Professional Documents
Culture Documents
enzyme substrate
the reactant that an enzyme acts on
Each enzyme has an optimal _________ and _________ in which it can function.
temperature / pH
If a cell's metabolic pathways were not tightly regulated, what would result?
CHEMICAL CHAOS
Enzyme substrate
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
Each enzyme has an optimal _________ and _________ in which it can function.
Temperature / pH
Lysomsomes
Contain enzymes that digest waste and damaged organelles so the cell can dispose of them
Activation Energy
The energy required to initiate a reaction.
Denature (verb)
destroy the characteristic properties of (a protein or other biological macromolecule) by heat, acidity, or other effects
that disrupt its molecular conformation.
competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it
mimics.
Biological detergent
Detergents that contain enzymes. They are also biodegradable.
How do enzymes catalyze reactions?
by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur
Enzyme substrate
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
Each enzyme has an optimal _________ and _________ in which it can function.
Temperature / pH
Lysosomes
Contain enzymes that digest waste and damaged organelles so the cell can dispose of them
Activation Energy
The energy required to initiate a reaction.
Denature (verb)
destroy the characteristic properties of (a protein or other biological macromolecule) by heat, acidity, or other effects
that disrupt its molecular conformation.
competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it
mimics.
allosteric inhibitor
change the shape of the active site, and may enhance enzyme function
reversible inhibition
when an inhibitor forms weak chemical bonds with the enzyme, can be competitive or non competitive
irreversible inhibition
inhibitor that binds covalently and cannot be remove
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within
that pathway
induced fit model
a more accurate model of the enzyme's action. enzyme and substrate fit; substrate binding causes enzyme to change
shape for a tighter fit.
How do enzymes catalyze reactions?
by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur
Enzyme substrate
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
Each enzyme has an optimal _________ and _________ in which it can function.
Temperature / pH
Lysomsomes
Contain enzymes that digest waste and damaged organelles so the cell can dispose of them
Activation Energy
Denature (verb)
destroy the characteristic properties of (a protein or other biological macromolecule) by heat, acidity, or other effects
that disrupt its molecular conformation.
competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it
mimics.
Activators
molecules that bind to an enzyme and change the shape of an active site so that the enzyme becomes more active.
Inhibitors
molecuels that bond to an enzyme and change the shape of an active site so that the enzyme becomes less active
Simple Enzyme
just the protein
Holoenzyme
part protein
apoenzyme + co-enzyme/ cofactor
Co-enzyme
Larger organic molecules derived from vitamins and are involved directly in the enzymatic reactions
apoenzyme
protein
cofactor
Metal ions
Reactions
Exergonic - reactions that release energy. Spontaneous reaction
Endergonic - reactions that absorb energy
Activation energy - the energy needed for a reaction to occur
Transition state - Point in a reaction where there is a chance it will return to substrate or create product.
How do enzymes catalyze reactions?
by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur
Enzyme substrate
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
Each enzyme has an optimal _________ and _________ in which it can function.
Temperature / pH
Denature (verb)
destroy the characteristic properties of (a protein or other biological macromolecule) by heat, acidity, or other effects
that disrupt its molecular conformation.
competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it
mimics.
1) Chemical constitutes of food
2 types of browning
caramelization: burned sugar
mallard browning: a chemical reaction between the amine group and aldehyde group
2 types of proteins
simple- contains only amino acids
conjugated- contains amino acids plus additional groups of vitamins and minerals
7 ways to denature a protein
* heat
* acid
* enzymes
alkalide
excessive mechanical agitation
salt
alcohol
Amino Acids
contain elements C, O, N, H and P, S
essential amino acids must be consumed
non essential amino acids can be converted from other AAs by our bodies
Amylase
starch splitting enzyme
C4
C6
C8 names
butyric
caproic
caprylic
C6-C10
goaty fatty acids because fat of goats milk is highest in these fatty acids
C10
C12
C14
capric
lauric
myristic
C16
C18
palmitic
stearic
complete proteins
contain all essential amino acids
Constituents (13)
fats
carbs
proteins
vitamins
minerals
water
enzymes
flavors
pigments
emulsifiers
oxidants
antioxidants
acids
solubility
sweetness
fermentation rates by microorganisms
Disaccharides
C12H22O11
sucrose, maltose, lactose
Enzymes
chemical substances produced by living plant and animal cells that are capable of speeding up or slowing down
reactions already in progress without being changed or becoming part of the end products formed
Flavors
very complex
gas chromatography used to identify flavors in foods
Fruit acids
citric
malic
tartaric
Hydrogenation equation
oil + H2 + Ni + high heat and pressure ---> fat
Incomplete proteins
deficient in at least one of the essential amino acids
ex. cereal grains usually deficient in lycine
Monosaccharides
building blocks for complex sugars
C6H12O6
glucose/dextrose, galactose, fructose
Oxidants
oxygen/air
sunlight/UV
Cu, Fe, Ni
Peptide bond
ties amino acids together to form proteins
Phospholipids
lecithin
cephalin
sphingomyelin
Pigments/Colors
chlorophyll: green in plants
carotin: orange in carrots
lycopene: red in tomatoes
anthocyanonins: purple in grapes
oxymyoglobin: red color of meats
Protease, Lipase
protein,fat splitting enzymes
Protein breakdown
good when controlled (cheddar cheese aging)
bad when uncontrolled (rotten eggs)
Protein denaturation
structure is changed and protein precipitates out
ex. milk: acids and enzymes ---> cheese
Starch
a polysaccharide
(C6H10O5)x where x is 4+
major starch in plants is amylose
major starch in animals is glycogen
Structures of proteins
straight
folded
coiled
Trisaccharides
C18H32O16
raffinose (found in feed stocks)
Water
major constituent in foods
avg of 70% in foods
60-65% in meat, 87% in milk, 85-90% in fruits, 90-95% in vegs, 10-15% in grains
Collagen
Connective tissue in meat which softens when heated. Turns into gelatin when heated. Surrounds muscle
Elastin
Resistent to heat. Little change to cooking, yellow in color. Foun in ligaments.
Myofibrils
Muscle composed of bundels of fibers
Marbiling
Fat deposited around organs in muscles.
Finish
Amount of fat cover on carcass.
Oxymyoglobin
Myoglobin and oxygen = bright red color of meat.
Myoglobin
purple red apperance of meat.
National Association of Meat Purveyors (NAMP) and Institutional Meat Purchasing Specifications
(IMPS)
meat specifications utilizing numbering system for order wholesale cuts.
Poultry Inspection
-Wholesome Poultry Products Act indicates all poultry sold in US to be inspected for wholesomeness.
Meat Alternatives
-Meat Anologs
-Food made with soy and other ingredients to imitate meat.
Candling
-Process in which eggs are graded
-AA,A,B
-A in grocery stores
-B usually shipped to food manufactures for recipes
What temperature are eggs refrigerated?
-40 degrees f
Avidin
-A component of raw eggs that binds to biotin if its not broken by heat.
Pasteurization
Sanitation process in which milk is heated to kill bacteria.
Evaporated Milk
60% of water removed.
Condensed Milk
50% of water removed and sugar added.
Buttermilk
Cultured Milk, made up of bacteria.
Homogenization
Breaking of fat globules by forcing through a screen to allow fat to break into small particles and form an emulsion.
Components of Grains
-Bran: Outer part covers kernel-fiber and vitamins
-Endosperm: Centralized area-contains starch and protein
-Germ: Must be refrigerated. When exposed to air prone to rancidity.
Slurry
Mixing starch with cold water prior to adding to hot water.
Roux
Melted fat with flour.
Gelatinazation
Starch is heated a paste is formed
Synersis
Separation of liquid from gel.
Tough Crust
Not enough sugar
Bitter Flavor
Too much baking powder
Turgidity
Crispiness due to water pressure in the plant
Chlorophyll
Caretenoids
Orange. Little changes in acid or alkaline solutions.
-Ex is lycopene giving tomato and watermelon the red color
-Fat soluble more stable
Anthocyanins
-Red, blue,purple
-Acid-turns bright red
-Alkaline turns blue
-Water soluble
Anthoxanthins or flavones
-Colorless in acid
-Yellow in alkaline solutions
-Ex onions turn yellow when cooked in alluminum pan.
-Water soluble
Glycerol
-Backbone of a tryglyceride
Saturated Fats
-No double bonds
-Saturated with hydrogens
-Lard and Butter
Monosaturated Fats
-One double bond
-Olive Oil and Canola Oil
Polysaturated Fats
-More than 1 double bond
-Sunflower Oil and Corn Oil
Hydrogenation
-Changing liquid oils into solid
-Reduces rancidity
-Undesirable flavor or oil
Colloidal dispersions
particles of ONE substance are distributed, dispersed, in ANOTHER substance WITHOUT dissolving
- has two phases: dispersed and continuous
Dispersed phase
Substance that is dispersed within another
Continuous phase
Substance that extends throughout the system and surrounds the dispersed phase
Describe sol (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
suspension of LARGE molecules dispersed in a liquid, generally water
- continuous phase: liquid
- dispersed phase: solid
Describe emulsion (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
suspension of LIQUID DROPLETS (fat or water) within a LIQUID medium (fat or water)
- food emulsions can either be oil in water (o/w) or water in oil (w/o)
- continuous phase: liquid
- dispersed phase: liquid
- Homogenized milk is a dispersion of milk fat droplets in a liquid medium (skim portion of milk - which is a
suspension of milk protein particles, casein micelles in a liquid medium)
- Another example: margarine
Describe solid emulsion (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
dispersion of LIQUID DROPLETS within a SOLID phase
- continuous phase: solid
- dispersed phase: liquid
Examples: butter, margarine (both are water in oil emulsions)
- continuous phase is solid under refrigerator or low ambient temperatures
- oil is liquid, but if hydrogenated or a lot of SATURATED fats, it becomes more solid
Describe gel (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
a dispersion of water held within a continuous matrix of POLYSACCHARIDES (starch gels) or PROTEINS (gelatin
gels). Some scientists consider the water in gels to be a second continuous phase rather than a dispersed phase
Continuous phase: solid
Dispersed phase: [liquid]
Examples: starch, pectin or gelatin gels
Describe foam (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
a dispersion of GAS bubbles distributed within a LIQUID phase
- a typical foam is created when egg whites are beaten and air is incorporated within the liquid by the action of the egg
white proteins which stabilize the bubbles by forming a film around the gas
Continuous phase: liquid
Dispersed phase: gas
Examples: beaten egg white, whipped cake frostings
Describe solid foam (name its continuous and dispersed phase, and an example)
created when gas bubbles are dispersed within a SOLID phase (ice cream). In the case of whipped egg whites, the foam
is converted to a solid foam by the action of heat on the egg proteins.
Continuous phase: solid
Dispersed phase: gas
Examples: meringue, ice cream, bread
Describe carbohydrates
- one of the three main classes of nutrients (the other two being fats and proteins)
- occur in foods like sugars and starches and are the human body's main source of energy
- digestible carbohydrate contribute 4 cals of metabolized energy/gram
- most of the carbohydrates we consume should be in the form of complex carbohydrates (polysacchardies) such as
starch rather than as simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) such as table sugar
T/F: sweetness is related to caloric contribution of a sweetening agent and the more calories the
sweeter
What is the sweetness index of glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), sucrose and lactose?
70-80; 140; 100; 10-20
Describe sucrose
- table sugar, obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet, is mainly pure sucrose
- formed from GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE
- can be found in a variety of fruits, grasses and roots
Invert sugar
- a replacement for sucrose; sweeter than sucrose
- has a greater sweetening power per unit weight of the fructose containing sweetening systems
- produced by hydrolyzing sucrose with the enzyme INVERTASE or with acid to produce a mixture of glucose + fructose
Describe lactose
- also known as milk sugar, occurs in the milk of all animals
- formed by linking GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE together
- hydrolysis of lactose found in dairy products into its monosaccharides is catalyzed by the enzyme LACTASE
- Lactose can be fermented by lactic acid bacteria, producing lactic acid
- Lactic acid is the acidulant and PRESERVATIVE agent in yogurt and numerous cheeses
Describe maltose
- contains 2 GLUCOSE units linked together
- obtained when starch is hydrolysed by the enzyme AMYLASE or by heating with dilute acid
- further hydrolysed by the enzyme MALTASE into its D-glucose units which are then enzymatically isomerized by
GLUCOSE ISOMERASE to produce a liquid syrup composed of 42% fructose, commercially known as high fructose
corn syrup (HFCS 42)
starch/amylose (not sweet) -- amylase --> maltose (slightly sweet) -- maltase --> glucose + glucose (sweet) -- glucose
isomerase --> fructose (very sweet)
HFCS
High Fructose Corn Syrup has 42% fructose, 52% glucose and 6% starch
HFCS 90 is made by HFCS42 + HFCS55 which has a sweetness profile similar to sucrose
- many soft drinks are now sweetened with HFCS especially when costs of these syrups is lower than the cost of sucrose
or even invert sugar
sugars are widely used for their sweetening power. the sweetness of carbohydrates is determined by
their ___ ___ and ___ with sensory receptors on the tongue.
molecular structure; interaction
Sugars produce ___ and ___ feel when they are incorporated into foods at concentrations high
enough to affect the viscosity of the food product
mouth; body
production of hot ___-saturated sugar solutions with controlled crystallization during cooling is the
basis of formation of many hard candy products and toffees
super
sugars are readily soluble in ___ because they contain many hydroxyl groups which form hydrogen
bonds with ___.
water; water
Sugars can be ___ from solution when water is evaporated. This is the basis of production of table
sugar (sucrose) from the juice extracted from sugar cane and sugar beets
crystallized
Sugars are ___ by microorganisms with the concomitant production of acids and/or alcohols as well
as flavouring compounds
fermented
- this is the basis for production of fermented foods and ingredients obtained by means of microbial fermentations
___ (non-reducing/reducing) sugars react with proteins and amino compounds to produce flavours
and colours in foods (Maillard Browning).
Reducing
What are two non-enzymatic browning reactions that simple sugars serve as reactants in?
Caramelization and Maillard browning reaction
Caramelization
involves reaction of sugars (reducing and non-reducing sugars) when heated at high temperatures (200 oC) to produce
caramel and butterscotch flavours. The brown pigments formed during the heating of sugars contributes to the colour
of caramel candies and toffees. The pigments are NOT the same as the melanoidins formed during the Maillard reaction
Reducing sugar
contains a FREE aldehyde or ketone group = contain a FREE "OH" group on the position next to the O in the ring
structure
Yes..?
What sugar alcohols are less sweet than sucrose? Which sugar alcohol is known to have a laxative
effect and why?
sorbitol, mannitol, maltitol;
solbitol, apparently because of its slow intestinal absorption
Polysacchardies
- classified as COMPLEX carbohydrates
- high-molecular weight, long chains (polymers) of monosaccharide units (i.e. glucose)
- differ from simple sugars by being INSOLUBLE in water and generally tasteless
- most are derived from plant or seaweed sources; a few from microbial origin
- contribute to the THICKNESS Or VISCOSITY and textural properties of food products
Starch
- made out of polymers of glucose (400-100,000s) joined by an alpha, 1-4 link
- do not elicit a sweet taste and taste rather bland
- mostly used as a thickening, suspending and gelling agent
Amylose
a straight/linear chain starch molecule
Amylopectin
a branched starch molecule
Starch granules
foods like cereal and tubers starch exists in the form of starch granules
- starch molecules are packed within starch granules
- not digestible, nor is it soluble in cold water unless it is heated
Gelatinization
- occurs when starch is HEATED in water
- starch granules ABSORB water and sell up as water entering the granule begins to "loosen" the bonds between the
starch molecules
- hydrogen bonds form between the water and starch molecules
- starch granules eventually bursts becoming soft and pliable
- this leads to the conversion of hard, unchewable, raw rice kernels to soft, easily chewed, cooked rice
Retrogradation
Gelatinized starch can lose some of its water holding capacity upon cooling and/or during refrigerated storage
- involves the reassociation of starch molecules, especially the amylose polymers into an ODERED structure
- linear amylose molecules orient themselves in crystalline regions, leading to a squeezing out ("syneresis") of water and
a loss of tenderness of the food (e.g. staling of bread) or the development of a gritty texture (eg. starch based pudding
stored in the refrigerator)
It is interesting to observe that bread stales more quickly in the refrigerator than the freezer or at
room temperature. Can you think of why that it is?
my speculation:
freezer - freezes water and bread in original orientation = no retrogradation
in refrigerator - the process of gelatinzation is reversed = squeeze out water
- some of the dextrin products are used to create foods that provide the sensation of containing fat but that are low in
fat
- retrogradation can also be partially reversed by heating the food (eg. heating stale bread or buns in an oven or
microwave oven); however, once the product cools the starch quickly retrogrades again
Cellulose
- polysaccharides present in many plant tissues
- polymers of glucose but joined by a beta 1-4 link
- humans do not have the enzyme needed to break the beta link and therefore, cellulose is indigestible
- along with pectin and other carbohydrate gums, cellulose forms the indigestible portion of our carbohydrate intake
that is known a dietary fibre
dietary fibre
indigestible portion of our carbohydrate intake
Xanthan gum
a polysaccharide with a B-D-glucose backbone like cellulose, but every second glucose unit is attached to a
trisaccharide
- used in salad dressings as a THICKENING agent, which enables the dressing to cling to the salad components
- also used as a thickener for sauces, to prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream and as a low-calorie substitute for fat
- produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris which is found on cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and
cauliflower
Pectin
- a polysaccharide that acts as a cementing material in the cell walls of all plant tissues
- used in jam and jellies as a GELLING agent
- contributes to the viscosity of tomato paste and ketchup
- will give contribute to the mouth-feel of foods, and help maintain particles in suspension
- the white portion of the rind of lemons and oranges contains approximately 30% pectin
Lipids
- fats and oils are part of a group called lipids
- lipids can be found in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids and sterols
- triglycerides make the largest class of lipids (we consume mostly triglycerides)
Describe the process used to convert a liquid oil into solid or spreadable margarine
Hydrogenation
T/F: Fats have important functions on foods as they can influence the flavour and texture of foods
and are even necessary for the absorption of fat soluble vitamins
True
Fats act as a ___ in food making the food more palatable and easier to chew and swallow
lubricant
Fats have ___ ___ because they coat the flour particles (protein and starch) in baked goods,
creating a flaky, lighter texture that make them easy to tear apart. Fats work best as shortening
when the crystals are in the beta prime form, which produces a fine texture in the baked foods.
