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Example 4
In a binary star system, two stars (one of mass m and the other of 2m) distance d apart rotate about
their common centre of mass. Deduce an expression for the period of revolution. Show that the ratio of
their angular momenta about the centre of mass is the same as the ratio of their kinetic energies.
Solution:
The centre of mass C will be at a distance d/3 and 2d/3 from the masses 2m and m respectively as
shown in figure 1.10. Both the stars rotate with the same angular velocity around C in their
respective orbits. Here the gravitational force acting on each star due to other supplies the necessary
centripetal force.
G(2m)m/d2 = m(2d/3) 2
= ((3Gm/d3 ) )
.. T = 2/=2((d3/3Gm) )
Ans.
Ans.
2
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure given above.
Following forces act on each ball
(i)
(ii)
Tension in thread T
(iii)
As the system is in equilibrium these three forces can be represented by the sides of a triangle
say ACP in which AC represents the weight mg, CP represents the force F and PA represents the
tension T. Hence
tan = ((r-r')/2)/l = F/mg
But
F/mg = (Gm2/r'2)/mg
...... (2)
...... (1)
(Proved)
Example 3
A planet of mass m moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun so that its maximum and minimum
distances from the Sun are equal to r 1 and r2 respectively. Find the angular momentum of this planet
relative to the centre of the Sun.
Solution:
As the angular momentum of the planet is constant (no external torque is acting on it), we have
mv1r1 = mv2r2
or v1r1 = v2r2
Further, the total energy of the planet is also constant, hence
-GMm/r1 + 1/2 mv12 = -GMm/r2 + 1/2 mv22
where M is the mass of the Sun.
4
Solved examples on Gravitation
Example 4
In a binary star system, two stars (one of mass m and the other of 2m) distance d apart rotate about
their common centre of mass. Deduce an expression for the period of revolution. Show that the ratio of
their angular momenta about the centre of mass is the same as the ratio of their kinetic energies.
Solution:
The centre of mass C will be at a distance d/3 and 2d/3 from the masses 2m and m respectively as
shown in figure 1.10. Both the stars rotate with the same angular velocity around C in their
respective orbits. Here the gravitational force acting on each star due to other supplies the necessary
centripetal force.
G(2m)m/d2 = m(2d/3) 2
= ((3Gm/d3 ) )
.. T = 2/=2((d3/3Gm) )
Ans.
Ans.
5
Example 5
Imagine a planet whose diameter and mass are both one half of those of Earth. The day's temperature
of this planet's surface reaches upto 800K. Find whether oxygen molecules are possible in the
atmosphere of this planet.
Solution:
Escape velocity, ve = 2GM/R
Let vp = escape velocity on the planet.
ve = escape velocity on the Earth.
..
..
vp = ve = 11.2 km/s.
N = Avogadro's number
m = mass of oxygen molecule
K = Boltzmann constant
vrms = 3RT/m
= ((31.3810-23800)/(5.310-26))
vr.m.s = 0.79 km/s
Ans.
As vrms is very small compared to escape velocity on the planet, molecules cannot escape from the
surface of the planet's atmosphere.
6
Example 6
Halley's comet has a period of 76 years and in 1986 it had a distance of closest approach to the Sun
equal to 8.9 10+10 m. What is the comet's farthest distance from the Sun if mass of Sun is 2 10 30
kg and G = 6.67 10-11 MKS units.
Solution:
Whenever a heavenly body revolves round another body it follows an elliptical path having a distance o
closest and farthest approach.
For these orbits
T2 = (42/GM)a3 , where a and T are average distance of comet from Sun and time period of revolution
respectively.
..
a = [T2GM/42]1/3
or,
rmax. = 2a - rmin.
rmax = 2 2.7 1012 - 8.9 1010
rmax 5.3 1012 m.
Ans.
Example 7
A uniform sphere has a mass M and radius R. Find the pressure P inside the sphere caused by
gravitational compression, as a function of distance r from its centre.
Solution:
Density of the given sphere, = M/(4/3R3)
Let us consider a layer of thickness 'dr' at a distance r from the centre. The part of sphere inside this
spherical shell will attract this with a net force but the outer part would not have any effect on this as
inside a hollow spherical shell force on any particle is zero.
8
Solved examples on Gravitation
M1 = M/R3.r3
3GM2/R6 rR rdr
= 3GM2/(8R6 ) . [r2/2]rR
= 3GM2/(8R6 ) (R2 - r2)
..
p = 3GM2/(8R4 ) (1-r2/R2 )
Ans.
9
Solved examples on Gravitation
Example 8
Assuming the Earth to be a sphere of uniform density, calculate the energy needed to completely
disassemble it against gravitational pull amongst its constituent particles given product of mass and
radius of Earth = 2.5 1031 kgm.
Solution:
Let us suppose that Earth is made of a infinite number of very thin concentric spherical shells. It can be
completely disassembled by removing these shells one by one.
Let us study Earth when only a sphere of radius x is left and find the energy required to remove a shell
of thickness dx.
Now Potential of this sphere of radius x is
u = Gms/x
[ms = mass of sphere = 4/3 x 3 where = density of Earth = M/(4/3R 3) where M, R are mass and
radius of Earth respectively].
