often
directed either
perpendicular to
or at other
nonzero angles
with the cable,
and the cable
itself generally
has "kinks" at
points where the
concentrated
loads are placed.
(where the load is
aligned with the
cable, we have
the simple case of
a rope in tension.)
The resulting
stresses in a cable
or rope are
normal stresses
that act along the
cable's lines or
segments, always
in tension.
In Fig. 2.1(b) we
show bars, for
which we assume
that loads can be
applied only at
the endpoints, not
along their
length. Thus, each
bar can be viewed
as a single
segment of the
cables of Fig.
2.l(a), although
bars are more
useful if we allow

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them to support
both tensile and
compressive
normal stresses.
This is because
bars taken
individually are
not of much use,
while assembled
into truss
structures they
become very
useful.
In beams, the
loads are almost
invariably normal
to the axis of the
beam, and the
beam supports
these loads by a
combination of
normal bending
stresses in the
axial direction
and transverse
shear stresses
perpendicular to
the beam's axis.

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The third
one-dimensional
structure, the
arch, is shown in
figure. It provides
an interesting
contrast to the
cable and the
beam. The arch
also carries loads
normal to its
basic direction;
however, it is
most efficient
when it redirects
its vertical loads
to compressive
normal stresses
directed along the
arch's axis and
distributed
uniformly over
the arch's
thickness. An
arch uses both
transverse shear
and normal
bending stresses
in addition to the
dominant
compressive
normal stress to
carry its vertical
loads to the
reactions at the
ends of the arch.

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Communication
towerFrames are
made from bars
joined together to
form a
'framework'. This
is one of the most
economical ways
of building
structures. A
framed structure
(as used in a
building) is
composed of
beams and
columns. With the
load being
transferred into
the beams via the
floor and then
down to
foundations
through the
columns.

Two and three Dimensional Basic Structural Elements

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The first
two-dimensional
structure(also
called surface
structure) is a two
dimensional
counterpart of the
cable, called the
membrane. A
membrane
supports vertical
loads through
purely tensile
normal stresses
(cf. Fig. 2.3(a))
Membranes are
often used as
roofs or domes
over stadia and
are partially
supported by the
air pressure
contained by the
roof.

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The next surface

structure of
interest is the
plate, shown in
Fig. 2.3(b), which
is a two
dimensional
analog of the
beam. The basic
behavior is just
like that of beams
in that
transversely
applied vertical
loads are
converted into
normal bending
and transverse
shear stresses.
Plates are used in
a variety of
structures, mostly
to model aspects
of the cladding or
covering of a
structure.
Fig.2.3(c) shows
shell structures,
or simply shells,
which reflect a
combination of
behaviors that
arise because
shells are curved
surface
structures. In fact,
shells are often
described as
curved plates, but
their behavior is
more complicated
because the
curvature in a

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shell produces an
interesting
coupling of the
in-plane normal
stresses and the
transverse shear
stresses.

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