Cakes will have a crumbly texture without the moistness given by fats
tenderizing power
Fats and oils are carriers of many ___ ___ in foods that are usually fat soluble. Thus, fats contribute
to the overall flavour of food.
aroma constituents
T/F: Fats and oils can be heated to very high temperatures before they begin to smoke and vaporize.
Foods fried in hot fats and oils (deep fat frying foods) cook very fast because of the temperatures
that can be attained.
True
Fats form part of emulsions (review colloidal dispersions) by acting as the dispersed phase or
continuous phase. Some facts and also act as ___, assisting in keeping the emulsion stable.
emulsifiers
Homogenization
Homogenization or other high-energy mixing processes may be used to disperse one liquid phase into another may be
used to disperse one liquid phase into another
- nevertheless, after two liquid phases such as oil and water are mixed and then left to stand, the natural tendency is for
the two phases to separate
Emulsifiers
- compounds that promote the formation of emulsions, i.e., the dispersion of one phase in the form of small droplets, in
the second continuous phase
- amphiphillic molecules that have a hydrophilic portion and a hydrophobic portion
- assist in formation of an emulsion by orienting themselves at the interface between the two phases, with their
hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions facing water and oil, respectively, thereby reducing the interfacial tension
between oil and water phases
- also help STABILIZE emulsion by preventing the dispersed oil droplets or water droplets from coalescing together
- certain type of fat molecules called phospholipids function as emulsifiers
- other naturally occurring emulsifiers include the proteins from milk, egg yolk or other foods
Phospholipids
- emulsifiers
- structurally similar to triglycerides, except that only two fatty acids are linked to glycerol (making it a diglyceride), and
a charged group (negatively charged phosphoric acid esterified with positively charged choliine group) is linked to the
third position of glycerol
Lecithin
- example of a phospholipid
- naturally occurring emulsifier commonly found in egg yolk and soybean oil
Stabilizers
compounds that INCREASE the viscosity of the CONTINUOUS phase, keeping the droplets suspended or dispersed and
thus reducing the rate of creaming
Examples: xanthan gum, propylene glycol alginate
Protein
- molecules made up of long chains of hundreds or even thousands of amino acid units joined together
amino acids
- a type of organic acid
- made up of an amino group (NH2) and a carbonyl group (COOH) attached to the same carbon atom
- 20 different amino acids
essential amino acids (not synthesized by human tissues and must be obtained via food) are isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, histidine (essential for infants only)
Proteins consumed in excess of body requirements is converted to energy or is converted to ___ for
storage
fat
Proteins produce ___calories/gram when they are digested and the amino acids are metabolized for
energy
4
Proteins in tissue systems such as meats and fish contribute to the ___ of products
texture; difference between a tender and tough steak can often be related to the types and relative abundances of
various types of protein molecules within the muscle structure.
Proteins can act as emulsifiers - describe how they help emulsion formation
- many proteins are amphiphillic molecules as they contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions (from amino acids)
allowing them to act as emulsifiers
- one part of these amino acids is attracted to water, forming hydrogen bonds, while the other part avoids water and
binds with oil
example: egg yolk and mustard proteins in mayonnaise
Proteins can also help with formation of foams - describe how they help foam formation
- proteins have the ability to trap air in bubbles and this leads to the formation of foams
- egg white proteins function as foaming agents in the making of whipped egg whites
- whipping introduces air and denatures (unfolds) the protein molecules. the protein molecules then coagulate to form a
fine film around the air pockets
-- solid foams such as meringue are formed when the whipped egg whites are heated causing the protein to denature
and form a more rigid three-dimensional structure, which won't collapse when the air escapes
- bread and ice cream are also examples of solid foams. ice cream is also a solid emulsion
Gluten
a protein in wheat flour, traps air bubbles in bread making.
casein
a milk protein that acts as an emulsifier preventing the fat globules to separate (cream) from the skim milk portion
- in cheese it forms a gel structure in the cheese curd
___ (an enzyme) can cause lipolytic rancidity which is the release of free fatty acids from glycerides
lipase
T/F: enzymes in living tissue food systems like fruits and vegetables are responsible for the reactions
associated with ripening. those same enzymes will continue the ripening process after harvest and
unless they are inactivated the enzymes will EVENTUALLY cause spoilage of the product
True
T/F: Many HEATING processes in food processing are designed to INACTIVATE enzymes and
undesirable microorganisms to extend storage life
True
T/F: Microorganisms, when added to food systems, to produce fermented foods are essentially
sources of desirable enzymes required to catalyse the desired chemical reactions needed to make
fermented food products
True
T/F: Enzymes are also extracted from a variety of sources (plants, animal by-products,
microorganisms) and purified for use as aids in food processing (eg. proteases used for milk
coagulation during cheese making; pectinases to enhance juice recovery and for clarification of
apple juice; invertase for conversion of sucrose to invert sugar; isomerase to produce high fructose
corn syrup)
True
T/F: Intolerance to certain proteins in foods is the basis for many food allergies
True
Free water
- water that is free and not bound by food components generally retains its usual physical properties, can also function
as a dispersing agent for colloidal substances, can function as a solvent and can be used by microorganisms
- some water may be present within inter-granular spaces, within pores of the food matrix and as a thin film of water on
the surface of many foods
- free water can be found in tissue food systems and in dispersion
Bound water
- some water can be adsorbed on surfaces of macromolecules like starches, pectins, proteins through forces such as van
der Waals forces and hydrogen bond formation
- does not display all of its normal physical properties and it is not readily available for use by microorganisms and
chemical or enzymatic reactions
- another form of bound water is that water that is associated with food matrices as water of hydration
- not readily available for use b microorganisms and chemical or enzymatic reactions in the food matrix, whether it is a
tissue based food system or a dispersion
- sugars and salts (sodium chloride) can bind substantial amounts of water and are often added to foods for the purpose
of decreasing the amount of free water in the food system. in the context, sugars and salts can be used to control or
prevent growth of certain microorganisms in foods
Water activity
measurement that is frequently used in monitoring the availability of water (free water) in foods for the support of:
- microbial growth
- chemical reactions
- enzymatic reactions
can be measured as the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the food to the vapour pressure of pure water, both
measured at the same temperature
aw = (vapor pressure of water in food at XoC)/(vapor pressure of pure water at XoC) * 100
- can range from 0 (no free water) to 1.0 (all water is free)
Water activity can be adjusted by PHYSICALLY removing water from foods during ___ and ___
processing operations, also when the water in the food is ___ (the free water is in a solid state, in the
form of ice crystals) or by adding substances (like sugar and salt) that ___ water thus lowering the
proportion of water in free form.
Dehydration; Concentration; Frozen; Binds
pH
a measure of acidity of foods
- foods and beverages differ in pH because of their content of acids which produce hydrogen ions
Acid food
pH < 4.6
examples: apples, cherries, oranges, pears, tomatoes, pickles, lemon/lime juice
pH = 4.6 is an important pH (borderline between an acidic food and a low acid food)
Chlorophyll
green pigment in plants - responsible for the green colour in apples, lettuce, celery and broccoli
- chlorophyll a: a blue green hue (e.g. in the florets of fresh broccolli)
- chlorophyll b: a yellow green hue (stems of broccoli)
Carotenoids
a diverse group of pigments, can be sub-classified into carotenes and xanthophyls
- naturally produce red, orange and orange-yellow colours in many foods (eg. tomatoes, carrots, pineapples, shrimp)
T/F: No single chemical compound can be attributed as being the sole source of the aroma of a
particular food product
True
- it is the specific mixture of chemicals in a particular concentration that creates the aroma that we associate with a high
quality food product
T/F: Any changes in that specific mixture of volatile compounds or their concentrations will alter the
aroma that we perceive
True
The ___ constituents that contribute to the aroma of foods are present in very low concentrations
but are nonetheless very important constituents of foods
volatile
The ___ constituents are either present as part of the food matrix (fresh strawberries) or are
modified (cooking of strawberries) or created (roasting of coffee) during processing or cooking
flavour
Vitamins
organic compounds that make up a small portion of food - but are very important nutritionally and are essential
components of the huan diet
T/F: Although vitamins do NOT contribute to the physical characteristics of food, some are actually
used as "food additives"
True
Example:
Ascorbic acid - can be a bleaching agent (hasten oxidation and aging processes as in flour whitening treatment), and
preservative (antioxidant - slow down rancidity and browning agents), vitamin E can be a preservative - antioxidant
Minerals
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc
- are often associated with various cellular components in tissue food systems and often are active participants in
chemical and biochemical reactions that affect the chemical properties and textural characteristics of food systems
2)Enzymes
What is an enzyme?
A biological catalyst, usually a protein; ribozymes are RNA enzymes
What is a substrate?
Rxt acted upon by enzyme
What is an isozyme?
Different structural forms of an enzyme that have the same function
What is Keq?
Pdts over rxts = [ES] complex over [E] times [S]
What is catabolism?
Large molecules are broken into smaller ones to provide energy
What is Km?
The dissociation constant of [ES] complex; [E][S]/[ES] or k-1/k1
What do competitive inhibitors accomplish?
Compete with reg enzymatic substrate for their active site
What are the levels of enzyme regulation, from fastest control to slowest control measure?
Enzyme level; hormonal; and gene as slowest
Phosphate grp
An example of a transfer group of reversible covalent modification
Aerobic
needs oxygen
Anaerobic
needs to be in the absence of oxygen
Antigenic Group
organisms possessing a major antigen common to more than one species
Antigenic Type
organisms possessing a specific antigen only known to one genus or species
Aschelminthes (Nematode)
unsegmented cylindrical body
300um-1m
complete alimentary tract
dioecious
axial filaments
bundles of fibrils which allow spirochetes to move
Bacillus
rod
cccobacillus
plump bacillus
Cestode
segmented body (flat)
2mm-12m
no alimentary tract
monoecous
Coccus
sphere
coryneform (diphtheroid)
club shaped
Eucaryotic cell types have _______ chromosomes that are _______ in shape.
multiple, linear
facultative
has extra enzymes which allow it to grow in the presence of and absence of oxygen
Growth factors
organic compounds which can't be synthesized by bacteria
Microaerophilic
needs reduced oxygen
Morphology
external appearance
Mould size
2-15um
Mycelium
visible mass of hyphae
Name 3 Platyhelminthes
Trematode, Cestode, Aschelminthes
pleomorphic
multiple forms
Protista are _______ cellular
single
spirochete (spirillum)
spiral or corkscrew shaped
Taxonomy
science of biological classification
teichoic acids
part of the gram positive cell wall that is connected to cytoplasmic membrane
Trematode
leaf shaped body
500um-60mm
partial alimentary tract
monoecious
Virus size
18-300nm
What are at least 3 things a Gram-negative cell wall has that a Gram-positive doesn't?
Lipopolysaccharides, Lipd A, Lipoprotein, periplasmic space
what are the three common bacterial cell structures that all typical bacteria contain?
cytoplasm
cytoplasmic membrane
cell wall
What bacterial cell structure has the function of selective permeability, energy production,
transport, and secretion?
cytoplasmic membrane
What does 2 sugar molecules cross linked with amino acids create?
cell wall structure
What is one step that an enveloped virus must complete that a naked virus doesn't?
uncoating
What is the common cell generation time range for typical bacteria? (minutes)
30-60min
What process does a DNA virus have to do for replication that an RNA virus doesn't?
transcription
Which bacterial cell wall structure is highly resistant and metabolically dormant?
endospore
Which cell structure has the functions of shape, protection, and antibody attachment?
cell wall
Which cell structure is composed of thick aqueous elastic cell sap and genetic material?
cytoplasm
Which Helminth doesn't have both male and female reproductive organs (monoecious)?
Nematode
Which type of cel lwall (Gram+ or Gram-) has a thicker peptidoglycan layer?
Gram+
Which type of cell wall (Gram+ or Gram-) includes protein more often?
Gram-positive
naked
Antibodies are made to counter what significant surface molecules that can be used for identification?
Antigens
Describe the difference between a eucaryotic cell's and procaryotic cell's chromosomes.
Eucaryotic cells have multiple, linear chromosomes, and procaryotic cells have one circular chromosome.
Describe the difference between a eucaryotic cell's and procaryotic cell's nuclear membranes.
Eucaryotic cells have a nuclear membrane, procaryotic cells do not.
Describe the difference between a eucaryotic cell's and procaryotic cell's replication.
Eucaryotic cells replicate through mitosis, and procaryotic cells replicate throught binary fission (membrane attachment).
What arrangement do single cell arrangements have?
No particular arrangement
What does the abbreviation "spp." mean when placed after a genus?
Several or all members of the genus.
What is peptidoglycan?
N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acids cross linked by short peptide chains
What shape do spirochete/spirillum bacteria have?
spiral or corkscrew
How many cells can rapidly growing bacteria grow in 18-24 hours?
usually 1-3 million cells
How to moulds reproduce?
By forming spores on reproductive hyphae
What are four structures that may or may not be present in bacterial cells depending on the species?
endospore, capsule, flagellum and fimbriae
What bacterial structure aids in determining the location of infection due to its adhesive tips that
selectively attach to human tissue?
fimbriae
What characterizes fastidious metabolism?
Requires specific nutrients that a bacterium cannot synthesize
What does yeast look similar to under a microscope, and how does one distinguish between the two?
Coccus. Yeast is much bigger, and can be seen without a gram stain
What feature of the human body is a defense against bacteria's preferred pH?
The high acidity of stomach acid (resting pH: 4-5)
What is a bacteriophage?
A virus that infects bacteria
What is a colony?
A clump of a few mission identical bacteria orginitating from the same bacterium.
What is a mycelium?
A visible mass of hyphae (ie a colony)
What is a nutrient?
A growth supporting substance taken by a cell from its environment and is used in metabolic activities
What is a potential defense in the human body against bacteria's optimal temperature?
Fever- most bacteria start dying off at 37.5-38 C, and the normal human temperature is 37 C
What is a virion?
A fully developed, individual animal virus particle
What is agar?
A gelatinous substance that provides a "solid" surface support for growth
What is the cell generation time (time for one cell to divide to two) for bacteria?