Now work done (dw) to remove a shell of thickness dx would be equal to the change in potential
energy = Gmsdm/x,
where dm = mass of shell = 4x2 dx.
=> dW = (4/3 x3 )(4x2 dx)/x = 16/3 G22x4 dx..
W = dW = 0R 16/3G2 2 x4 dx = 16/15 G2 [m/((4/3) R3 )]2 R5..
Which, on substituting the given value, is 3/5 GM2/R = 3/5 g MR
= 1.5 1032 J.
Example 9
A satellite revolving close to the surface of Earth from west to east, appears over a certain point at the
equator every 11.6 hours. If radius of Earth is 6400 km. calculate the mass of Earth.
10
Solution:
Since the rotation of Earth is also west to east the apparent angular velocity of the satellite is equal to
SE = S - e,
Where S is the angular velocity of the satellite w.r.t. an irrotational frame of reference fixed on the
axis of Earth's rotation and e is the angular velocity of Earth w.r.t. the same frame of reference.
..
S = SE + e
now
(GMem)/R2 m R2,
where R = radius of Earth as the satellite is rotating close to its surface and M e is the mass of Earth
and m is the mass of satellite.
..
where TSE is the apparent time period of satellites revolution and T E = 24 hrs. is the time period of
Earth's rotation.
Substituting the values
M = 6.0 1024 kg.
11
Two questions on gravitation were included in the IIT-JEE 2010 question paper. They are given
below with solution. The first question is a single correct choice type (single answer type multiple
choice) question where as the second question is an integer type question which has a single digit
integer ranging from 0 to 9 as answer.
(1) A thin uniform annular disc (see figure) of mass M has outer radius 4R and inner radius 3R.
The work required to take a unit mass from point P on its axis to infinity is
(A) (2GM /7R) (42 5)
(B) (2GM /7R) (42 5)
(C) GM /4R
(D) (2GM /5R) (2 1)
The work required to take a unit mass from infinity to point P is the gravitational potential at P
and it will be negative. Therefore, the work required to take a unit mass from point P to infinity
will be numerically equal to the gravitational potential at P but it will be positive.
The annular disc can be considered to be made of a large number of concentric rings of radii
ranging from 3R to 4R. Consider one such ring of radius r and small thickness dr. Its mass dm is
given by
dm = [M/(16R2 9R2)] 2r dr = 2Mrdr/7R2
If the rim of the ring is at distance x from the point P, the gravitational potential (dV) at P due to
the ring is given by
dV = Gdm/x = (2GM/7R2)(rdr/x)
But x = (16R2 + r2)1/2 and so we have dx= ( )(16R2 + r2)1/2 2rdr
Or, dx = rdr/(16R2 + r2)1/2 = rdr/x
Therefore dV = (2GM/7R2)dx
The gravitational potential at P due to the entire annular disc is given by
V = dV = (2GM/7R2)dx = (2GM/7R2)[x]
The integration is between the appropriate limits of x, which are (16R2 + 9R2)1/2 and (16R2 +
16R2)1/2, on substituting the values r = 3R and r = 4R respectively in the expression, x = (16R2 +
r2)1/2. Therefore we have
V = (2GM/7R2)[(16R2 + 16R2)1/2 (16R2 + 9R2)1/2]
= (2GM/7R2)[R(32) R(25)]
Thus V = (2GM/7R) (42 5)
The negative sign is to be dispensed with to obtain the work required to take a unit mass from
point P to infinity and the correct choice is (2GM/7R) (42 5).
(2) Gravitational acceleration on the surface of a planet is (6/11)g, where g is the gravitational
acceleration on the surface of the earth. The average mass density of the planet is 2/3 times that of
the earth. If the escape speed on the surface of the earth is taken to be 11 kms1, the escape speed
on the surface of the planet in kms1 will be :
[This is is an integer type question. You have to work out this question and the single digit integer
answer is to be shown in the Objective Response Sheet (ORS) by darkening the appropriate
bubble].
We have vesc = (2gR) where g is the acceleration due to gravity and R is the radius of the planet
(or earth or star).
Therefore vesc (gR).
12
If gp and ge are the accelerations due to gravity on the surface of the planet and the earth, Rp and Re
are their radii, and gp and ge the escape velocities respectively, we have
vp/ve = ( gpRp)/ ( geRe) = [( gp/ge)(Rp/Re)] (i)
Since the gravitational acceleration on the surface is given by g = GM/R2 where G is the
gravitational constant and M is the mass of the planet (or earth or star), we can write
g = G[(4/3)R3] /R2 where is the average mass density of the planet (or earth or star).
Therefore g R and gp/ge = (Rp/Re)(p/e).
From this Rp/Re = (gp/ge)/(p/e).
But gp/ge = 6/11 and p/e = 2/3 as given in the question. Therefore we have
Rp/Re = (6/11)3/2
Substituting these in Eq(i),
vp/ve = [(6/11) (6/11)3/2] = (6/11) (3/2) = 3/11
Since ve = 11 kms1, the escape speed on the surface of the planet in kms1 will be
vp = 11(3/11) = 3 kms1
The answer integer is 3.