30-60 min for most; 15-30 hours for some
arborescent
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; thin, treelike growth
beaded
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; nonconfluent to semiconfluent colonies
buttery
a type of "consistency" in nutrient agar slants; moist and shiny
circular
a type of "form" in nutrient agar plates; unbroken, peripheral edge
consistency
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar slants; can be described as dry, buttery , or mucoid
convex
a type of "elevation" in nutrient agar plates; dome-shaped elevation
crateriform
a cultural characteristic of nutrient gelatin (liquefaction); liquefied surface area is saucer-shaped
cultural characteristic
differences in the macroscopic appearance of a microorganism's growth; are used as a basis for separating microbes into taxonomic
groups; contained in Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
dry
a type of "consistency" in nutrient agar slants; free from moisture
echinulate
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; continuous, threadlike growth with irregular edges
effuse
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; thin, spreading growth
elevation
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar plates; the degree to which colony growth is raised on the agar surface is described as follows:
flat, raised, convex, umbonate
entire
a type of "margin" in nutrient agar plates; sharply defined, even
filamentous
a type of "margin" in nutrient agar plates; threadlike, spreading edge
filiform
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; continuous, threadlike growth with smooth edges
flat
a type of "elevation" in nutrient agar plates; elevation not discernible
flocculent
a cultural characteristic of nutrient broth cultures (distribution of growth); flaky aggregates dispersed throughout
form
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar slants; the appearance of the single-line streak of growth on the agar surface is designated
as:filiform, echinulate, beaded, effuse, arborescent, rhizoid
form
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar plates; the shape of the colony as described as follows: circular, irregular, or rhizoid
infudibuliform
a cultural characteristic of nutrient gelatin (liquefaction); funnel-shaped
irregular
a type of "form" in nutrient agar plates; indented peripheral edge
lobate
a type of "margin" in nutrient agar plates; marked indentations
margin
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar plates; the appearance of the outer edge of the colony; described as: entire, lobate, undulate,
serrate, filamentous
mucoid
a type of "consistency" in nutrient agar slants; slimy and glistening
napiform
a cultural characteristic of nutrient gelatin (liquefaction); bulbous-shaped liquefaction at surface
optical characteristic
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar slants; evaluated on the basis of the amount of light transmitted through growth; described as
opaque, translucent, or transparent
pellicle
a cultural characteristic of nutrient broth cultures (distribution of growth); thick, padlike growth on surface
pigmentation
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar plates; color of colony
pigmentation
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar slants; the coloration of organisms as seen in surface colonies
raised
a type of "elevation" in nutrient agar plates; slightly elevated
rhizoid
a type of "form" in nutrient agar plates; rootlike, spreading growth
rhizoid
a type of "form" to describe nutrient agar slants; rootlike growth
saccate
a cultural characteristic of nutrient gelatin (liquefaction); elongated, tubular
sediment
a cultural characteristic of nutrient broth cultures (distribution of growth); concentration of growth at the bottom of broth culture may
be granular, flaky, or flocculent
serrate
a type of "margin" in nutrient agar plates; toothlike appearance
size
a cultural characteristic in nutrient agar plates; pinpoint, small, moderate, or large
stratiform
a cultural characteristic of nutrient gelatin (liquefaction); complete liquefaction of the upper half of the medium
umbonate
a type of "elevation" in nutrient agar plates; raised, with elevated convex central region
undulate
a type of "margin" in nutrient agar plates; wavy indentations
Aldehydes
* other agents for sterilization
* causes cross-linking that inactivates proteins and nucleic acids
Antisepsis
Refers to the killing or removal of microbes on living tissues
Autoclaving
*Moist heat
*Denaration
*Sterilization (autoclaves, pressurecookers, retorts)
*Media, linens,equipment, dressings
Bisphenols are..
combination of 2 phenol molecules
Boiling
*100
*30 minutes of boiling kills microbial pathogens and vegetative forms of bacteria
*but may not kill bacterial endospores
Boiling
*Moist heat
*Denaturation
Chlorine
*Cl gas
*Forms hypochlorous acid (HClO), a strong oxidizing agent
*Disinfect drinking water
Chlorine Dioxide
* other agents for sterilization
* is non-toxic
* is non-carcinogenic
* was used to decontaminate the anthrax expose mail in 2001
Clean
Clean" has a very restricted meaning in microbiology. In this context, clean refers to the removal of VISIBLE dirt and
debris from tissues or objects. Clean does not equal sterile
Deep Freezing
*low temp
*Growth slows Preservation
*70oC
*Drug, food & culture
Detergent
*ex: quaternary ammonium compounds
*disrupts cell membranes
* skin antiseptics and disinfectants
Disinfection
Refers to the killing of microbes on inanimate objects or materials
Ethanol
*50-70%
*Denatures proteins and solubilizes lipids
*Antiseptic used on skin
Ethylene oxide
* other agents for sterilization
* is effective by carcinogenic (potential to cause cancer) and explosive gas
Filtration(B)
*Separation Liquid through screen
*Heat labile material
Flaming
*dry heat
*Burning to ashes
*Sterilization Inoculating loops
Formaldehyde
*
8%
*Reacts with NH, SH and COOH groups
*Disinfectant, kills endospores
Fractional sterilization
Fractional sterilization on 3 consecutive days is used for sterilization if materials are not suited
Fridge
*low temp
*Growth slows
*Bacteriostatic
*Drug, Food
Germicide/Biocid
A chemical agent that demonstrates killing power against various microbes
Heavy metals
* are disinfect/antispetic
* they interfere with the microbial metabolism
*pasturization
*Denaturation
*72oC / 15secs
*Milk: Flash method through continous winding pipe
Incineration
*dry heat
*Burning to ashes
*Sterilization animal cacasses, dressings, wipes
Incineration
>*500
*Vaporizes organic material on nonflammable surfaces
*but may destroy many substances in the process
Intermittent boiling
*100
*Three 30minute intervals of boiling, followed by periods of cooling
*kills bacterial endospores
Ionizing
*Radiation(D)
*DNA destruction
*Not commonly used
*Sterilizing medical & dental supplies
Isopropanol
*50-70%
*Denatures proteins and solubilizes lipids
*Antiseptic used on skin
Lactic acid
*unknown effective concentration
*Antimicrobial agent in cheeses, buttermilk, yogurt and pickled foods
Lyophilization
*Desiccation(C)
*Growth arrested
*Long term preservationof microbes
*Food, Drug & culture
Mercuric chloride
*Inactivates proteins by reacting with sulfide groups
*Disinfectant, although occasionally used as an antiseptic on skin
Nitrates
*can be found in some cheeses
*adds flavor
*maintains pink color in cured meats
*prevents botulism in canned foods.
*Can cause adverse reactions in children, and potentially carcinogenic.
Nonionizing
*Radiation(D)
*DNA py-py-dimers (eg:UV)
*Not very penetrating
*radiation
*UV(germicidal)lamp
nosocomial
infections gained fromt he hospital
Osmotic Pressure
*Desiccation
*Plasmolysis
*Loss of water
*Food preservation
Ozone
*generates lethal oxygen radical
*Purification of water, sewage
Pasteurization
A heating process that REDUCES the number of spoilage germs and eliminates pathogens in milk and other heat
sensitive foods
Phenolic compounds
*Ex: carbolic acid, lysol, hexylresorcinol, hexachlorophene
*denature proteins and disrupt cell membranes
*anteseptics at low concentrations
*Disinfectants at high concentrations
Pressurized steam
is used in an autoclave as a more dependable way to sterilize a variety of objects.
Salt
*retards bacterial growth.
*Not good for blood pressure.
Sanitization
Usually used by the food industry. Reduces microbes on eating utensils to safe, acceptable levels for public health
Silver nitrate
*AgNO
*Precipitates proteins
*General antiseptic and used in the eyes of newborns
Sodium chloride
*unknown effective concentration
*Prevents microbial spoilage of meats, fish, etc.
Sodium diacetate
*0.32& effective concentration
*Antifungal agent in breads
Sodium nitrite
*200 ppm effective concentration
* Antibacterial agent in cured meats, fish
Static
Processes or chemical agents that inhibit bacterial growth but do not necessarily kill microbes
Sterilization
Kills or removes all forms of life, including bacterial endospores
Sugar
*unknown effective concentration
*Prevents microbial spoilage of preserves, jams, syrups, jellies, etc.
Tincture of Iodine
*2% I in 70% alcohol
*Inactivates proteins
*Antiseptic used on skin Disinfection of drinking water
UHT
*moist heat
*Denaturation
*Sterilization, 141oC/2 sec
*Milk falls ina thin film through a super heated checker
Wood smoke
*unknown effective concentration
*Prevents microbial spoilage of meats, fish, etc.
"Typical" Bacteria
Kingdom = MoneraCell Type = procaryotic, single cell orgnaisms w/o formed nucleus or organelles such as possessed by higher
organisms.Cell Size = 0.5-0.8 um in diameter, 1 -6 um in length
Aerobic
requires atmospheric oxygen (-21%)
Anaerobic
requires the absence of oxygen
Baccillus
rod or cylindrical
Cell Arrangements
singlepairschainsclusterspalisades
Cell Shapes
Coccus Bacillus Spirochete or spirillum
Chains
division on one plane, perpendicular to the long axis of the chain; cells remain attached "end-to-end"
Chemotaxis
Clusters
division on three planes
Coccus
spherical
Describe peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan makes up 60-80% of the cell wall and includes N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic (NAM) acids. Also
includes short peptide chains that crosslink the peptidoglycan layers.
Explain fastidious
organisms that have elaborate requirements for specific nutrients which they cannot synthesize
Explain parasite
an organism which lives in or on a host organism from which it secures some advantage such as deriving organic nutrients from a
living host.
Explain saprophyte
It is an organism which utilizes non-living organic matter.
Facultative
can grow in presence or absence of oxygen
Gram-negative stain
communist red is negative
Gram-positive stain
purple is positive
Microaerophilic
requires reduced oxygen concentration (5-10%)
Morphology
external appearance of the cell, colony, or other item
Moulds
- hyphae: multicellular long filamentous cells that branch and intertwine- reproduce by forming spores on reproductive hyphae- size:
hyphae (2-15 um in diameter); up to 30 um long; spores (1-10 um)- mycelium: visible mass of hyphae (i.e. colony); may be cottony,
fluffy, velvety, or leathery in various colors
Pairs
division on one plane; daughter cells remain paired
Palisades
"picket fence", division one plane perpendicular to the short axis of the chain (bacilli only)
Phototaxis
Moving toward or away from light.
Single
no particular arrangement
Size of protozoa
2um - 1mm
Spirochete or spirillum
spiral or corkscrew shape, not usually visible by Gram stain
True/FalseMoulds typically grow on artificial media similar to that used for bacteria, except that the media usually contains antibiotics
to inhibit viruses.
False, the medium contains antibiotics to inhibit bacteria.
What are the major components and function of the bacterial cytoplasm membrane?
Phospholipid bilayer and proteins.Function:selective permeabilitysite of energy productionsynthesis and transport of
peptidoglycansecretion of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes
What are the major components and function of the bacterial cytoplasm?
Composition is thick, aqueous, and elastic and is composed of cell sap and genetic material and mechanisms. Function is metabolism
and replication.
What are the major overall functions of the bacterial cell wall?
Provides:shape and rigidityprotection from the environment and from some antimicrobial agentssite of antibody attachment to major
cell antigens
What are the optimal temperature, pH, humidity, and carbon dioxide requirements for the growth of a "typical" medically significant
bacteria?
Temperature - 35 degrees celsiuspH - 6.8 to 7.4Humidity - 60-80% Carbon dioxide - most medically significant bacteria do not require
increased carbon dioxide levels, however, some need 5 to 7%.
What is a bacteriophage?
It is a bacterial virus (mostly DNA viruses).
What is a colony?
A clump of a few million identical bacteria originating from the same bacterium.
What is an endospore?
It is a spore that is highly resistant to environmental effects and is metabolically dormant (one spore germinates to form one vegetative
cell).
The capsule, also referred to as the glycocalyx or slime layer, is made up of polysaccharides and is resistant to phagocytosis, helps to
"hide" surface antigens, and sometimes assists in attachment (dental plaque).
Adsorption occurs via special receptors, which are located on which viral component?
A. Capsid
B. Envelope
C. Nucleic acid
D. Both A and B
D. Both A and B
An antibiotic is a:
a. chemical substance produced by a microorganism that can inhibit the growth of or destroy some
other microorganisms
b. protein that is produced by the body in response to an antigen and is capable of binding
specifically to that antigen
c. chemical agent used to kill microorganisms on contaminated operatory surface
d. negatively charged ion
a. chemical substance produced by a microorganism that can inhibit the growth of or destroy some other
microorganisms
Bacteria that can survive and grow in the presence of acids are called?
a. aerobic
b. anaerobic
c. aciduric
d. acidogenic
c. aciduric
Candida albican is a:
a. prion
b. bacterium
c. virus
d. yeast
d. yeast
How many new viruses are released when an infected host cell lyses?
A. Several
B. Hundreds
C. Thousands
D. Millions
C. Thousands
A special form of bacterium that is dormant and highly resistant to heat and chemicals is a:
a. vegetative cell
b. virus
c. rickettsia
d. Spore
d. Spore
c. cocci
d. fimbriae
d. fimbriae
Water is a necessary requirement for bacterial hydrolysis. Aciduric bacteria are the only
microorganisms that do not need water to grow.
A. Both statements are true.
B. Both statements are false.
C. The first statement is true; the second is false.
D. The first statement is false; the second is true.
C. The first statement is true; the second is false.
What bacterial cell structure protects the cell from being crushed?
a. Cell membrane
b. Cell wall
c. Capsule
D. Fimbriae
b. Cell wall
What bacterial structure inhibits phagocytosis and allows bacteria to escape death caused by white
blood cells?
a. Nucleus
b. Capsule
c. Cytoplasmic membrane
d. Cell Wall
b. Capsule
Which is smaller?
a. Human red blood cells
b. Bacterium
c. Virus
c. Virus
Which of the following microbes do not need to multiply inside of living cells?
a. DNA viruses
b. RNA viruses
c. Chlamydia
d. Regular bacteria
d. Regular bacteria
Alpha-toxin
(& organisms that have it)
Cytolysin
-C. perfringes
-S. aureous
*Similar mechanism to PLC, catalyzes splitting of phospholipids (except this causes cell lysis)
Antigens of Enterobacteriacae
("HOKVi")
H = Flagella (Not seen in shigella)
O = Outer membrane
K = Capsule
Vi = Capsule of Salmonella
Bacteria that aquire toxins/VFs/etc.. via a lysogenic phage
S. pyogenes (Erythrogenic toxin)C. diptheriae (Exotoxin)C. botulinum (Neurotoxin)
Chocolate agar
Neisseria, Haemophilus
Cysteine
Francisella, Brucella, Legionella, Pasteurella, & Corynebacterium ("Fat Boys Love Pie & Cake")
Facultative anaerobes
Most bacteris (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae)
Microaerophilic
Campylobacter, HelicobacterBorrelia sp
Obligate aerobes
Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, (Bacillus)
Obligate anaerobes
Organisms that can trigger Reiter syndrome (Reactive arthritis): 75% of pts are HLA-B27
Shigella sp. Salmonella sp. Yersinia sp. Campylobacter sp.Chlamydia trachomatis
Partial adherence?
Biofilms:-Staph. epidermis-Strep. mutans
Thayer-Martin media (S)-chocolate agar supplemented with vancomycin, nystatin, & colistin
Neisseria
Thioglyconate
Anaerobes
1 acre=___sq/ft
43560
1 cup=___ ounces
8
1 gal=___pounds
8.3
1 mile=___sq feet
5280
1 mL=___ounces
30
1 ounce=___tablespoons
2
1 pound=___ounces
16
1 pound=___sb seeds
3000
3 categories of insects
foilage feeders, pod feeders, root and stem feeders
Bacteria types
bacterial leaf spot, bacterial chlorosis
bacterial chlorosis
light yellow, causes leaf to form abnormal amino acids
foilage feeders
most common
Fungi types
southern stem, sudden death syndrome, asianic soybean rust
pod feeders
most serious
SDS id
leaves dried up in 4 days
secondary nematode types
stubby-root, lance, ring, stunt, spiral, dagger
southern stem id
white fluff at bottom of stem
stinkbug threshold
5 stinkbugs per 15 sweeps
5
Hybrid oilseed rape varieties come to market in ____ years.
45
The average oil content in OSR is ____%.
Be stored
FRH.What can the seed not do?
Complicated, heterozygosity
Double haploids see selection in early generations ________ by ________.
High yielding inbred lines
The pedigree method leads to the production of what?
Increased vigour and growth, increased stress tolerance and lower seed rate
Hybrid oilseed rape varieties heterosis leads to...
It has weed characteristics (pods shatter, intermediate habit, long term seed viability)
Why does OSR pose more of a threat to breeders?
OSR is exposed to Phoma and light leaf spot (2 biggest UK problems) and is analysed for oil, erucic acid and glucosinate content
In the pedigree method the F1 involves growing and selfing, whilst the F2 is grown in the field. At the F2 what also happens?
Wheat
Double Haploids.The technology is widespread in wheat, barley and OSR. ________ is the least responsive to it, yet has the largest
market.
12)Fluid milk
How is metering measured?
Volumetric displacement,
mass flow rate or velocity
T or F. There are significant differences between organic and traditionally produced milk.
False. No significant differences.
What are important details when receiving the milk and recording inventory?
Hauler's weights may be the only weights
Most handlers make a double check
What are the components in receiving milk, cleaning and sanitizing (Phase III)?
CIP (Clean in place)
Tanks sealed and tagged before leaving plant
Pump and exterior of truck are driver responsibilities
What are the components of receiving the milk and unloading it, phase II?
High capacity centrifugal pumps
Filtration/clarification
Open vents before starting pumps
What components have helped slow the fall in fluid milk consumption?
Improved packaging such as rounded, reclosable plastic containers
When zero pressure is applied in the homogenizer, what is the end product?
Raw milk, big milk globules
If you heat milk for .01 seconds, what temperature does it have to be at?
212*F
If you heat milk for 1 second, what temp does it have to be at?
191*F
If you heat milk for 15 seconds, what temp does it have to be?
161*F
If you heat milk for 30 minutes, what temp does it have to be?
145*F
What is pasteurization?
Some Bacteria and enzymes are destroyedNOT STERILIZATION
9 million
The national dairy herd in the US has decreased from over 20 mill.cows in 1956 to approx.---------- in 2006. YET milk
production jas increased
10 to 14 days
How long can properly processed milk be kept for
50%
Most milk produced on U.S.dairy farms goes to plants and dealers for processing more the ------- of fluid jilk is maketed
by suermarkets
80 persent
dairy cows produce ----------- of the world fluid milk supply
90%
cooperative milk marketing ass.located near large population centers give producers more bargaining power,as they
control approx. ---- of the milk prod.
100 F (38)
What is a cow's body temp
400 / 2000
How many different kinds of chesse are made and how many names are there
acidified
the food was produced hy souring milk or cream with or without the addition of microbial oganisms
butter churns
what is the oldest dairy equipment
calcium,phosphorus,protein,and B vit.
Milk and other dairy products make a significant contribution to the nation's supply of dietary nutrient.Particularly
noteworthy are the relatively large percentages of
casein
a milk protein, 82%of the total milk protein
coagulation
the process of forming semisolid lumps in a liquid
colostrum
mother's first milk
condensed milk
Milk with water removed and sugar added
cream
liquid milk product,high in fat that has been separated form milk.
curdling
the process of forming semisolid lumps in a liquid
evaporated milk
Whole milk which has approximately 60% of the water
homogenized
6th step of milk processing
homogenized
A substance that has been mechanically mixed to prevent separation of solids and liquids such as milk.
Imitation
one that look like,tastes like, and is intended to replace the traditional product couterpart but is nutritionally inferior to it.
India / 3
on a global basis ---------- is the leading butter producing nation generating nearly ------- times more than all of North America
Iron
What nutrient is milk low in
lactose
glucose + galactose, Approximately 4.8% oc cow's milk is lactose. 54% of the SNF content in milk
Milk fat
50% Synthesized, 50% preformed (mobilized from adipose)
nutrient density
the amount of nutrients relative to the number of calories they provide
osteoporosis
A disease of gradual bone loss, which can cripple people in later life
Pasterurization
mild heating to kill microorganism or pathogens 161F (71.5C) for 15 sec.
Pasteurization
5th step of milk processing
Proteins
Milk contains approx.3.3% protein. Protein accounts for about 38% of the total SNF
rennet
a substance that curdles milk in making cheese and junket/obtained from the stomachs of young calves
soft,semisoft,hard,very hard
What are the 4 classifications of chesses
Substitute
Resembles the traditional food and also meets the FDA's definition of nutritional equivalency
They take a sample for testing later at the processing plant. Then the cold milk is pumped from the refrigerated frm tank
through a sanitized hose into the insulated tank on the truck
4th step in the milk proccessing
Transitional milk
contains lactose, water-soluable, vitamens, fats and more calories than colostrum. Lasts from day 3 til 2 wks postpartum.
Ultra high temperature
that does (uht) stand for
Vitamins
All ------------ essential in human nutrition are found in milk.
wisconsin,california,idaho
leading cheese producing states
A _____ cup is a cup with fine wire mesh on top used to detect the presence ofabnormal milk.
Strip
A _____ needs to be applied to the teat end in order for a milking machine toremove milk.
Vacuum
The _____ or uniform price is determined by the proportion of the total deliveryused in products of these classes.
Blend
________ is exposure of hot milk or milk product to reduced pressure to affectthe removal of volatile substances, especially those that
enter milk from feed.
Vacuumization
_________ amino acids are commonly found in milk proteins, including theessential amino acids.
19
_________ is the time after processing during which a dairy product normallyremains suitable for human consumption.
Shelf date
__________ is a milk process that makes milk more easily digested by thosewith a sensitive digestive system.
Homogenization
The __________ test is used to detect if milk has been pasteurized properly.
Phosphatase
___________ cause(s) off flavors in milk such as acid, high acid, or sour milk.
Microorganisms
A "acidified" label on a milk product indicates that the product was produced by:
Souring the milk
The "set aside" of $0.15 per hundred pounds of milk from a milk producer'scheck is used in programs that support ______.
Promotions & research
The 2009 dairy export value was over 2 billion dollars down approximately________% over 2008.
40
The ability of lipase in milk to attack milk fat and produce a rancid off flavor isenhanced by:
Excessive agitation of warm raw milk
About ____________percent of the calcium available in the food supply isprovided by milk and milk products.
76%
The absence of _____ and _____ is not an accident, because they wouldcatalyze oxidation, their producing metallic or oxidized
flavors.
Iron-copper
According to a report compiled by the Institute for Food Technologists,_________is now America's favorite at-home snack.
Yogurt
According to the American Veterinary Medicine Association, what is thepreferred method of dehorning cows?
Disbudding
According to the Food & Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences,all people need at least _________ milligrams of
calcium per day.
1000
According to USDA'S economic research service, total per capita of all fluid products was approximately __________ pounds.
177
Although milk from the cow is processed, it is not an engineered or fabricatedfood and contains about ________ % solids.
13
Approximately ______% of the frozen dessert market was ice cream. (Hard andsoft and low-fat/non-fat)
86.7
At refrigerated temperatures, butter will begin to lose some of its natural flavorafter how long?
Within 6 months
The average Federal order price per hundredweight in 2009 for class 1 milkwas _______dollars per hundredweight.
14.40
Based on ice cream consumption figures, the second most popular flavor is
Chocolate
Behind the U.S., the country, which averages the largest production per cow, is_____.
Japan
Body condition scoring is one way to measure cow health. What is the idealscore for a milking cow?
3
Butter is made from milk and/or cream and must contain a minimum of:
80% fat
Butter production now accounts for _______% of the total milk supply.
18
By regulation, milk from cows treated with antibiotics usually must be withheldfor ____ hours.
48 - 72
By using a _____ with plastic beads of varying density, nonfat solids in milk canbe rapidly estimated.
Hydrometer
California is the leading state in production of ice cream, which state wassecond?
Indiana
The California Mastitis Test (CMT) asks that you used only ___________milk.
The 2nd stream during milking
Cheddar cheeses sold in the United States, which are not made frompasteurized milk, must be ripened at least _________ days.
60
The cheese price series is based on 63 U.S. cheese plants that make 80-85percent of the bulk Cheddar. What is the price series called?
NASS Cheddar Cheese Price Survey
The cheese that has maximum moisture of 45% and a minimum of 45% fat andis a pasta filata cheese is?
Provolone
Chemical sanitizers containing __________ are most widely used for sanitizingmilking equipment.
Chlorine
The CMT test results that indicate a somatic cell count of 400000 to 1500000are _____.
Distinct precipitate forms, but no gel
A consumer found an off-flavor in milk packaged in transparent plastic andexposed to high intensity fluorescent light. The off-flavor
probably was
Oxidized
Cooperatives Working Together (CWT) is the ______program that aims tostrengthen and stabilize milk prices by balancing supply
and demand.
Farmer-funded
Cottage cheese from the grocery shelf must contain no less than:
4% fat
The country which imported the largest amount of U.S. ice cream and relatedproducts was:
Mexico
Cows treated with BST typically show an increase of __________ in daily milkproduction.
10%
Cows with _____ have a higher incidence of mastitis because physical injury ismore likely.
Pendulous udders
Cream is a liquid milk product separated from the fluid milk that must contain aminimum of:
18% fat
The current U.S. per capita consumption of milk is approximately _____ gallonsper year.
20
Dairy cows need _________ day dry periods for rejuvenation of secretorytissue and restoration of body condition.
60
Dairy farmers can buy and sell dairy futures on what exchange?
Chicago Mercantile Exchange
The decision of a milk hauler to accept or reject milk at the producing farm:
Depends on knowledge of milk quality and ability to smell off odors
Dry cream is produced by removing the water from pasteurized milk and/orcream. Dry cream is required to contain a minimum of:
40% fat
Dry cream is produced by removing the water from pasteurized milk and/orcream. Dry cream will have a maximum milk fat of
_______ for economic factors.
75%
Dry whey
Mexico
Due to high leukocyte counts, farmers should not use the CMT before the________ day after calving or test milk from cows that are
being dried off.
Third
Evaporated milk has been preheated to stabilize the protein, followed by theremoval of:
60% of the water
Farm water supplies must be protected from surface contamination. Water isusually tested for __________ as an indicator of possible
sewage contamination
Coliform bacteria
The fat in one serving of whole milk (8 ounces) provides _______ calories.
90
Federal Definitions and Standards of Identity specify that Whole Milk containnot less than _____.
3.25 percent milk fat and 8.25 percent solids-not-fat
Federal Milk Marketing Orders affect prices consumers pay for fresh milk ingrocery stores by:
Leaving them to be determined in the marketplace
Federal Milk Marketing Orders are a mechanism for:
Market stabilization
Federal milk marketing orders give _______ an active voice in determiningminimum milk prices through public hearings.
Milk handlers
The Federal Orders of today are based on the Agricultural Agreement Act of
1937
The feed additive isoacid gives a ______ pound daily milk response, withmaximum response in early lactation.
4 to 6
Five countries accounted for approximately _______% of the total U.S. dairyexports.
59
A fluid milk product that contains at least 8.25% nonfat milk solids and no morethan 0.5 gram of fat in a single serving of 8 fluid
ounces is called
Nonfat milk
For every pound of dry matter, cows should consume how much water?
4 to 5 pounds
From the mid 1950's until 2009, individual production per cow has:
Increased by 400%
From the mid 1950's until 2009, the size of the U.S. dairy herd has:
Decreased by 50%
The Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) specifies requirements for theproduction of Grade A raw milk for pasteurization and
is recommended by_________.
The Food and Drug Administration
The hormone oxytocin is released by the ____ gland.This act stimulates themammary gland.
Pituitary
How long should Calf hutches be left empty between calves to prevent diseasespread?
10 to 14 days
2 cc
How many years does it take for a dairy farm to fully transition to becomecertified organic?
3
Humans may contract ______________ from using raw cows' or goats' milk,should the animals have brucellosis.
Undulant fever
Ice cream, including both hard and soft serves, represents _______% of theentire frozen dairy product market.
25-26
The ideal cleaning material for removing milk stone from milking equipmentsurfaces is _____.
Acidic detergent
If the CMT has a somatic cell count of 1,200,000 to 5,000,000 what is theinterpretation?
Serious mastitis
If the dairy ingredients to be pasteurized have a fat content of 10% or more, thespecified temperature shall be increased by
______degrees F.
5
If vitamin A is added to milk, it must be at a level of no less than ______international units (I.U.) per quart.
2000
In ______when the Capper-Volstead Act was enacted, cooperatives were giventhe right and power to organize producers of a farm
commodity to its fullestextent.
1929
In 2009, the annual farm milk price was about $_________ per hundredweight,down $5.60 per hundredweight from 2008.
12.80
In cows, salmonellosis infections are most common in those that have calvedwithin
10 days
In Federal order markets, milk sold for consumption in fluid form is in__________.
Class I
The increased use of bulk cooling and storage equipment has made _____bacteria the primary organisms in raw milk.
Psychrophilic
It takes approximately ____ pounds of skim milk to make a pound of dry curdcottage cheese.
7.3
It takes approximately _______ lbs. of whole milk to make one pound of wholemilk cheddar cheese.
10
The Italian cheese with the second largest per capita consumption was?
Provolone
The largest increase per capita in all dairy products in 2009 was
Yogurt
The largest percentage of the U.S. milk supply is utilized in the production of______.
Cheese
The leading state in 2009 in pounds of milk per dairy cow was:
New Mexico
Low levels of the enzyme lactase may lead to lactose intolerance. Symptoms oflactose intolerance include ALL of the following
EXCEPT:
Headaches
Low sodium cheddar cheese contains no more than ________milligrams ofsodium per pound of finished food.
96
Low-fat yogurt must have a minimum of _______ fat and a maximum of________fat.
.5%, 2%
Meat flavour, preservative, anti-botulinum activity, fixes the red colour of cured meats, retards oxidative rancidity
pH(6)
= Oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), = Moisture content or Water activity (aw),= Nutrient content,= Antimicrobial constituents, =
Biological structure (poultry skin and eggs shell), = Any combination of the above.
Radiations
Ionising Radiation: X-rays or gamma rays,Electromagnetic "nin-ionising" radiation: Microwaves UV rays
"Darfresh" System:
Uses specially formulated top and bottom webs to create a vacuum skin consumer pack that fits around the product like a second skin.
Advantages
- INCREASED SHELF LIFE - LITTLE OR NO NEED FOR CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES-GOOD PROTECTION OF PRODUCT
DURING STORAGE- REDUCED WEIGHT LOSS
Antimicrobial Constituents(2)
Milk: Lactoferrin Conglutinin Lactoperoxydase system Eggs: Lysozime
Bacteria Inactivation
= Normally: Spore > gram (+) > gram (-),= Heat-resistant bacteria are usually more pressure-resistant than heat sensitive types,=
Pressure resistance often reaches a maximum at ambient temperatures= Initial temperature of the food prior to HHP can be reduced or
elevated to improve inactivation at processing temperature
Bacteria Inactivation 2
Listeria monocytogenes and Staph. aureus are the two most well studied, Staph. aureus appears to have a high resistance to pressure,
There is variability of pressure resistances within strains of S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7.
Clostridium botulinum(5)
- Heat treatment of 90C for 10 minutes, or a time and temperature combination sufficient to kill C. botulinum spores. - pH of 5 or
less in all parts of the food. - Minimum salt level of 3.5% in the water phase throughout all parts of the food.- Water activity of 0.97
or less in all components of the food. - Combination of the controlling factors can be used at lower levels or with other preservative
factors, such as nitrite.
Cold(3)
- Refrigeration.- Freezing and Blast freezing. - Vacuum Packaging (VP), Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) and Controlled
Atmosphere Packaging (CAP).
Colours in Foods Six food colours associated with possible hyperactivity in young children.
The colours, identified by the Food Standards Agency, are: sunset yellow FCF (E110) quinoline yellow (E104) carmoisine
(E122) allura red (E129) tartrazine (E102) ponceau 4R (E124)
Controlling Microorganisms
- Heat -Cold -Drying -Acid -Sugar -Probiotics -Bacteriophages -Curing -Micro filtration -Smoke -Vacuum Packaging
-Additives -Radiation -High Pressure
Controlling Microorganisms(4)
= Ambient temperature processing =Processing by application of heat =Processing by removal of heat =Post-processing operation
CRYOVAC MACHINE: BAGS ARE SEALED AIR TIGHT
1. Vacuum pack2. Hot water bath Not enough vacuum tight. Bone splinters or other foreign bodies. Seal not applied properly.
Inappropriate plastic bags.
CuringCHANGES(4)
Is any of various food preservation and flavouring processes, especially of meat or fish, by the addition of a combination of
salt, nitrates, nitrite or sugar. Changes: Preservation, Flavour - unique processed products, Colour, Tenderness.
Degrees of Preservation(6)
= PASTEURISATION EFFECT: Low order of heat treatment, generally at temperature below 100oC, Leaves many bacteria viable,
Designed to destroy most of pathogenic organisms (e.g. milk and liquid eggs, oysters), Limited storage life compared
to commercially sterile products. = PASTEURIZATION (old method): 63oC for 30 minutes, Need cold storage = HTST = 72oC for
15 seconds (shelf life up to 3 weeks) or 88oC for 1 second, Need cold storage= UHT = 138oC for 2 to 5 second (shelf life up to 3-4
months).= Sterilisation - complete destruction of all microorganisms: bacterial spores require at least 121oC wet heat for 15 min., =
Commercially Sterile - may contain small number of heat resistant bacterial spores (these will not normally multiply in the food
supply). Most canned or bottled food products are commercially sterile and have a shelf life of 2 years or more.
Eh(3)
= Meat reduced to -200mV (O2) produces -SH radicals and bacteria produce H2S. Role of ascorbic acid. = Differences between
moulds, yeasts and aerobic, anaerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria. = Interference with microbial enzymes function (O2).
Extrinsic Parameters.(4)
= Ambient temperature, = Humidity of environment, = Microbial competition, = CO2, O2 and O3
Food Additive Means...Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 on Food AdditivesAndThe Food Additives (Scotland) Regulations 2009
... "any substance, whether or not it has nutritive value, that is not normally consumed as a food in itself or used as a characteristic
ingredient of food, and which, if added intentionally for a technological purpose to food in its manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packaging, transport or storage, results, or may reasonably be expected to result , in the substance or its by-products
becoming directly or indirectly a component the food concerned"
Food Spoilage Spoilage is the process in which fooddeteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of
edibility becomes reduced.(10)
Growth and activities of micro-organisms (bacteria, yeast and moulds), Activity of food enzymes, Chemical reactions in food,
Inappropriate storage temperature for a given food, Infestation by parasites, Either excessive gain or loss on moisture, Reaction
with oxygen, Light exposure, Physical stress, Time.
HEAT (8)
- Pasteurization -Sterilisation -Evaporation and distillation -Extrusion -Dehydration -Baking and roasting --Frying -"Cook &
Chill"
Heat - Advantages(4)
= Simple control of processing conditions, = No refrigeration required for storage, = Improves digestions of some nutrients, =
Improves flavour, colour, taste and texture.
Legislation
= The thawing of foodstuffs is to be undertaken in such a way as to minimise the risk of growth of pathogenic microorganisms or the
formation of toxins in the foods.= During thawing, foods are to be subjected to temperatures that would not result in a risk to health.=
Where run-off liquid from the thawing process may present a risk to health it is to be adequately drained. = Following thawing, food is
to be handled in such a manner as to minimise the risk of growth of pathogenic microorganisms or the formation of toxins
LIMITATIONS
ADDED COSTSTEMPERATURE CONTROLLEDDIFFERENT GAS COMPOSTION /PRODUCTPRODUCT
APPEARANCEPRODUCT SAFTEY (EG C.BOTULISM , LISTERIA)
Meat Products "Products resulting from the processing of meat or from further processing ofsuch processed products, so that the cut
surface shows that the product no longer has the characteristics of fresh meat". To differentiate from:(3)
Minced meat, Meat preparations, Mechanically separated meat (MSM).