13
Solved examples of Gravitation
Example 1
The time period of Moon around the Earth is n times that of Earth around the Sun. If the ratio of
the distance of the Earth from the Sun to that of the distance of Moon from the Earth is 392, find the
ratio of mass of the Sun to the mass of the Earth. (Assume that the bodies revolve in circular orbits)
Solution:
The time period Te of Earth around Sun of mass Ms is given by
Te2 = 42/GMe re3,
...... (1)
...... (2)
...... (3)
Ans.
Example 2
Two balls of mass m each are hung side by side, by two long threads of equal length l. If the distance
between upper ends is r, show that the distance r' between the centres of the ball is given by gr' 2 (r-r')
= 2l G M.
14
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure given above.
Following forces act on each ball
(i)
(ii)
Tension in thread T
(iii)
As the system is in equilibrium these three forces can be represented by the sides of a triangle
say ACP in which AC represents the weight mg, CP represents the force F and PA represents the
tension T. Hence
tan = ((r-r')/2)/l = F/mg
But
F/mg = (Gm2/r'2)/mg
...... (2)
...... (1)
(Proved)
Example 3
A planet of mass m moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun so that its maximum and minimum
distances from the Sun are equal to r 1 and r2 respectively. Find the angular momentum of this planet
relative to the centre of the Sun.
15
Solution:
As the angular momentum of the planet is constant (no external torque is acting on it), we have
mv1r1 = mv2r2
or v1r1 = v2r2
Further, the total energy of the planet is also constant, hence
-GMm/r1 + 1/2 mv12 = -GMm/r2 + 1/2 mv22
where M is the mass of the Sun.
Example 4
In a binary star system, two stars (one of mass m and the other of 2m) distance d apart rotate about
their common centre of mass. Deduce an expression for the period of revolution. Show that the ratio of
their angular momenta about the centre of mass is the same as the ratio of their kinetic energies.
Solution:
The centre of mass C will be at a distance d/3 and 2d/3 from the masses 2m and m respectively as
shown in figure 1.10. Both the stars rotate with the same angular velocity around C in their
respective orbits. Here the gravitational force acting on each star due to other supplies the necessary
centripetal force.
16
G(2m)m/d2 = m(2d/3) 2
= ((3Gm/d3 ) )
.. T = 2/=2((d3/3Gm) )
Ans.
Ans.
17
where
N = Avogadro's number
m = mass of oxygen molecule
K = Boltzmann constant
vrms = 3RT/m
= ((31.3810-23800)/(5.310-26))
vr.m.s = 0.79 km/s
Ans.
As vrms is very small compared to escape velocity on the planet, molecules cannot escape from the
surface of the planet's atmosphere.
Example 6
Halley's comet has a period of 76 years and in 1986 it had a distance of closest approach to the Sun
equal to 8.9 10+10 m. What is the comet's farthest distance from the Sun if mass of Sun is 2 10 30
kg and G = 6.67 10-11 MKS units.
Solution:
Whenever a heavenly body revolves round another body it follows an elliptical path having a distance o
closest and farthest approach.
For these orbits
T2 = (42/GM)a3 , where a and T are average distance of comet from Sun and time period of revolution
respectively.
..
a = [T2GM/42]1/3
or,
rmax. = 2a - rmin.
rmax = 2 2.7 1012 - 8.9 1010
rmax 5.3 1012 m.
Ans.
18
Example 7
A uniform sphere has a mass M and radius R. Find the pressure P inside the sphere caused by
gravitational compression, as a function of distance r from its centre.
Solution:
Density of the given sphere, = M/(4/3R3)
Let us consider a layer of thickness 'dr' at a distance r from the centre. The part of sphere inside this
spherical shell will attract this with a net force but the outer part would not have any effect on this as
inside a hollow spherical shell force on any particle is zero.
Solved examples on Gravitation
M1 = M/R3.r3
19
p = rR dp
3GM2/R6 rR rdr
= 3GM2/(8R6 ) . [r2/2]rR
= 3GM2/(8R6 ) (R2 - r2)
..
p = 3GM2/(8R4 ) (1-r2/R2 )
Example 8
Assuming the Earth to be a sphere of uniform density, calculate the energy needed to completely
disassemble it against gravitational pull amongst its constituent particles given product of mass and
radius of Earth = 2.5 1031 kgm.
Solution:
Let us suppose that Earth is made of a infinite number of very thin concentric spherical shells. It can be
completely disassembled by removing these shells one by one.
Let us study Earth when only a sphere of radius x is left and find the energy required to remove a shell
of thickness dx.
Now Potential of this sphere of radius x is
u = Gms/x
[ms = mass of sphere = 4/3 x 3 where = density of Earth = M/(4/3R 3) where M, R are mass and
radius of Earth respectively].
Now work done (dw) to remove a shell of thickness dx would be equal to the change in potential
energy = Gmsdm/x,
where dm = mass of shell = 4x2 dx.
=> dW = (4/3 x3 )(4x2 dx)/x = 16/3 G22x4 dx..
W = dW = 0R 16/3G2 2 x4 dx = 16/15 G2 [m/((4/3) R3 )]2 R5..
Which, on substituting the given value, is 3/5 GM2/R = 3/5 g MR
= 1.5 1032 J.
Example 9
A satellite revolving close to the surface of Earth from west to east, appears over a certain point at the
equator every 11.6 hours. If radius of Earth is 6400 km. calculate the mass of Earth
Solution:
Since the rotation of Earth is also west to east the apparent angular velocity of the satellite is equal to
20
SE = S - e,
Where S is the angular velocity of the satellite w.r.t. an irrotational frame of reference fixed on the
axis of Earth's rotation and e is the angular velocity of Earth w.r.t. the same frame of reference.
..
S = SE + e
now
(GMem)/R2 m R2,
where R = radius of Earth as the satellite is rotating close to its surface and M e is the mass of Earth
and m is the mass of satellite.
..
where TSE is the apparent time period of satellites revolution and T E = 24 hrs. is the time period of
Earth's rotation.
Substituting the values
M = 6.0 1024 kg.
21
1. A solid sphere of uniform density and radius 4 units is located with its centre
at origin O of coordinates. Two units of equal radii 1 unit, with their centre at A
(-2,0,0) and B (2,0,0) respectively are taken out of the solid leaving behind
spherical cavities as shown in Fig. Choose the incorrect statement from the
following.
Ans. (b)
The distance of each cavity from the centre O is the same. The two cavities are
symmetrical with respect to the centre O and the mass of the sphere being
concentrated at the centre O, the gravitational force due to the sphere is zero
at the centre. Hence choice (a) is correct. Similarly, the gravitational potential
is the same at all points of the circle Y2+Z2 = 36 whose radius is 6 units and at
all points of the circle Y2+Z2 = 4. So choices (c) and (d) are also correct.
2. If the distance between the earth and the sun were half its present value,
the number of days in a year would have been
22
a)64.5
(b) 129
b)182.5
(d) 730
Ans. (b)
(b) 1.5E0
(c) 2E0
(d) E0
Ans. (c)
4. A satellite S is moving in an elliptical orbit around the earth. The mass of the
satellite is very small compared to the mass of the earth. Which of the following
statement is correct ?
23
Ans. (a)
For elliptical orbit, the earth is at one focus of the ellipse. For spherical bodies,
the gravitational force is central. Hence statement (a) is correct.
(b) 1.0%
1.5%
(d) 3.0%
24
Ans. (c)
7. A simple pendulum has a time period T1 when on the earth surface, and T2
when taken to a height R above the earths surface, where R is the radius of the
earth. The value of T2/T1 is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 4
(d) 2
Ans. (d)
The acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface of the earth is
given by
g2 = g1 [R / R+h]2
where g1 is the value at the surface of the earth
T2 = 2 l/g2
and T1 = 2 l/g1
(h=R)
25
8. An ideal spring with spring constant is k is hung from the ceiling and a block
and a block of mass M is attached to its lower end. The mass is released with
the spring initially unstretched. Then the maximum extension in the spring is
(a) 4 Mg/k
(b) 2 Mg/k
(c) Mg/k
(d) Mg/2k
Ans. (b)
Let x be the extension in the spring when it is loaded with mass M. The change
in gravitational potential energy = Mgx. This must be the energy stored in the
spring which is given by kx2. Thus kx2 = Mgx or x = 2mg / k
26
Gravitation Practice Problems - Solutions
1. All planets orbit the sun in ellipses, not perfect circles which means that there is a point in each
planets orbit when it is closest to the sun and when it is farthest from the sun. Comets orbit the sun
in much the same way, but the distance differences are much more drastic. As Halleys Comet orbits
the sun, its closest distance is 5*1010m and its farthest distance is 4.5*1012m.
a. Without doing any calculations, compare the gravitational forces between the comet and the
sun at both the closest and farthest points in the orbit?
The farthest distance is 90 (4.5*1012/5*1010 = 90) times greater than the
closest distance. Therefore, the force becomes (1/90)2 [or 0.000123]
times the original size.
b. If we assume the comet has a mass of 3*1014kg, calculate the two gravitational forces.
FG closest = G*3*1014*2*1030/ (5*1010)2 = 1.6*1013 N
FG farthest = G*3*1014*2*1030/ (4.5*1012)2 = 1.98*109 N
2. How do we know that Jupiter has a force exerted on it?
It moves in a circular orbit
3. What exerts the force on Jupiter?
The Sun exerts a gravitational force on Jupiter
4. What do we mean when we say that Jupiter falls?
Jupiter falls from its straight line or tangential path onto the curved path of its orbit
5. How do gravitational force and distance compare?
Gravitational force is proportional to the inverse square of the distance
6. At what height above the earth would a 300kg satellite have to orbit in order to experience a
gravitational force half as strong as it is on the Earths surface?
FG on the Earths surface = G*300*6*1024/(6.4*106)2 = 2931 N
* 2931 = 1465.5 = G*300*6*1024/d2
d2 = G*300*6*1024/1465.5 = 8.19*1013
d = 9.05*106m = x +REARTH
x = 9.05*106 6.4*106 = 2.65*106m above the surface of the Earth
7. The acceleration due to gravity on Venus is 0.89 that of Earth. If the radius of Venus is 6.05*106m,
what is Venus mass?