Methods of Curing(3)
=> Dry salt: Dry salt (salt alone or in junction with nitrite and nitrate), Dry "country style" curing - salt, sugar, nitrate and nitrite,
Brine soaking. => Curing pickle injection: Artery pumping, Stitch pumping, Multiple needle injection curing.=> Any Combination
of the above
Modified Atmosphere(2)
VACUUM PACKAGING is the practice of extracting air from a packaging containing food before it is sealed. MODIFIED
ATMOSPHERE is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of food packages inorder to improve the shelf
life of theproduct.
Nutrient Content(4)
= Water, = Sources of energy, = Sources of nitrogen, = Growth factors (minerals and vitamins).
Possible Concerns(6)
= Chronic toxicity (e.g. nitrosamine) = Allergic reactions (e.g. eggs, celery, etc.) = GI problems = "Chinese restaurant syndrome"
(monosodium glutamate syndrome) instead of salt = Hyperactivity (e.g. some food colours)= Endocrine Active Substances (e.g.
Biosphenol A) Substances that can interact or interfere with normal hormonal action. When this leads to adverse effects, they are
called endocrine disruptors.
Possible Problems(5)
= Dark meat (Maillard reaction) = Dry meat and Weight Loss = Rancidity = Moulds = Costs associated with the Cold chain
Principal Additives
- salt - nitrate- sweeteners- spices - develop mycotoxins if not stored properly - olive and sunflower oil, vinegar
Processed Products2
= Process Products results from the processing of: Meat Raw milk Eggs Fishery = Or from further processing of such processed
products. Shelf-life, Colour and Odour, Consistency and Taste
Radiations
= In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space.= There are two
distinct types of radiation; "ionising" and "non-ionising".= The word radiation is commonly used in reference to ionising radiation
only (i.e., having sufficient energy to ionise an atom).
Radiations Co-60 and Cs-137 have insufficient emission energies to induce radioactivity in food via X-rays or gamma-rays. Ionising
radiation have the ability tobreak chemical bonds when absorbed by materials producing:
Electrically charged (ions), Neutral particles (free radical).
The photon hits the atom transferring energy and determining the detachmentof an electron from the external orbit and transforming
the atom into an ion (hence the term ionizing radiation). The electrons that are released from the process induce the stimulation of
other neighbouring atoms and the production of other ions (primary effect).
Radiations In the USA are commonly used for the decontamination of minced meat (X-rays) and poultry meat (since 1990).
The maximum recommended dose for food is 15kGy, with the average dose not exceeding 10kGy (WHO, 1977, 1984, 1994).
Packaging material and food can be easily altered by radiations (cancerogenic agents).
Radiations in FoodExtrinsic
(radiation applied to food during processing).
Rate of Freezing
= RAPID or Ultra rapid- small ice crystals inside and outside the cells (-30 to -50oC for 12 to 18 hours), = SLOW - large ice crystals
and clusters of crystals outside the cells (-8 to -20oC),= Acceptable for most foods 1.3 cm/hour.
Smoke Antimicrobial Effects Strong: enterobacteria spp, salmonella spp, bacillus subtilis; Poor: clostridia spp, yeast
Acids = bactericidal / antiseptic Aldehydes = bactericidal / antiseptic Alcohols = secondary alcohols antiseptic Phenols = antioxidant
action Phenols and ketones = Flavorings
Smoke Generation
Friction Smoldering Steam Phases Liquid smoke
Smoke Generation
=The wood used for the production of "smoke" should NOT be treated, with chemical substances unless it can be demonstrated that
the substance used for the treatment does not give rise to potentially toxic substances during combustion.= The water-insoluble highdensity tar phase and the water-insoluble oily phase which is a by-product of the process should not be used for the production
of smoke flavourings.
Smoke Generation Regulation (EC) No 2065/2003: on smoke flavourings used or intended for use in or on foods. Art. 4:
The use of smoke flavourings in or on foods shall only be authorised if it is sufficiently demonstrated that: It does not present risks to
human health, It does not mislead consumers.
Smoke Generation Wood is subjected to controlled burning, with a maximum temperature of 600C. The smoke is condensed and
separated to obtain the following phases:
A water-based 'primary smoke condensate' mainly containing CARBOXLIC acids, CARBONYLIC and PHENOLIC compounds, A
water-insoluble high-density TAR phase which during the phase separation will precipitate, A 'water-insoluble OILY phase'.
Smoking
=It consists in exposing food products to smoke obtained from the incomplete combustion of different types of wood (beech, oak,
juniper, chestnut).= Herbs, spices, twigs of juniper and twigs, needles and cones of picea may be added if they are free of residues of
intentional or unintentional chemical treatment.= These fumes are rich in aromatic substances (phenol) which are of particular
antiseptic power.
Smoking Effects(6)
= Drying effect to meat, fish and dairy products= Taste = Pleasant odour = Brings out the colour of the meat = Antioxidant =
Antimicrobial
Thawing of Products(3)
= Very rapid thawing may have negative implication on quality: Meat exudation. = If thawing is too slow bacteria can start
multiplying. = Rapid thawing (15 to 20oC for 24 hours).=Air (chiller, tunnel). = Water (immersion or spray). = Microwave (oven or
tunnel)
UV Light
Well developed for water and air treatment since 1930, Viable option for non-food contact and food surface treatment, Viable nonthermal alternative for liquid foods preservation, Physical method - no chemicals, Cost effective and energy efficient, Approved by
some Regulatory Agencies.
UV Light
- Destroys protozoa (Cryptosporidium and Giardia), - Destroys bacteria (E. coli, L. monocytogenes, Staph. aureus), Destroys toxins in
food (aflatoxins in milk, patulin in fresh fruit juice),- Virus are not inactivated.-The antimicrobial effect of light at UV wavelength are
due to the absorption of energy that disrupt cellular metabolism,- In contrast to irradiation, light doesn't cause ionisation of small
molecules,- Promote production of Vitamin D in milk.
Water Activity(3)
= Differences between moulds, yeasts and bacteria.= Minimum aw values bacteria vs. food: Pseudomonas - aw 0.97 E. coli
O157:H7 - aw 0.96 Clostridium spp. - aw 0.97= Interference with microbial cell membrane (osmotic stress) and transportation of
nutrients.
Bacteriocin
bactericidal proteinsnarrow range of activityadsorption to specific cell envelope receptors
Characteristics of Nisin
heat stable, nontoxic, natural, stable during storage, destroyed by digestive enzymes, no off-flavor
Competitive Exclusion
bacteria from uninfected organisms will bind to intestinal sites (that pathogens attach to) and colonize, preventing pathogen binding
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Examples of Bacteriocins
Nisin (Lactococcus lactis)Plantaracin A (Lactobacillus plantarum C11)
IgA
mucosal immunity in GI tract
Natamycin
antibiotic produced by Streptomyces natalensisfights molds/yeasts
Nisin
effective against gram+ spore formers
Probiotic Bacteria
beneficial bacteria that control pathogen colonization in animal intestinesproduce metabolites that are antimicrobial to specific
pathogens
Probiotic Cultures
added to food to improve human intestinal health
Protective Cultures
added to food to improve safety
Concentration effect =
Components in the unfrozen water phase are concentrated hence causing chemical, enzymatic and physical changes in the food
Example for what a scraped surface freezer is used for; rotator promotes
- making hard ice cream mix -> soft ice cream- rotator promotes:(i) Rapid freezing(ii) Development of small ice crystals(iii)
Incorporation of air bubbles -> forms solid foam (gas in solid - lesson 2)(iv) May see shrinkage/graininess of ice cream in home
freezer b/c of partial melting and temp fluctuations -> destabilization and crystallization of lactose b/c of concentration effects
Freezing methods
1. Air freezing (oldest and most common type)2. Indirect contact freezing3. Immersion & cryogenic freezing
Freezing point =
temp when ice crystals in equil with air-saturated water (when a volume of air at a given temperature holds the maximum amount of
water vapour) at 1 atm
In food, why is there an increasingly large amount of concentrated water - soluble solutes in unfrozen phase
b/c frozen water in food is pure water -> less and less unfrozen water gets mixed with same amount of solutes
Latent heat
quantity of heat required to change state of a substance without changing its temp
Slush freezers/scraped surface heat exchangers used for what kind of products
liquid (fluid) products only
Undesirable changes during freezing & what does it cause
1.Formation of Package ice2. Freezer dehydration (burn) Loss of nutrients Moisture loss Surface of food unappealing
What is the food immersed in; examples of food that used this method
- Immersion of packaged/unpackaged food products in refrigerant fluid- Propylene glycol, NaCl, CaCl, sugar, sins, salt brine, glycerol
{non-toxic}eg. Turkeys, chicken, ice cream popsicles
What kind of changes occur in food during freezing, frozen storage, thawing
chemical and physical
what must be stored at 4'C and below? and what determined this
The Food and Drug Regulations of Canada state that perishable foods that can support the growth of disease-causing microorganisms
must be stored at temperatures of 4C and below.
Dehydration
remove the water from the food to prevent bacteria growth example: ramen noodles, pastas, dried foods (raisins)
Freeze Drying
type of dehydration process that is used on perishable food - make it easier to store/transport
Freezing
reduces temperature to 0 degrees F. This inactivates the bacteria to stop growingexample: meats, veggies, popsicles, etc.
Irradiation
exposing food to high energy rays to break down DNA of bacteria (kills bacteria)
Pasteurization
heating the food to a warm enough temperature to kill SOME of the bacteria. Goal- reduce the amount of bacteria, slows its growth,
and extend shelf life (Still has expiration date).- Heating is below boiling point , to not ruin food quality
Pickling
soaking the food in salt and vinegar
Salting
adding dry salt to food because bacteria CANNOT survive in a salty environment- usually done to meat and fishexample: salting ham
to make prosciutto
Smoking
preserving food by exposing it to smoke from a burning plant (usually wood)- the smoke creates chemicals and PH that's not good for
bacteria.
Commercial sterility
12-D concept (botulinum cook) to reduce spores by a 12 log reduction
Parabens target
Yeast, molds and some gram positive bacteria
Pasteurization
Destruction of non-spore forming pathogenic bacteria (sanitizer)
Sterilization
Destruction of ALL living organisms
Sulfite targets
Inhibits DNA replication, enzymes, protein synthesis, and damages the cytoplasmic membrane
Aliquot
A portion of a whole sample taken to determine the quantitative composition of the whole.
Analytical Factors
Directly influence the analytical factors primarily dependent upon instrumentation and reagents.
Calibrators
Used in the calibration process of a particular instrument to establish parameters, ensure instrument reliability and to compensate for
variables.
CLSI
Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute
Internal Surveillance
Initiated by local supervisorIn-house inspectionsIssuance of blind specimens and blind quality control, to verify accuracy of results
Laboratory Instrumentation
Prepare daily, monthly, annual (etc.) preventive maintenance schedule for each instrument, in a timely manner, with calibration
checks.
Post-Analytical Factors
Primarily dealing with reporting of results and other aspects that occur after the analysis phase.
Pre-analytical Factors
Occur prior to testing the patient specimen, mostly happen outside the laboratory.
Standards
Standards are used as a basis for the comparison of other solutions in the clinical laboratory, must be suitable for qualitative and
qualitative analysis.
Storage of Reagents
Reagent must be stored according to the manufacturer's directions and used within the indicated expiration dates.
Turn-Around Time
Total amount of time required to obtain or collect a specimen.
Aroma
Smell detected through nose, sensory characteristic
Astringency
unripe persimmon
Chroma
clarity and purity of color
Color
appearance used to determine quality, sensory characteristic
Consumer Acceptability
Willingness to buy and eat a product, involves consumer preferences which are hard to measure
Flavor
Mix of taste with smell
Hidden Characteristics
Qualities that can't easily be seen, nutrition and safety
Hot compounds
1. Capsaicin2. Gingerol3. Piperine4. Isothiocyanates
Hue
Acctual color
Instruments
Devices used to measure quality in foods
Intensity
range of lightness to darkness of color
Market Segments
Potential CustomersCurrent Customers
Mouthfeel
all sensations in mouth from chewing, to swallowing
Orthonasal olfaction
The detection of an odor through the nostrils by sniffing or inhalation
Precision
is how close that estimate is each time it's measured
Principles of HACCP
1. Conduct a hazard analysis2. Determine critical control points3. Establish critical limits4. Establish monitoring procedures5.
Establish corrective actions6. Establish verification procedures7. Establish record-keeping procedures
Quality
describes properties of food the can be measured
Relevance
is how important the measurement is to consumer acceptability
Reliablity
how accurate the machine is reading
Remember This!
Quality focuses on characteristics while acceptability considers attitudesThe goal of product quality is to satisfy the consumerHACCP
is a system designed to ensure safety of food productsQuality measurements must be accurate, precise, sensitive, relevant
Retronasal olfaction
The detection of an odorant when it is released from food in your mouth during chewing, exhalation, or swallowing.
Sanitation
Major obstacle to food quality and safety is product contamination, about keeping (facilities, equipment, people, and materials) clean
to reduce contamination
Sensitivity
is how effective the method is at detecting very small amounts
Sensory Analysis
Measuring quality by using human senses, Ex: winemakers, brew masters
Sensory Characteristics
Characteristics picked up by 5 senses
Taste
Evaluation of flavor, sensory characteristic
Texture
touch perception of food structure when held, touched, or chewed, influenced by structure of food, sensory characteristic
Types of tastes
salty, sweet, bitter, sour and umami
Amnestic shellfish?
Netzschia pugens
characterized by
GI symptoms and neuro symptoms including memory loss and less commonly sz, coma, hemiparesis, ophthalmoplegia,
chewing/grimacing.
Ciguatera poisoining?
one of the most common reported forms of vertebrate fishborne poisonings in the US. 90% of cases that occur in the US are in Hawaii
and Florida. Most commonly May through August
Ciguatoxin origins?
in blue-green algae, protozoa, and free algae dinoflagellates (Gambeirdiscus toxicus)
Clenbuterol
beta agonist administered to cattle raised for human consumption causing toxicity. tachy, tremors, nausea, HA, HTN
Death from?
respiratory failure usually within the first 12 hours, weakness may persist for weeks.
Fried rice
Bacillus cereus
GI symptoms, followed by malaise, fatigue, diplopia, dysphagia, and rapid development of small muscle incoordination
Clostridium Botulinum
Ingestion of mussels from Prince Edward Island, Canada?
Domoic acid poisoning
Lab analysis?
ELISA test and HPLC
Mannitol?
In one RCT failed to produce improvement over NaCl. Can cause hypotension.
Monosodium Glutamate"?
"chinese restaurant syndrome" burning sensation of upper torso, facial pressure, HA, flushing, chest pain, n/v, bronchospasm,
angioedema
NSP mechanism
acts by stimulating Na influx through the Na channels of both nerve and muscle
Onset of ciguatoxin
majority begin 2-6 hours after ingestion, 75% in 12 hours, 96% in 24 hours.
Properties of Ciguatoxin?
heat stable lipid soluble, acid stable, odorless, and tasteless
Scombroid symptoms?
numbness, tingling, HA, and a unique flush of intense erythema of the face, neck, and upper torso
Scombroid tx?
supportive care, antihistamines H1 and H2, Beta agonists possibily epi for broncospasm
Shellfish poisoning
mollusks ingest and filter large quantities of dinoflagellates. (responsible for red tides.)
source
puffer fish (Fugu)
Source of ciguatera?
Large reef fish barracuda, sea bass, parrot fish, snapper, grouper, amber jack, kingfish, and sturgeon the most common sources.
symptoms include?
diaphoresis, HA, abd pain/cramps, n/v/d, and dramatic neuro symptoms. Sensation of loose, painful teeth, Peripheral dysesthesias and
paresthesias predominate. Tingling of the lips, tongue, throat, perioral region
Tetramine?
highly lethal neurotoxic rodenticide: Mechanism: noncompetitive binding on the GABA receptor which blocks Cl influx
Tetrodotoxin (TTX)
heat-stable, water-soluble, nonprotein, found mainly in fish skin, liver, ovary, intestine.