FG = 0.89*9.8 = 8.72= G*1*MVENUS/(6.05*106)2
MVENUS = 8.72*(6.05*106)2/(G*1) = 4.79*1024 kg
8. Which exerts a greater force, the Sun on Venus or Venus on the Sun?
They both exert the same force on one another.
By Newtons Third Law, we know this must be true
27
Newtons Law of Gravitation
Newton's Law of Gravitation states that "Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with
a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them".
Consider two bodies A and B of masses m A and mB, attracting each other with forces
due to B) and BA (force on B due to A), respectively.
Then,
AB
=-
AB
(force on A
BA
and
AB
=|
AB
= G(mA mB)/d2
where d is the distance between them. G is a universal constant known as Universal Gravitational
constant. Its value was first measured by Cavendish and is now known to be:
G = 6.62726 10-11
N-m2/kg2
"The space around a body within which its force of gravitational attraction is perceptible (by any other
body in this space) is called its gravitational field."
The intensity E, , of the gravitational field of a mass 'm' at a point at distance 'r' from it is the force
experienced by a unit mass placed at this point in the field. (Assuming that the presence of unit mass
does not affect the gravitational field of the mass m)
Thus, E = (-m/r2)G (the negative sign is because the intensity of the field is directed towards the
mass and away from the unit mass).
If 1, 2, 3 ...... are the gravitational forces acting on the particle A due to particles P 1, P2, P3, ......,
respectively, then net gravitational force on a particle A due to particles P1, P2, ......, Pn is given by:
=
+........+
Illustration:
Two Lead balls of radius 10 cm and 1 cm are placed with their centres 1 metre apart. Calculate the
force of attraction between them. The density of Lead is 5.51 10 3 kg/m3.
28
Solution:
Density of balls, = 5.51 103 kg/m3
Force of attraction between them, F = Gm1m2/r2
where m1 = 4/3r23 = 5.51 103 4/3 10-3 23 kg
and m2 = 4/3r23 23 10-3 kg
G = 6.67 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
..
Ans.
Important points
The gravitational force between two particles does not depend on the medium.
The gravitational force between two particles is along the straight line joining the particles
(called line of centers).
Illustration:
Three identical particles, each of mass m, are placed at the three corners of an equilateral triangle of
side 'a'. Find the force exerted by this system on another particle of mass m placed at
(a)
(b)
Solution:
(a)
When the particle is placed at the mid point of a side (at P),
Hence, force experienced by the particle,
=-
29
(b) If the particle is placed at the centre of the triangle, the net force on the particle P due to particles
placed at the corners A, B and C will be zero.
Hence,
= 0.
= (GMmo/r2)
= r,
|=| |=r
=
/r
The intensity of this gravitational field at a point (P) is given by the force per unit mass on a test
particle kept at P, i.e.
=
/mo
30
The gravitational field at P due to a particle of mass m kept at the point O (origin) is given by
=
where
= xi + yj + zk represents the position vector of the point P with respect to the source at the
origin and
where 1, 2,....
respectively.
+
n
+....+
=d , where d
gravitational field
31
The gravitational field of a ring on its axis
Let us consider a ring of mass M in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the paper. We want to find
the gravitational field on its axis at a distance x.
Consider a differential length of the ring of mass dm.
dE = Fdm/z2
The Y-components of the fields due to diametrically opposite elements cancel each other. Thus, the Xcomponents add up.
E = Gdm/z2 cos = Gcos/z2 dm = GMcos/z2 = GMx/(a2+x2)3/2
From OAP,
z2 = a2 + r2 - 2ar cos
or
2z dz = 2ar sin d
32
or
sin d = z dz/ar
dE = GM/(4ar2)[z+(a2-r2)/z2]
Case I:
P is outside the shell, r > a
E = GM/(4ar2 ) [z+(a2-r2)/z2 ](r-a)(r+a) = GM/r2
We see that the shell may be treated as a point particle of the same mass placed at its centre to
calculate the gravitational field at an external point.
Case II:
P is outside the shell, r > a
E = GM/(4ar2)[z+(a2-r2)/z2 ](a-r)(a+r) = 0
We see that the field inside a uniform spherical shell is zero.
E = G/r2[M1 + M2 +...]
E = GM/r2
33
Consider a point P on the surface of the shaded sphere. Since this point is inside the shells having radii
larger than r, they do not contribute to the field at P. Shells that are less than radius 'r', contribute to
the gravitational field at P.
The mass of the sphere of radius r is
M' = (M.4/3 r3)/(4/3 R3 ) = (Mr3)/R3
..
The adjacent graph shows the variation of E due to a solid sphere of radius R with the distance r from
its centre.
E=
GM/r2
E = (GM/R3) r
(r > R)
(r < R)
This result holds good for the earth if it is assumed to be a uniform solid sphere.
As by definition, g = Fg/m and also E = Fg/m , so g = E, i.e. acceleration due to gravity and
gravitational intensity E at a point are synonymous.
Illustration:
Two concentric shells of masses M 1 and M2 are present. Calculate the gravitational force on 'm' due to
M1 and M2 at points P, Q and R.