Treatement of TTX?
supportive. Emphasizing airway protection, intubation if necessary
Treatment of Ciguatoxin?
supportive care, AC may be of some benefit, IVF for n/v/d. IV Mannitol may alleviate neurologic and muscular dysfunctional
symptoms, no effect on GI symptoms.
treatment of NSP?
supportive and severe resp depression is uncommon. NOT fatal
TTX mechanism?
inhibition of Na channels and blockade of neuromuscular transmission. Contains a guanidinium group that fits into the external orifice
of the Na channel. Causes external "plugging"
#1 cause of acute gastrogenteritis in kids and adults, bloody diarrhea
campylobacter jejuni
bulging cans
C. botulinum
common cause of UTIs, produces urease that splits urea to form staghorn calculi
proteus
diarrhea from gram negative bacteria that doesn't ferment lactose, motile
salmonella
diarrhea from gram negative bacteria that doesn't ferment lactose, non-motile
shigella
O157:H7 serotype, can cause HUS--endothelium swells, narrowing lumen and causing mechanical hemolysis
EHEC
toxin that permanently activates Gs to increase cAMP
cholerae toxin
How soon does Staphylococcus aureus cause nausea and vomiting {695}
1-6 hours
How soon does the heat labile toxin of bacillus cereus cause diarrhea {695}
8-16 hours
How soon does the heat stable toxin of bacillus cereus cause nausea and vomiting {695}
1-6 hours
More than 99% of normal bowel flora are what kind of bacteria {694}
Anaerobic bacteria
What are important historical facts to know about food borne illness {694}
When and how it began, stool, presence of dysenteric symptoms, symptoms of volume depletion
What C. diff toxin activates the release of cytotoxins and monocytes {703}
Toxin B
What C. diff toxin leads to increased fluid secretion into the intestine {703}
Toxin A
What causes death due to respiratory failure, usually without GI symptoms {694}
Paralytic shell fish poisoning
What causes GI symptoms and cold to hot sensory reversal, pain in teeth, myalgias {694}
Ciguatera (large fish)
What causes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and paralysis in inadequately processed foods {698}
Clostridium botulinum
What chemical causes burning sensation in chest, neck, abdomen, extremities, sweating, bronchospasms {695}
Chinese restaurant syndrome
What chemical causes cholinergic poisoning, altered mental status, visual disturbance, GI symptoms {695}
Mushroom toxin poisoning
What fish has histamine like substance and GI symptoms, flushing, headache, dizziness, mouth burning {695}
Scambroid (spoiled fish)
What has common symptoms of leukocytosis and abdominal pain and blood diarrhea {697}
EHEC
What has hypotension, tachycardia, confusion, shock {694}
Severe dehydration
What has increased thirst, dry mouth, decreased sweat, slight weight loss {694}
Mild dehydration
What is a major cause of traveler's diarrhea and is from salads, cheese, meats, water {697}
ETEC
What is associated with cold processed meals and dairy products {698}
Listeria
What is associated with severe outbreaks traced to municipal water supplies {698}
Giardia
What is endemic along with Gulf coast and East coast {697}
Vibrio parahemolyticus
What is the most frequently recognized pathogen of waterborne disease in the US {698}
Giardia
What spores survive boiling and then germinate in un-refrigerated conditions {695}
Bacillus cereus
What toxin causes destruction of mucosal cells responsible for inflammatory diarrhea {693}
Cytotoxin
What toxin causes watery diarrhea by acting directly on secretory mechanisms in the intestinal mucosa {693}
Enterotoxin
18)HACCP
Hazard
Something that has the potential to do harm
What are the possibe hazards in the cooking of food?
Ensure food is cooked to correct core temperature (above 75C) to ensure bacteria are killed.
What are the possible hazards in the receiving (taking in delivery) of ingredients?
Out of date products could be contaminated with bacteria which could lead to food poisoning.Damaged packaging.High risk
ingredients not delivered at correct temperatures.
What are the possible hazards when reheating previously cooked food?
Ensure that a core temperature of 72C for at least 2 minutes is achieved to ensure bacteria do not multiply.
What are the possible hazards with hot holding cooked food?
Ensure food core temperature is above 63C so that bacteria can not begin to mutiply.
Amino acids are the building blocks of all the following except
lactose
HACCP is
preventative, not reactive
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (hus) is a disease characterized by _______ and is associated with _____?
a kidney failure; E.coli 0157:H7
Honey should not be given to child/infant <1 year old because of the threat of
botulism
Listeria monocytogenes has been implicated in numerous deaths over the past 25 years due to the
resilience of the microbes to temperature extremes.
Neurotoxins, like ___, is a toxin that specifically acts on nerves and can cause severe and irreversible brain damage
methylmercury
The peanut corporation of america was responsible for the death of ___ individuals in 2009
8
Retail facilities that meet minimum state food safety standards are issued
A permit to operate
Standard Operating Procedures are considered _________________ within your haccp plan?
prerequisite programs
Symptoms such as rash, trouble breathing, swollen lips and low blood pressure are signs of
anaphylaxis
Toxins from c.botulinum can enter the body in all of the following ways except
kissing
Which of the following industries has not had a highly publicized food borne illness outbreak?
Carrots
Chlorine dioxide
very soluble in cold water, stronger oxidizer that HOCl, very expensive, must be generated onsite
detergent
penetrates (suspends soil)
Disinfectant
Kills 99.9999% of pathogens, 6 log reduction, may/may not kill spores or viral pathogens, works in 5-10 minutes
Gluteraldehyde
food grade lubricant sanitizer
Iodophors
iodine + surfactant + acid; maximum concentration 25 ppm
Iodophors advantages
broad spectrum of activity, less irritating/corrosive than chlorine, low toxicity, effective ph range (more broad than chlorine), stable,
long shelf life, color of use provides visual control
iodophors disadvantages
staining porous and plastic materials, poor activity against bacteriophage, poor low temperature efficacy, corrosive at high
temperatures, may product excessive foam, more expensive than chlorine, odor may be offensive
methods of application
manual: most labor intensive and dangerousCIP: circulation cleaning, reduce labor cost, improved performance, expensive yet
versatileCOP: free standing equipment
Ozone gas
kills by lysis phenomenon, deposes to O2 in water solution if it does not react with organic matter, unstable, must be generated onsite
Quat advantage
good foaming and penetrating power, good against listeria, forms bacteriostatic film on surface, stable to organic matter, works best in
neutral to slightly alkaline solution, odorless, colorless, non-toxic, non-corrosive, temperature and shelf stable, mold and odor control
Quat disadvantages
long bacteriostatic residual, limited activity again gram-negative bacteria
Recommended cleaner for:heavy and fat oil depositsburned/dried on depositsmost food waster deposits
heavy and fat oil deposits: strong alkalineburned/dried on deposits: strong alkalinemost food waster deposits: moderately alkaline
cleaners
Recommended cleaner for: protein waste depositsmineral/hard water depositsheavy mineral deposits
protein waste deposits: chloroicacid, mildly alkalinemineral/hard water deposits: mildly acid heavy mineral deposits: strongly acid
Sanitizer
reduces microbes to a safe level, 5 log reduction, works within 30 seconds
Sterilant
Kills all microbial life including spores, are either chemical or physical, >250F for 15 minutes
surfactant
lowers water tension
UV
mechanical disinfectant system, microbes bombarded with energy of specific wavelength, energy destroys cells DNA/RNA molecules,
cell death relative to UV energy dose absorbes
UV advantages
activity independent of pH and temperature, no residual taste or color, lox toxicity
UV dusadvantages
poor penetration, safety issues, bacterial regrowth, interferences, costs
water quality
hardness, impurities, temperature
When are strongly alkaline acids used
commercial ovens, meat smokehouse
Why do we clean?
remove dirt vs. oildeprive microbial growthphysical barrier/inhibit sanitizerensure equipment performancemaintain empoylee
moralereduce food contamination
agricultural chemicals (pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, GH), lead, zinc
unintentially or incidentally added chemicals
any point, step, or procedure at which biological, physical, or chemical factors can be controlled
control point
any potentially harmful extraneous matter not normally found in food (cherry pits)
physical
a biological chemical or physical property that may cause food to be unsafe for consumption
hazard
criteria that are more stringent that critcal limits and that are used by an operator to reduce risk of deviation
operating limit
HACCP is designed to
minimize risks of food safety hazards
HACCP is not
a zero risk system
HACCP started in
1960
in HACCP, "hazards" refer to conditions or contaminants in foods that can cause illness or injury. It does not refer to undesirable
conditions or contaminants such as:
insects, hair, filth, spoilage, economic fraud
nonsporeforming bacteria
E coli
A point, step, or procedure at which control can be applied and a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to
acceptable levels
Principle 1
hazard analysis
Principle 2
determine CCP
Principle 3
establishing critical limits
Principle 4
establish monitoring procedures
Principle 5
identify corrective action
Principle 6
verify that the system works
Principle 7
procedures for record keeping and documentation
steps or procedures that control the in-plant environmental conditions that provide a foundation for safe food production
prerequisite program
to conduct a planned sequence of observations or measurements to access whether a CCP is under control and to produce an accurate
record for future use verification
monitor
viruses
hep A and E, rotavirus, norwalk virus group
Approach to food safety
-identify hazards-making a plan to control them-put plan into action -document results
Benefits of HACCP
-systematic approach-application of technical and scientific principles -all levels of personnel -reduction of food borne disease and
product waste-increased operational efficiency, profits and consumer confidence
Codex
-1991-Codex Alimentarius Committee on Food Hygiene
FDA
-1970's -Low-acid canned foods and acidified foods (21 CFR 113,114)
FDA-FSMA
2011preventative controls
FDA-Juice HACCP
2002
Flow Diagram
-ingredients -storage-steps in prep and processing -equipment associated with process steps -packaging -finished product storage
HACCP Goal
-to chance the safety of our products by systematically controlling the hazards
HACCP is...
-preventative, not reactive -HACCP is not a zero risk system -designed to minimize the risk of food safety hazards
History of HACCP
-Modes of failure*gather knowledge of the food product/process*predict what might go wrong *selected points in the process to take
measurements/observations *when points are out of control probability of a problem increases (CCP)
NACMCF
1989-National Advisory Committeee on Microbiological criteria for foods "HACCP principles for food production"
Obstacles of HACCP
-leadership commitment -Employee buy-in -cost-Proactive thinking -Burden of proof
Prerequisite programs
-provide basic environment and operating conditions necessary to produce safe and wholesome food -based on GMP's -writsen,
monitored, reviewed and verified -some required by regulations
Prerequisite vs HACCP
Prerequisite: -indirect food safety issues -more general across the facility HACCP-solely with food safety issues -specific to a
product -deviations will result in unacceptable conditions
USDA/FSIS
1996 "Pathogen Reduction & HACCP"
74c
rubber spatula
removes food from sides
samll intestine
nutrient absorbes
samonella
raw things, yeast, peanut butter and chocolates
slicing bread
bread knife
staple food
food that can be stored thorughout the year and stay fresh
stomach
chemical breakdown
to fight bac
clean, separate, chill, cook
tong
use tongs to lift and turn hot foods
vegetables and fruits: 14- 19
female 7
male 8
vegetables you can freeze
beans, corn
vegetables you cant freeze
radishes, lettuce
villi
lining of small intestine
water displacement method
place water in cup to make up difference, add pices of fat until its at top level
what age group should consume the highest amount of calcium
14-18
what are 6 ways to keep the kitchen safe
wash hands, remove loose clothing, tie back hair, keep drawers and doors closed, minimize clutter, never leave fat unattended
what are nutritional claims
free none
low small amount
reduced 25% less
light 50% les
what are some consideration need to make a meal look pleasing?
colour, shape, texture, flavours, temperature
what are the basic ingredients for a pie crust
flour, salt, shortening, cold water
what are the cornerstones of any culture
food and diet
what are the main components of a entree
begetable and fruits, starch, protein
what are the parts in the digestive system?
mouth, teeth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, large intestine, small intestine, pancreas, gall bladder, liver
what are the symptoms of food borne illness? what do they confuse it with?
symptoms include abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarhea, fever, dehydration. they confuse it with the 24 hour flu
what are the three body types
eketomrph(tall and skinny) misomorrph (middle) endomorph (short and fat)
what are the three types of vegetarians
vegasns, vegetarians, lacto- ova vegetarians
what causes jams and jellies to set
pectin
what colour vegetables should you eat
orange and green
what enzye is used in the mouth
salivary glands
wire whisk
use for beating and blending
yeild
how much a recipe makes
Original Alphabetical
____ ____ has a lower cost, high in digestible and indigestible carbs, trace fat, b complex vitamins, iron and protein (exclude
soy)
plant protein
____ are highest in biological value
soybeans
____ based products are not always low fat
soy
____ or ____ amino acids are required by nature
8 or 9
____ veggies lose flavor in moist heat
bulb
a _____ is moist, soft, orange flesh
yam
the ______ is the white, inner rind of citrus fruits(rich in pectin and aromatic cells)
albedo
_______ is dry, mealy pale flesh
sweet potato
3 ways to tenderize elastin is
grinding, marinating, swissing
activated yeast added to flour mixture
- mix
- knead
- proof
adding baking soda to heated veggies....
oversoftens tissues and destroys nutrients
- produces co2 when combined w dry acid and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
- single acting : produces co2 one time
- double acting: produces co2 twice (SAS phosphate)
baking soda
-sodium bicarbonate
- produces co2 when heated
- used only in acid containing mixtures
beta carotene is converted to.....
vitamin A in the body
beta glucan reduces risk of
cardiovascular disease
betalains: heat + acid=
bright red
betalains: heat + alkaline=
yellow
biological L.A : yeast
- ferments sugar
- produces co2 and h20 and alc
- requires sugar
- temp: 77-95*F
- time
- process controlled to get desired texture and flavor
(add NaCl)
biological leavener
yeast, bread
biological value is measured of
nitrogen absorbed vs nitrogen retained by the body
biotechnology improves
availability by improving shelf life or resistance to pests
biotechnology refers to the
genetic engineering, recombinant, DNA technology and genetic modification to develop new products
breakfast cereals are consumed in
ready to eat form
buy in season for fruit requires
food biotechnology
dna isolated from bacterium and transferred to another bacterium called rDNA
frozen fruit and veggies make....
texture reduce, retain color, retain flavor
the fruit respiration occurs as
the fruit grows, matures, and ripens
fruitarian doesnt eat
cabbage, lettuce leaves, bean sprouts, celery, or root veggies
fruitarian only eats
veggie fruits, nuts, and seeds
fruits are preserved in sugar to
preserve integrity of pieces
gelatinization is
Moist heat applied to starch.
Cells swell, absorbing water, increase volume, improve viscosity.
gelatinized starch provides.....
additional structure and crumb
generic quality is not
predictable
generic quality varies from
very good to poor
genes control ripening in bananas, tomatoes when
biotechnology is used
germ
smallest portion of grain, contains embryo for future plant, high in fat and protein
gluten
protein portion of wheat flour w/ elastic characteristics for structure of most baked products
gluten sensitivity has only been shown in individuals with.....
celiac disease
glutenin+gliadian+h20+kneading=
gluten
grains bran
under husk, indigestible fiber, vitamins and minerals, protects grain endosperm, aleurone- high in protein
grains endosperm
largest portion, contains all grains starch, complex digestible carbs
grains husk
rough outer cover protecting grain
greatest concentration of collagen in muscle groups used are
neck, shoulders, front legs, back legs
ground meat containing recipe enclosed in a casing can be
artificial(not edible) or natural
heat
energy produced by moving molecules
heat + acid = (effect of heat on chlorophyll
olive green color
heating meat at 160-175F=
coagulation of protein
heating meat develops...
flavor
heavier mass of connective tissue surrounds
each bundle
high dosage of ____ is toxic
zinc
the higher the heating of meat,
the colliding proteins straigthen out and become hard (firmness)
hominy
What are two conditions for pathogen growth that managers are most able to control?
Carbs and proteins
What causes TCS food to be a high risk for bacterial growth? (What two things facilitate bacterial growth?)
Log
In which phase of bacterial growth do bacteria begin reproducing rapidly?
E. Coli
Cooking ground beef to its required internal temperature helps to prevent the growth of which pathogen?
Pathogens
Microorganisms that are capable of causing a foodborne illness are known as?
Bleeding
Physical contaminants are most likely to cause?
Nausea
A common food allergy symptom?
Soy
A common food allergen?
Additives
What cannot increase nutritional value?
70 (21 C)
When thawing food under running water, what is the maximum allowable temperature of the water?
155 for 15 seconds (68 C)
What is the minimum internal cooking temperature for ground meat or seafood?
60 Minutes
In the partial cooking process, what is the maximum amount of time that food should be cooked during initial cooking?
Ice Bath
Where is the best place to cool a large pot of corn chowder?
Blast Chiller
What type of cooling method pushes cold air across food at high speeds to remove heat?
15 seconds
When reheating TCS food for hot-holding, how long must it hold an internal temperature of 165F (74C)?
False
T or F. Freezing food kills pathogens.
True
T or F. Cooking can reduce pathogens in food, but will not destroy spores or toxins they may have produced.
Every 4 hours
On average, how often should food temperature be checked when holding hot or cold items?
70 (21C)
When holding cold food without temperature control, it can be kept for up to 6 hours as long as the food's temperature does not exceed
(this temperature) while it is being served.
Rim
Kitchen staff should avoid touching which part of glasses?
14 Inches
Sneeze guards must be placed over self-service areas at a minimum height above the counter of?
Once a day
How often are managers required to check the shelf life of products in a vending machine?
7
When vending machine refrigerated food that was prepped on-site is not sold within _ days, it should be thrown out.
False
T or F. Raw and ready-to-eat food is never offered for self-service.
Hands
According to the FDA's public health interventions, what is considered a "vehicle of contamination"?
Variance
What is a document allowing a requirement to be waived or changed?
Create a plan
What is the first step of creating a crisis management plan?
Legal authorities
When developing a foodborne illness incident report form to use in the foodservice operation, you should obtain guidance from?