34
Solution:
Field at P, EP = 0
=>
F=0
Field at Q, due to M2 will be zero but there will be field due to m1,
EQ = (GM1)/b2
=>
F = (GM1m)/b2
Solution:
As
g = GM/R2
...... (1)
35
G = 6.67 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
M = 6 1024 kg
R = 6.37 104 m
Put all values in (1), we get g = 9.8 m/s2
Ans.
Due to altitude
Consider a mass m at a height h from the surface of the earth. Now, the force acting on the mass due
to gravity is F = G
, where M is the mass of the earth and R is the radius of the earth.
If the acceleration due to gravity at the given height is g', then mg' = G
=>
g' = G
(Expanding binomially and neglecting the higher order terms).
(ii)
Due to depth:
If a particle of mass m is kept at a depth 'd' form the surface of earth, then gravitational force exerted
on the particle of mass 'm'.
(GM' m)/(R-d)2 = GM(R-d)/R3
36
F.B.D. of the body with respect to an inertial frame is shown in the adjacent figure.
Acceleration of the body with respect to the earth's centre O is (Rcos ) 2 directed towards the axis of
rotation (i.e. the centripetal acceleration).
From Newton's second law in the radial direction
mg - Fn = m(R cos ) 2 cos
or
Fn = m[g - R2 cos2 ]
or
Figure given below has illustrated the variation of g with the distance of separation from Earth's centre.
Illustration:
Find the value of g at a height equal to the radius of Earth.
Solution:
g = GM/(R+h)2 and g0 = GM/R2 (At the surface of Earth).
g/g0 = R2/(R+h)2 = R2/4R2
.h = R
Ans.
37
Caution:
Illustration:
At what angular velocity Earth should rotate, for the weight of an object at the equator to be zero?
What would be the duration of a day in this case?
Radius of Earth = 6.4 106 m
g0 = 9.8 m/s2
Solution:
For the weight to be zero, the value of g should be zero. That is
Here,
g' = g0 - Re2 = 0
Orbital Velocity
When a satellite revolves in an orbit around a planet, it requires centripetal force to do so. This
centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force between the planet and the satellite. If the mass
of the satellite is m and that of the planet is M, then the gravitational force between them at a height h
above the surface of the planet is
F = GMm/(R+h)2', where R is the radius of the earth.
If the speed of the satellite in its orbit is (R + h), then the required centripetal force is mv2/(R+h).
..
mv2/(R+h) = (G Mm)/(R+h)2
or
v = (GM/(R+h))=(GM/R(1+h/R)) = (gR/(1+h/R))
If the height is very small compared to the radius of the earth, then
v = gR
If the time period of the satellite is 24 hrs rotating in the same sense as the rotation of the earth and if
the plane of the orbit is at right angle to the polar axis of the planet (earth), then the satellite will
always be above a certain place of the earth.
This kind of a satellite is called geostationary satellite.
38
Illustration:
An artificial satellite of mass 100 kg is in circular orbit at 500 km above the earth's surface. Take the
radius of the earth as 6.5 106 m.
(a)
Find the acceleration due to gravity at any point along the satellite path.
(b)
Solution:
Here, h = 500 km = 0.5 106 m
R = 6.5 106 m
r = R + h = 6.5 106 + 0.5 106 = 7.0 106 m
(a)
(b)
..
Uf - Ui = Wgr
Change in gravitational potential energy of two point masses m 1 and m2 as their separation is changed
from r1 to r2 is given by
U(r2) - U(r1) = Gm1m2 [1/r1 - 1/r2]
If, at infinite separation, gravitational potential energy is assumed to be zero, then the gravitational
potential energy of the above two point mass system at separation r,
U(r) = -Gm1m2/r
Illustration:
39
What is the gravitational Potential energy of the Moon-Earth system, relative to the potential
energy at infinite separation?
Solution:
M = Mass of Earth = 5.98 1024 kg
m = mass of Moon = 7.36 = 1022 k
d = mean separation between Earth and moon = 3.82 108 m.
.. Gravitational potential energy of the Moon-Earth system (U)
= -GMm/d
Put all values U = -7.68 1028 J
Ans.
Illustration:
A projectile is fired vertically from the Earth's surface with an initial velocity of 10 km/s.
Neglecting atmospheric retardation, how far above the surface of the Earth would it go? Take the
earth's radius as 6400 km.
Solution:
Let the projectile go up to a height h. Then the law of conservation of mechanical energy gives
1/2 mv2 - GMm/R = -GMm/R+h
h = v2R2/2GM-v2R
= v2R2/2gR2-v2R
where g is the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth.
= ((104)2 (6.4106)2)/(2(9.8)(6.4106)2-(104)2 (6.4106))
Gravitational Potential
Gravitational field around a material body can be described not only by gravitational intensity vector
but also by a scalar function, the gravitational potential V. The gravitational at any point may be
defined as the potential energy per unit mass of a test mass placed at that point.
V = U/m (where U is the gravitational potential energy of the test mass m).