Correction or closure
What should a foodservice manager ask for from a health inspector before allowing entry to the back of the operation?
Health Inspector
Foodmanagers should present the following documents to _______ _______?Purchasing records, proof of food safety knowledge,
PCO treatment plan, HACCP records
72 hours
When a foodservice operation has been found to be in violation of a priority item, how long is typically given to correct the problem?
Cleaning and Sanitizing
These skills: Handling garbage, spotting pests, and washing dishes fall under what?
Controlling time and temperature
Under which food safety skill does knowing how to label food for storage fit best?
Guided discussion, jigsaw design, and role-playing
What are three successful methods of classroom training?
Jigsaw
Which method of training is built on the premise of, "You have learned something when you can teach someone else how to do it"?
50
What percentage of information is typically retained when a person both reads and listens to food safety information?
Original Alphabetical
Today how fat are people?
65% overweight, 33% obese.
Overweight
BMI of 25-29.9 (10 to 15 lbs)
Obese
BMI > 30, 25 to 40 lbs or more
3 Factors that influence eating and weight.
Genetics and Environmental and Psychological
Hunger
Psychological need for nourishment.
Appetite
Psychological factors that prompt you to eat
Satiety
sensation that you have had enough to eat and length between eating time.
Ghrelin
produced by the stomach and stimulates hunger
Leptin
suppresses hunger and food intake
Distention
signals brain to decrease hunger
Cholecystokinin
hormone that decreases hunger
leptin deficiency
leads to individuals becoming massively obese
genetic "set point"
theory that the body fights to remain at a specific body weight with mechanisms that oppose significant weight loss or gain.
environmental factors
events, work, people, convenience and aromas. work more cook less, eat more and more and sit more and move less.
how many people fall short of physical activity recommendations
half of Americans
more time spent in front of the screen
40 percent of american homes have 3 or more tv's. youth logs 5 hours of screen time a day
how to lose weight
eat vegetables, fruit and fiber, protein and fat, mypyramid
how many energy deficit calories are required to lose a pound of fat.
3,500 calories
250-500 calories daily will resulty in weight loss of what.
.5 to 1 pound a week
three areas for successful weight loss
diet, physical activity and behavior change
mimetic
imitate one particular function of fat but not all functions. cannot replace on 1 to 1 gram basis
analogs
can replace on 1 to 1 gram basis has many fat sensory properties but with fewer calories or no calories
fats have how many calories per gram
9....attempt to reduce to 1-2
carb fat replacers
gums, starches, litesse, oatrim, z-trim.
protein fat replacers
used in yogurts, cheese spreads cream cheese and sour cream
caprenin
triglyceride of capric, caprylic and behenic fatty acids. partially absorbed. 5 kcal. used in candy. milky way.
salatrim
nestles chocalate chips 5kcal not suitable for frying.
olestra
can be used in frying. first used in pringles. lowers blood cholesterol.
saccharin
non caloric sweetener, 400x sweeter, sweet and low
sucralose
non caloric sweetener, splenda, 600x sweeter
aspartame
200x sweeter, causes brain cancer
sorbitol
2.6kcal expensive used in diet foods
mannitol
used as a sweetener for ppl with diabetes has a positive heat of solutions. popular for chewable tablets.
60 percent water
average healthy adult
65 water
muscle tissue
10-40 water
fat tissue
electrolytes
attracts water in and out of cells
solvent
liquid in which a substance dissolves to form a solution
insensible water loss
loss of water through evaporation of breathing and through skin. not sweat
increased what cause a dry mouth
electrolytes in blood
hyponatremia
low levels of sodium in blood from overhydration
distillation
the way liquor is made, alcohol is heated to vaporize ethanol. vapor is collected and cooled.
moderate alcohol consumption
reduce risk for heart disease and risk of dying
red wine and dark beer
contain flavonoids, phytochemicals and antioxidants that reduce LDL.
what does red wine and dark beer increase
HDL
how much alcohol is absorbed in stomach and small intestine.
20 percent stomach, and 80 percent small intestine.
alcohol dehydrogenase
alcohol that is metabolized in the stomach
liver takes how long to metabolize one drink
1 to 2 hours.
depressant
substance that slows the transmission of nerve impulses. slows reaction to stimuli. confuses though. impairs judgment. sleepiness
alcohol in woman
20 to 30 percent less dehydrogenase, bigger so more water. 1 1/3. drink.
alcohol causes
Alcohol Can Disrupt Sleep and Cause Hangovers
Alcohol Can Interact with Hormones
Alcohol May Lead to Overnutrition and Malnutrition
Alcohol Can Harm Your Digestive Organs, Heart, and Liver
Alcohol Can Put a Healthy Pregnancy at Risk
alcohol interacts with hormones
sex drive, breast cancer and osteoporosis
alcohol
7 cal/gram
heavy drinkers higher risk of what
gastritis
fatty liver
results from few days of heavy drinking, by products of alcohol metabolism further contribute to fatty buildup in liver
alcoholic hepatitis
liver is harmed by harmful by products of alcohol metabolism. causes nausea
cirrhosis
liver cells dies, liver no longer able to filter toxins and waste products.
fetal alcohol syndrome
abnormalities in children from mother drinking. face, behavior, learning, leading cause of mental retardation.
17 percent of those who drink alcohol
alcoholics
binge drinking
5 or more or 4 or more
legal driving limit
.08
alcoholism in youths
age 15 drinker four more times likely than a age 20 drinker. 14 is average age.
food labels three important functions
tell you ingrediants, nurtitional facts, and daialy values.
fda says every label must have what
name, net weight, name of manufacturer, ingrediant list, nutrition info for one serving. serving sizes. indication of how it fits into dies.
definitions for labels. health claims that are accurate. eight common allergens present.
restaurants with 20 or more locations
must list calorie content information same with vending machines (20)
dv
used only on food labels. based on 2000 cal diet. not current. non for trans fat, sugars and protein. 20 more is high. 5 less is low
nutrient content claims
level of nutrient in a food
health claims
food health relationship
fda allows 3 types of claims
content claims, health claims and function claims
low sodium
< 140mg
less
25% less per serving.
high, rich in
20% of more of the dv nutrient
good source of
10 to 19% of the dv
more, extra, added
10% more, vitamins minerals protein and fiber
health claims
food or dietary compound. corresponding disease or condition associated with the claim
Original Alphabetical
the science of identification, classification and nomenclature of living things.
Taxonomy
grows at temps. greater than 100 C
Pyrolobus fumarii
Transformed fro rough to smooth colonies
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Cause tumors on plants
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
cervical cancer
Human Papillomavirus
Symbiotic nitrogen fixer
Rhizobium leguminosarum
Lysogenic conversion yields toxin
Vibrio cholerae or Streptococcus pyogenes or Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Contaminates air conditioner cooling towers
Legionella pneumophila
Histidine auxotroph used to test reversion rate
Salmonella typhimurium
Chicken pox/shingles
Varicella/Zoster virus
Target in discovery of penicillin
Staphylococcus aureus
Energy to fuel microbial metabolism comes from one of two general sources:
Sunlight or chemical source
Carbon for the building blocks of cells comes from one of two sources:
organic carbon(sugars) or CO2
Methanogens use CO2 as a terminal electron acceptor, creating what?
methane
What are purple bacteria purple?
photosynthetic pigments
What are two examples of the resting stage structures associated with bacteria living in the soil?
1. endospores
2. Cysts
3. fruiting bodies
4. mycelia
The complete set of genetic information
Genome
What does it mean to be antiparallel in relation to the structure of DNA?
One strand is oriented 5' to 3' prime and the other is 3' to 5' prime
In DNA replication, what is always synthesized away from the replication fork.
lagging strand
the activity of DNA polymerase that limits mutations in newly synthesized DNA.
proofreading
the DNA sequence that directs RNA polymerase to begin transcription.
promoter
the DNA sequence directing transcription to end.
terminator
the DNA sequence that serves as the binding site for the repressor.
operator
is clavulanic acid an antimicrobial?
No. its beta-lactamase inhibitor
removal or addition of nucleotides can shift the what of a gene?
reading frame
another name for French Polio
Guillain-Barre' syndrome
How does the Ames test measure the mutagenicity of a chemical?
The Ames test compares the rate of spontaneous reversion of a histidine auxotroph of Salmonella typhimurium, with the reversion rate
in the presence of a test chemical.
stable, heritable changes in the base sequence of DNA
Mutations
uptake of naked, single-stranded DNA
transformation
Plasmid DNA can be transferred
transformation; conjugation
Lysogeny is a necessary step in this mechanism of gene transfer.
specialized transduction
what two structural features do all viruses have?
Nucleic acid genome and capsid
where does the envelope of enveloped viruses come from?
from the cell host
By what route are enteric viruses generally transmitted?
fecal-oral route
What feature of influenza virus makes antigenic shift possible?
segmented genome
What feature makes antigenic drift possible?
Error prone polymerase
Give an example of how a single point mutation can result in antibiotic resistance.
it can change the target so antibiotic wont bind
What are the two major influenza envelope proteins and which one mediates virus adsorption?
hemagglutinin and neuraminidase
hemagglutinin
Where does Herpes Simplex establish a permanent infection?
Trigeminal ganglia
Give an example of a virus associated with cancer in humans and name the cancer associated with it.
Hepatitis B and liver cancer
What are the different mechanisms of action that antibiotics do? (5)
Cell wall synthesis
protein synthesis
nucleic acid synthesis
metabolic pathways or essential processes
cell membrane integrity
During WWII, what disease killed more people than combat?
Typhoid
What arsenic derivative was the 1st successful antimicrobial; used for syphilis
Salvarsan
first sulfa drug
body converts this to Sulfonamide
Prontosil dye
Discovered Penicillin while working with S. aureus
Alexander Flemming
took over from Flemming and purified penicillin
Earnest Chain and Howard Florey
what drug was mass produced during WWII?
penicillin
discovered lysozyme
Alexander Flemming
Why are "Next Generation" antibiotics required?
the emergence of resistance to each new derivative.
Where do most antibiotics come from?
the soil
What bacteria from the soil do antibiotics come from?
Streptomyces and Bacillus
What fungi from the soil do antibiotics come from?
Penicillum and Cephalosporium
What does selective toxicity target?
generally target structures/ processes that are unique to bacteria
Martinus Bijerinck
What was the first known virus?
Tobacco Mosaic virus
Are viruses living?
no
what are the different types of viruses (based on different hosts)?
animal virus
plant virus
bacterial virus or Bacteriophage
What are the different shapes of viruses?
Isometric, helical, complex
What is another name for a virus particle?
virion
What is a virus composed of?
nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat (capsid)
What is the viruses genome made of?
a single type of nucleic acid. either DNA or RNA, never both
What type of cell can a virus multiply in?
can only multiply in living cells
What are the two phases of replication in a virus
extracellular phase is inert and intracellular phase is active
What are three general characteristics of a viral genome?
-single type of nucleic acid
-linear or circular
-SS or DS
What are the two types of virus infections?
lytic infection or lysogenic (prophage) infection
what is the general process of a lytic infection?
-adsorption- virus attaches specifically to host cell
-penetration- virus or nucleic acid enters host cell
-transcription and replication- virus takes over cell machinery
-assembly (maturation)- virus components assemble into intact virions
-release- host cell bursts and virions escape
genetic reassortment
What is a hybrid virus and what genetic variability is it associated with?
two distinct viruses with segmented genomes infect the same cell; genetic reassortment
What is a persistent virus?
the virus is permanently lost in host
What are the three categories for a persistent virus?
latent infection, chronic infection and slow infection
What is a latent infection?
an infection followed by symptomless period, then reactivation
What are two examples of a latent infection?
Herpes Simplex viruses (HSV1 and HSV2) and chicken pox (varicella)/ Shingles (zoster)
In a latent infection, what can cause symptoms to resurface?
stress, UV exposure, fatigue ect.
Where does the Herpes simplex Virus replicate and where does it travel/live once in the body?
replicates in the epithelial cells of skin and enters the sensory nerve endings (neurotropic) then moves down the nerve cell to
trigeminal ganglion and delivers its genome to the nucleus
What is a chronic infection?
an infectious disease that can be detected at all times
What is an example of a chronic infection?
Hepatitis B or serum hepatitis
What is a slow infection?
the infectious agent gradually increases in amount over long period of time
What is an example of a slow infection
HIV
What causes virus induced tumors in humans?
by DS DNA viruses
genetically speaking, What causes cancer to form from a virus?
integration of a viral genome into host DNA
What is different about cell division in cancers?
cell division is no longer regulated and activated oncogenes drive uncontrolled cell cycle and/ or defective suppressors fail to restrict
cell cycle
What does Epstein barr Virus cause?
1. mononucleosis in developed world
2. Burkitt's Lymphoma in Africa
3. Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in SE Asia
What cancers does Human Papillomavirus (HPV) cause?
Cervical cancer
Anal cancer
throat cancer
What cancer does Hep B Virus increase the risk for?
liver cancer
What are the cultivation methods for viruses?
Viruses multiply in Host Cells
animal host cells come from cell culture and embryonic eggs
What are the two common inoculation sites in an embryonic egg?
Chorioallantoic membrane inoculation and allantoic cavity inoculation
What are Prions?
made entirely of protein and linked to fatal human disease
What do Prions cause?
brain degeneration (sponge-like holes) and cause the disease transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
what is the name of mad cow disease?
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
What is the disease Gadjusek discovered in tribes in Papua New Guinea?
Kuru- acquired from eating dead relatives brains who were carriers of the disease
What is Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease (CJD)
it is a degenerative prion disease found in humans that is transmitted through the same species or can be inherited or acquired
What causes a prion?
mutation causes a normal protein to have different folding properties
What are some characteristics of a mutated or rouge protein in a prion?
it resists proteases (normal protein is sensitive)
resists UV light and nucleases due to lack of nucleic acid
inactivated by chemicals that denature proteins
Objective
The _______ lens of a compound microscope forms a magnified real image inside the tube of the microscope.
Ocular
The ______ lens of a compound microscope magnifies the image a second time.
Resolution
The ability to distinguish bewtwen two closely related spaced objects.
Refractive Index
In order to improve resolution of an optical lens, the _________ of the material between the lens and the specimen must be increased
immersion oil
This is used to extend a high power objective lenses resolution limit to 0.19 micrometers.
Brightfield microscopy
used for observing strained microbial cells
Darkfield Microscopy
Used to view very small, live unstained cells
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Used for observing live, unstained, microbial cells by using light passing through an annular diaphragm, condenser lens, then
magnified by an objective lens finally passing through a lens phase plate.
fluorophore
A compound that is linked to a molecule to be visualized in a cell and illuminated with an exciter wavelength.
Fluorescence Microscopy
Used to view specific molecules within a microbe.
Emitter wavelength
Fluorescence microscopy used a filter that only lets through an _________ _______. by the fluorophore to view the molecule.
Dichroic Mirror
This instrument used in fluorescence microscopy allows long wavelength light through but reflects short wavelength light.
confocal microscopy
A modification of fluorescence microscopy that removes out of focus light.
Electron Microsope
This uses an electron beam and electromagnetic lenses to bend the beam to form an image.
Negative staining EM
This method can reveal the texture of outside of cells, viruses, and isolated subcellular organelles.
Cyro TEM
This type of microscopy uses less electron beam radiation, no use of plastic polymers, and no fixatives and stains, all to reduce cell
damage and reduce distortion for more accurate information.
SEM
This type of microscopy shows a great field of depth, and consists of fixing, dehydrating, and coating the surface of the microbe with
gold a few atoms thick.
Shadow Casting
A variation in microscopy that allows for better 3D resolution of surface features, and involves coating the microbe with a layer of
electron dense metal from an electrically incinerated filament.
Freeze Etch EM
Variation of shadow casting that provides visualization of internal cell structure.
Autoclave
Most common method of sterilization
membrane filtration
Used to sterilize heat-labile solutions
Bunsen Burner
Sterilizes inoculation loops and facilitates sterile transfer of cells between containers without risking contamination
Complex Media
Media composed of natural source components.
Chemically defined media
media composed of exact amounts of purified compounds.
Differential media
media containing dyes or components making different microbial colonies look different after growing on the medium.
Selective Media
Media that enhances-or discourages- the growth of certain microbes due to their components.
Streak isolation
Method used to obtain a pure culture across a solid media
Obligate aerobes
Process that involves a prokaryote growing until is is many times the size of a baby cell and undergoes multiple rounds of division.
Binary Fission
Most common type of division of Prokaryotes
FtsZ Protein
Involved in the mechanism of septation, forming a ring below the cytoplasmic membrane on the equator after chromosome replication
The Baby Machine
This device allows bacterial cultures to be synchronized to study aspects of cell division.
Interdivision Time
Synchronicity is largely lost by the third generation due to variations in the ______________ of individual cells.
Interdivision Time (division Time)
Period between the birth of a new cell, by division of its precursor and its own division into two baby cells
Generation time
The time required for a cell population to double in number.
>60 minutes
Time constraint that makes bacterial cells to have a period equivalent to G1
C period
Period of the bacterial cell that involves chromosome replication
D Period
Period of the bacterial cell between chromosome replication completion and cell division.