Thus, if the reference point is taken at infinite distance, the potential at a point in the gravitational field
is equal to amount of work done by the external agent per unit mass in bringing a test mass from
infinite distance to that point. The expression for the potential is given by
40
V = P
.d
With the above definition, the gravitational potential due to a point mass M at a distance r from it is
V = -r GM/r2
.d
= rGM/r2 dr = -GM/r
Potential is a scalar quantity. Therefore, at a point in the gravitational field of a number of material
particles, the resultant potential is the arithmetic sum of the potentials due to all the particles at that
point. If masses m1, m2, ......, mn are at distances r1, r2, r3, ......, rn then potential at the given point is
V = -G(m1/r1 + m2/r2 + m3/r3 +..........)
The field and the potential are related as, E = -dV/dr
Gravitational potential due to a shell
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(ii)
Inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre, V = -GM/R3 (R2/2 - r2/6)
Hence, we can find the radial component of the gravitational field intensity from V(r)
According to the relation
E = -dV/dr.
41
Binding Energy
Binding energy of a system of two bodies is the amount of minimum energy needed to separate the
bodies to a large distance.
If two particles of masses m1 and m2 are separated by a distance r, then the gravitational potential
energy of the system is given by
U = Gm1m2/r
Let T amount of energy is supplied to the system to separate the bodies by a large distance. When the
bodies are separated by a large distance, gravitational potential energy of the system is zero. For
minimum T, conserving energy for initial and final positions,
T+U=0
=>
T - Gm1m2/r = 0 or T = Gm1m2/r
Illustration:
Two spherical bodies of masses 2M and M and of radii 3R and R, respectively, are held at a distance
16R from each other in free space. When they are released, they start approaching each other due to
the gravitational force of attraction. Then, find:
(a)
(b)
Solution:
(a)
If the acceleration are a1 and a2, the net external force on the system = 0
42
=>
cm = 0 => m1a1 - m2a2 = 0
or
(b)
Taking both the bodies as a system, from conserving momentum of the system,
m1v1 - m2v2 = 0 => m1/m2 = v2/v1 = 2
Now, conserving the total mechanical energy, we have
1/2 (2M) V12 + 1/2MV22 - G(2m)M/4R = - G(2m)M/16R and solving it we get.
v1 = GM/8R and v2 = 2GM/8R
Note:
The velocities and acceleration are w.r.t. the inertial reference frame (i.e. the centre of
mass of the system).
Illustration:
At a point above the surface of earth, the gravitational potential is -5.12 107 J/kg and the
acceleration due to gravity is 6.4 m/s 2. Assuming the mean radius of the earth to be 6400 km,
calculate the height of this point above the earth's surface.
Solution:
Let r be the distance of the given point from the centre of the earth. Then,
Gravitational potential = -GM/r = -5.12 107 J/kg
...... (1)
...... (2)
43
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
r = 5.12*107/6.4 = 8 106 m = 8000km
..
HEscape Velocity
Escape velocity on the surface of earth is the minimum velocity given to a body to make it free from
the gravitational field, i.e. it can reach an infinite distance from the earth.
Let ve be the escape velocity of the body on the surface of earth and the mass of the body to be
projected be m. Now, conserving energy at the surface of the earth and infinity,
1/2 mve2 - GM/R = 0 =>
ve = 2GM/R.
Illustration:
The mass of Jupiter is 318 times that of earth, and its radius is 11.2 times the earth's radius. Estimate
the escape velocity of a body from Jupiter's surface. [Given: The escape velocity from the earth's
surface is 11.2 km/s.]
Solution:
Hence, MJ = 318 Me; RJ = 11.2 Re; ve = 11.2 km/s
We know, vJ = 2GMj/Rj and ve = 2GMe/Re
..
=>
vJ = ve (Mj/Me Re/Rj)
vJ = 11.2{318Me/Me Re/11.2Re}1/2 = 11.2(318/11.2)1/2 = 59.7 km/s
Illustration:
Find the escape speed from a point at a height of R/2 above the surface of earth. Assuming mass of
earth as M and its radius as R.
Solution:
Conserving mechanical energy of a point mass m which is to escape, and earth system we have,
-GMm/(R+R/2) + 1/2mv2 = 0
=> v = (4GM/3R)
height of the point from earth's surface = r - R = 8000 - 6400 = 1600 km
Illustration:
44
The escape velocity of a body on the surface of the Earth is 11.2 km/s. A body is projected away
with twice this speed. What is the speed of the body at infinity? Ignore the presence of other heavenly
bodies.
Solution:
If v is the velocity of projected and v' is the velocity at infinity, then we have by energy
conservation principle.
1/2mv2 - GMm/R = 1/2mv'2 + 0
Here v = 2ve
.. (1/2) . 4ve2 - GM/R = 1/2v'2
=> 2ve2 - GM/R = 1/2v'2
Now ve = 2GM/R
=>
or,
v'2 = 3 ve2
or,
Ans.
The mutual gravitational potential energy of the above mass and the spherical core of radius r,
dU = (-G(4/3r3)(4r2dr.))/r = 16/3 22Gr4dr
45
Hence, total energy evolved in the formation of the spherical body of radius R i.e., self energy.
Satellites and Planetary Motion
Earth and its Satellite
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving in a circular orbit around the Earth, which is located at
the centre of its orbit. If the satellite is at a height h above the Earth's surface, the radius of its orbit r
= Re + h, where Re is the radius of the Earth. The gravitational force between M e & m provides the
centripetal force necessary for circular motion, i.e.,
GMem/(Re+h)2 = mv2/(Re+h)
Or
v2 = GMe/(Re+h)
or
v = GMe/(Re+h)
Hence orbital velocity depends on the height of the satellite above Earth's surface. Time period T
of the satellite is the time taken to complete one revolution.
Therefore
or
satellite
very
close
to
the
surface
of
Earth
i.e.
<<
Re
then
r Re
vorbital = GMe/Re = gRe
46
(1) When v < v0, the satellite follows an elliptical path with centre of the Earth as the further focus.
In this case, if satellite is projected from near surface of the Earth, it will hit the Earth's surface without
completing the orbit.
(2) If v = v0, obviously the satellite follows a circular orbit with centre of Earth as the centre of the
orbit.
(3) If v0 < v < ve, then the satellite follows an elliptical orbit with centre of the Earth as the nearer
focus.
(4)
If v = ve, the satellite escapes the gravitational field of the Earth along a parabolic trajectory.
(5)
If v > ve, the satellite escapes the gravitational field of Earth along a hyperbolic trajectory.
Note: The derivation of the above cases is beyond the scope of JEE.
Enquiry:
What should be the energy required to shift a satellite orbiting around the Earth to infinity?
At infinity the Potential Energy of the satellite would be zero and if we want to supply minimum
Energy then its kinetic energy would also be zero. Let us first find the total Energy of the satellite.
Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
= 1/2 mv2 + (-GMem/r)
= 1/2 m.GMe/r - GMem/r
= -GMem/2r
Now, Binding Energy would be equal to - (Total Energy) as it is the energy needed to shift the
satellite from its orbit to infinity.
So, the energy required = GMem/2r.
Here, r = Re + h.
Enquiry:
If we see a satellite from Earth, how long will it take for one revolution?
Let us consider a satellite in circular orbit with a time period T s. The Earth also rotates with the
time period Te = 24 hrs. If an observer on Earth sees this satellite, the angular velocity of the satellite
will be
SE =
S e. Hence, the time period of revolution will seem different from T s and will be
observed as TSE.
If the satellite and Earth are revolving and rotating respectively in the same direction.
47
Hence,
(ii)
If the satellite and Earth are revolving and rotating respectively in the opposite direction.
Hence,
or
Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one foci of the ellipse.
2.
A line from the sun to a given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
3.
The square of the periods of the planets are proportional to cube of their mean distance (or semimajor axis) from the sun.
These laws go by the name 'Kepler's laws of planetary motion'. It was in order to explain the origin of
these laws, among other phenomena, that Newton proposed the theory of gravitation.
In our discussion, we are not going to derive the complete laws of planetary motion from Newton's law
of gravitation. Since most of the planets actually revolve in near circular orbits, we're going to assume
that the planets revolve in circular orbits.
Consider a planet of mass m rotating around the sun (mass M >> m) in a circular orbit of radius r with
velocity v. Then, by applying Newton's law of gravitation and the second law of motion, we can write
Gravitational force = mass centripetal acceleration
... (1)
... (2)
As the moment of the gravitational force about S is zero, the angular momentum of the planet about
the sun remains constant. This is the meaning of Kepler's 2nd law of motion, as will be shown later.
48
The time period of rotation, T, of the planet around the sun is given by,
T = 2r/v = -2r/GM/r = 2/GM r3/2
... (3)
... (4)
Note: The constant of proportionality in the above equation depends only on the mass of the sun (M)
but not on the mass of the planet.
Kepler's Laws are also valid for the motion satellites around the earth.
... (6)
.... (5)
49
= mr2 (d/dt) perpendicular to the plane of its orbit.
The gravitational force,
= -GMm/r2
i.e. =
* (-GMm/r2
)= 0
... (7)
Hence, the angular momentum of the planet does not vary, i.e. the areal velocity of the planet remains
constant. At its aphelion (farthest point from the sun, r is large), the planet moves slowly and at its
perihelion (nearest point from the sun, r is small) the planet moves fastest.
Illustration:
Calculate the mass of the Sun from the following data; distance between the Sun and the Earth = 1.49
1011 m, G = 6.67 10-11 SI units and one year = 365 days.
Solution:
Force of attraction between the sun and the earth = GmsmE/dSE2
Considering the orbit of the earth as nearly circular, the centripetal force acting on the earth is m E
dSE2.
=>
mE dSE 2 = GmsmE/dSE2
mS = dSE2.2/G = 42dSE2/GT2
=(4(3.14)2(1.491011)2)/(6.6710-11(365246060)2)
=1.32 1019 kg.
Illustration:
A Saturn year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is Saturn from the sun (M) if the earth is 1.5 10 8
km away from the sun?
Solution:
It is given that
TS = 29.5 Te;
Re = 1.5 1011 m
50
Illustration:
A planet of mass m moves along an ellipse around the sun so that its maximum and minimum
distances form the sun are equal to R and r, respectively. Find the angular momentum of this planet
relative to the centre of the sun.
Solution:
According to Kepler's second law, the angular momentum of the planet is constant.
.. mv1R = mv2r or v1R = v2r
If the mass of the Sun is M, conserving total mechanical energy of the system at two given positions
we have,
..
51