Older
_______ poles of bacterial cells slow division time.
spectophotometry
Shines light of a chosen wavelength through a liquid growth culture to determine absorbance. Used to measure generation time and
cell number.
Plate counts
This method of measuring growth can reliably enumerate live microbial cells in a batch culture.
batch population
name for mixture of cell subpopulations
Lag, Balanced, Stationary, Death
Envelope that consists of an outer phospholipid bilayer membrane, a single layer of peptidoglycan, and in inner membrane.
Gram-Positive Envelope
Envelope that consists of Multiple layers of peptidoglycan and a inner cell membrane.
Planctomycetes
This type of bacterium are the only prokaryotes with a membrane bound nucleoid, which likely protects it from certain DNA
damaging metabolites
Mycobacterium envelope
Envelope consisting of a capsule, outer membrane, SMALLER peptidoglycan layer, glycolipid containing periplasmic space, and a
cytoplasmic membrane
Corynebacterium envelope
Envelope consisting of a capsule, outer membrane, LARGER peptidoglycan layer, glycolipid containing periplasmic space, and a
cytoplasmic membrane
Mycoplasma Cytoskeleton
Contains a complex, interlocking system of proteins underneath and extending through their cytoplasmic membrane
Simple/surface protein layer
archaeal cell envelope consisting of an s-layer protein and a cytoplasmic membrane
pseudopeptidoglycan layer envelope
archaeal cell envelope that consists of a protein layer, pseudopeptidoglycan layer, and cytoplasmic membrane
Peptidoglyan
This molecule is comprised of individual glycan stands corss-linked by peptides
transpeptidation reaction
process that crosslinks the polysaccharide chains to produce peptidoglycan
sacculus, wrapped coils
The ________ of gram negative cells and ________ of gram positive cells are comprised of peptidoglycan.
beta lactum antibiotics
blocks the transpeptidation reaction by binding to PBP's that catalyze peptidoglycan transpeptidation
Dont make peptidoglycan, produce excess penicillin binding proteins, produce penicillinase
Ways to counteract beta-lactum antibiotics
true
True or False: Pseudopeptidoglycan is not susceptible to beta lactum antibiotics
techoic acid
Polymers of sugar and alcohol phosphates that are laced through Gram-Positive peptidoglycan and presumed to be important in
linking the peptidoglycan layer to the cytoplasmic membrane
lysozyme
enzyme produced by animals that can degrade peptidoglycan
Gram Negative
Which cell envelope contains Lipopolysaccharide
Endotoxin
Name for the hydrophobic, membrane bound Lipid A Portion of the LPS molecule
Hopanoids
The prokarotic cell used this compound instead of sterols
Squalene
Hopanoids are derived from squalene
Ether
The archaeal cytoplasmic membrane is comprised of either a bilayer or monolayer of _____ linked lipids
Nucleoid
Structure that contains the chromosomes of a prokaryotic cell
terminus, origin of replication
The closed, circular, super-coiled chromosome of the prokaryotic cells contains a ________ at one end and an ________ at the other.
Polyamines
The compaction of DNA into the nucleoid requires neutralization of DNA charges by this compound.
Plasmids
small, circular DNA molecules distinguished from chromosomes by their lack of genes essential for growth and other cellular
functions.
DNA Gyrase
This compound is an essential enzyme involved in the super-coiling of DNA
quinolone
this group of antibiotics inhibits DNA gyrase
Coupled
Endogenous
infection comes from source WITHIN the host's body
ex-direct extension, hematological spread, lymphangytic spread, ascending, aspiration into respiratory tract from regurgitation or from
lack of cough response, auto-inoculation
Auto-Inoculation
infection transferred from one place on the host's body to another place on the host's body, usually carried on hand after touching the
infected site or poor hygiene
Original Alphabetical
What are two disadvantages of using chemotheraputic compounds as food preservatives?
1. the cost outweighs the benefits
2. Leads to resistance of chemotheraputic agent
Proton ionosphores
organic acids that inhibit the membrane transport functions. Disassociate once inside the cell, disrupting the PMF. Arrests growth of
cell.
What was the first chemical food preservative approved in the US by the FDA?
Benzoate
Finding pH
pH = pKa + log [A]/[HA]
Parabens
esters of hydroxyparabenzoic acid.
How are parabens less sensitive to pH than most other ionophores?
pKa of paraben is 8.7, so they are still effective at pHs as high as 8.0
What form of paraben is the most effective?
heptyl, which is more effective than propyl, which is more effective than methyl.
Propionate structure
CHCHCOOH
Propionate
Propionate salts are permitted in breads, cakes, and certain cheeses, used as a mold inhibitor. Most effective in acid foods (pKa = 4.87)
Sorbic Acid
pKa = 4.80, more effective in acid foods. primarily effective against yeasts and molds, used in cheese, bakery products, fruit juices,
beverages, salad dressings, and jellies.
What food is V. parahaemolyticus usually associated with?
RNA virus, estimated to cause 1/3 of hospitalizations for diarrhea in kids under 5.
Norwalk Virus
Leading cause of gastroenteritis
Scombroid posioning
caused by bacterial decarboxylation of histidine to histamine in fish. Includes flushed face, sensation of heat, burning of mouth of
throat.
Paralytic shellfish poisoning
syndrome associated with the consumption of toxic clams, mussels, oysters, scallops, and cockles. A heat-stable neurotoxin called
saxitoxin causes cardiovascular and respiratory failure in humans. Symptoms appear within 2 hours after eating contaminated
mollusks and are characterized by tingling, numbness, or burning around the mouth which spreads to the face, scalp, neck, fingertips,
and toes. Vomiting may also occur.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites as chemical food preservatives
200-300 ppm max allowable level in foods such as molasses, dried fruits, wine, and lemon juice. More effective at acid pH.
Problems with the use of sulfites in food products
1. Salad bars - 1-2% of severely asthmatic people are hypersensitive to sulfites and were poisoned at salad bars
2. Meats - sulfites in meats were used until 1813 because they can remove decaying odor and impart a bright red color, was banned
3. Vitamins - sulfurous acid and sulfits destroy thiamine, therefore are not permitted in foods which are recommended sources of
Vitamin B
Nitrites and Nitrates in food preservation
Used in meat to:
1. stabilize the read meat color
2. inhibit spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms
3. contribute to flavor
How do nitrites and nitrates keep meat red? And how do they inhibit the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms?
A. Nitrate is reduced by bacteria to nitrite, which is further reduced to NO, which reacts with heme or iron-sulfur groups
B. In meat, NO reacts with the heme in myoglobin to form nitrosohemochrome which gives meat a red color
C. In bacteria, NO reacts with and destroys the iron-sulfur enzyme ferredoxin which is involved in ATP synthesis, ultimately killing
bacteria--mainly Clostridium
Nitrite use in meats can lead to the formation of ________ ________.
carcinogenic nitrosamines
Ethylene and propylene oxides in food preservation
antifungal gases used a fumigants to sterilize packaging containers for aseptically processed foods. Also used on dried fruits and
spices. They are unstable ring structures that inactivate proteins with susceptible groups.
Nisin as a food preservative
bacteriocin, used in processed dairy foods and low acid canned foods.
Useful properties:
1. nontoxic to humans
2. "natural"
3. heat stable
4. good storage stability
5. doesn't create off odors or flavors
6. no cross resistance to other clinical antibiotics
Why is Nisin beneficial to use in low acid canned foods?
The use in low acid canned food allows a dramatic reduction in heat processing time and temperature--gives increased quality to the
food.
What are some examples of indirect antimicrobials in food preservation?
1. Antioxidants
2. Falvoring agents (diacetyl, wood smoke)
3. Natrual spices
What are the two types of thermal destruction of microorganisms?
1. Pasteurization
2. Sterilization
What is pasteurization designed to destory?
Treatment is designed to destory the most heat-resistant nonsporeforming pathogens. Kills yeasts, molds, gram- and most gram+
bacteria. Thermophilic and thermoduric organisms may survive
What are the pasteurization temperatures and times for milk and eggs?
Milk - LTLT - 63C for 30 min. HTST - 72 for 15 s
Eggs - 60C for 4 min.
Sterilization
The destruction of all viable organisms as measured by an apporpriate enumeration method. "commercially sterile" means that no
viable MO can be detected or else the number of survivors is so low that they are of no consequence
standard for UHT milk
140-150C for a few seconds
What is the relationship between heat resistance of MOs and their optimal growth temperature?
1. Psychrophiles are the most sensitive, thermophiles are the most resistant
2. Sporeforming bacteria are more resistant than nonsporeformers
3. G+ in general are more resistant than G- bacteria
4. Yeasts and molds are fairly heat sensitive, their spores are only slightly more heat-resistant than the vegetative cells
What determines the heat resistance of spores?
Degree of protoplast dehydration, spore protoplasts are rich in Ca and diplionic acid, which together make a gel that enables spores
to remain viable with very little cytoplasmic water. The drier the spore, the more heat resistant it is.
Other factors affecting heat resistance in MOs?
1. Water - heat resistance increasing with decreasing moisture. Proteins do not denature as rapidly
2. Fat - in the presence of fats, heat resistance increases, (reduces cell moisture)
3. Salts - either increase or decrease, depends on the salt
4. pH - MOs are most resistant at their optimal growth pH
5. Number of MO - the more MO, the more heat resistant
6. Age of MO - most heat resistant is the stationary phase of growth. Old spores are more heat resistant than young ones.
7. Growth temp = heat resistance increases with incubation temp. Stress adaptation
8. Inhibitory Compounds - heat resistance decreases in the presence of heat-resistant inhibitors (nisin)
9. Time/Temp relationship - as temp increases, less time is needed to cause the desired kill level
Thermal Death Time (TDT)
time needed to kill a given number of MO at a specified temperature.
D value (Decimal reduction time)
time in minutes needed at a specified temperature to kill 90% of the MO and thus drop the counts by one log
z value
the degree in F required for the thermal destruction curve to drop one log cycle.
F value
the time in minutes that are required to kill all spores or cells at 250F
Radappertization
Sterilization treatment
Radicidation
Pasteurization treatment designed specifically to destroy all non-sporeforming pathogens
Raduriztion
Thermization-like treatment aimed at reducing numbers of viable spoilage MOs
Types of radiation
1. UV light - Powerful bactericidal, non-ionizing, only used on surfaces
2. Beta rays - poor penetration but better than UV, cause ionization of other molecules
3. Microwave - rapidly alternating electromagnetic field, polar molecules try to align and friction is created as they switch back and
forth
4. Gamma and X Rays - very effective. penetrate almost anything
Quick or Fast Freezing
Drops food to -20C within 30 min.
Slow freezing
desired temp is reached in 3-72 hr.
a. done at home
b. large ice crystals are formed which can disrupt cells
Preservation by drying
Fruits are pasteruized after drying, meats are usually cooked before they are dried
1. Low-moisture - no more than 25% moisture, freeze-dried or beef jerky
2. 15-50% moisture, dried fruits, cake, sugars, etc.
What are the two general types of dairy fermentations?
1. Cheeses - needs acid-producing mesophilic or thermophilic (tem-dep). May include a seconday fermentation. Some require starters.
2. Semi-solid Milks - yogurt, sour cream, buttermilk, keifer. MO needed for acid and sometimes flavor production. Ethanol can be
produced, source of beneficial bacteria
Three main sources of rennet
1. calf stomach extract (traditional)
2. microbial rennets
3. recombinant chymosin
Key steps of making cheddar cheese
1. Cook - 39-40C. Starter is mesophilic lactococci.
2. Cheddaring - the curd is spread evenly over the bottom of the vat after whey removal and allowed to knit for 15 min. A knife is used
to cut the curd longitudinally down the middle, and horizontally at 10 inch intervals. The curd blocks are spaced about 1 inch apart,
allowed to rest for 15 min, and then flipped over until the TA of the draining whey reaches 0.5-0.6%, then they are milled
3. Salting - Salt is directly added to curd, 2-2.3% (w/w)
4. Ripening - 6-10% for 3 months to a year. secondary microbiota appear that provide proteases and lipases
Impact of LAB on cheese flavor
1. Fermentation and depletion of fermentable sugar
2. Creating a low REDOX potential. Promotes the stabilization of volatile flavor compounds
3. Synergism among bacteria. Lactate provides basis for secondary fermentation - leads to protelolysis and lipolysis
What two microorganisms exhibit symbiotic growth in yogurt?
1. L. delbruekii - provides proteolysis, degrades casein and provides S. thermophilus with essential amino acids needed for growth.
2. S. thermophilus - produces trace amounts of formic acid and CO which stimulates the growth of L. delbruekii
The most important flavor compound in yogurt
acetaldehyde
Difference between set and stirred yogurt
1. Set - product is formed when fermentation and coagulation of milk is carried out in the retail container, and the yogurt produced is
in a continuous semi-solid mass
2. Stirred - results when the coagulum is produced in bulk and the gel structure is broken before cooling and packaging
Propionibacterium
added with thermophilic stater to Swiss cheese. It ferments lactate to carbon dioxide for eyes, propionic acid and acetic acid for flavor.
Brevibacterium
Used to surface ripen Limburger cheese. It produces reddish brown surface slime. Brevibacterium's proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes
diffuse into the cheese and produce the characteristic aroma and flavor of Limburger.
Penicillium roqueforti
Powdered spores that are sprinkled on blue cheese after whey is drained. Produces blue veins .
Penicillium camemberti
Spores are sprayed on cheese to produce the flavor of Camembert and Brie.
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Initiate fermentation at salt levels below 5%. Early growth is more rapid than other LAB species. Produces CO2 and organic acids,
which drops the pH and inhibit undesirable microorganisms that can damage the product.
Acetobacter and Gluconobacter
Acetic acid bacteria gram - rods, aerobic, nonfermentative and oxidize alcohols to keto compounds in vinegar production. Acetobacer
usually use in commercial settings. Acetobacter grows as a thick film on the surface.
Candida milleri/ Lactobacillus sanfrancisco
From the starter sponge for San Francisco sourdough. Candida milleri - yeast, acid tolerant that ferments maltose. Lactobacillus
sanfrancisco - bacterium, heterofermantative LAB that requires and acidic environment, unsaturated fatty acids and a CO2 rich
atmosphere.
Aspergillus orysae/ Pediococcus soyae
Used in the production of soy sauce. A. orysae is added in the beginning of production to the tane koji to aid in fermentation. Once
brine is added the high salt content kills the A. orysae and the fermentation is taken over by LAB's like P. soyae.
Original Alphabetical
When was penicillin discovered?
In 1928
What increased as the usage of antibiotics increased?
The complexity of resistance mechanisms in bacteria also increased.
What are antibiotic used for?
- Treating diseases
- Growth promoters
- Improving feed efficiency
Tetracyclines are most commonly used in what in Europe?
Pig production
In Europe antibiotics for growth are banned in what species?
chickens and swine
In the United States there has been how big of an increase in the usage for growth promotion?
80-fold increase.
Methicillin
Vancomycin
Original Alphabetical
Vibrio
Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic rods
V. parahaemolyticus
Almost always linked to seafood, especially shellfish and mollusks. Incidence in the U.S. is relatively low, but it is a leading cause of
food infection in Japan.
Incubation time = 3 to 76 hrs. after ingestion of about 105 cells.
Diarrhea, cramps, weakness, nausea and sometimes chills, headache and vomiting. Symptoms last 1-8 days.
Temp. range is 5-44 C (opt. 30-35 C). pH range is 4.8 -11.0 with optimal growth between 7.6-8.6. Grow in 1-8% NaCl (optimal =
2.4%). Generation time can be as short as 9-13 min. Considered to be heat sensitive but if high cell numbers are present, some may
linger even after 15 min at 80 C.d
V. cholerae
Were separated into two serological groups; strains that caused epidemic cholera all belonged to serovar 0 Group 1, while more
common non-01 strains were responsible for gastroenteritis, soft tissue infections, and septicemia in human. Both types common in
warm ocean waters around California, Texas, Louisiana, and Florida.
However, at least one non-01 strain, V. cholerae 0139, is responsible for an epidemic of cholera that started in India in 1992. This is a
cause for real concern because 01 vaccines do not protect against the new strain and conventional laboratory methods for
identification of 01-type cannot detect this new serotype.
Nearly all outbreaks are linked to the consumption of raw shellfish especially oysters.
Cholera is caused by V. cholerae colonization of the intestines followed by the production of cholera enterotoxin (CT). After a 2-5 day
incubation period, diarrhea, which is characterized by rice-water appearance (clear with small clumps of dead cells) can be profuse.
Abdominal pain and sometimes vomiting are also symptoms.
V. vulnificus
Usually associated with wound infections, a serious form of septicemia (mortality >50%) and gastroenteritis. As few as 100 CFU may
be enough to cause disease. Immunocompromised people, especially those with liver disease, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors
include persons with iron overload. Men over 40 are the most frequent victims. Over 70% of infected persons will develop bulbous
skin lesions.
This bacterium is believed to be responsible for about 95% of all seafood-associated deaths in the U.S. It is frequently isolated from
clams and oysters.
V. hollisae
Another species that causes foodborne gastroenteritis.
Bacillus cereus
Aerobic, sporeforming-rod found in dust, soil and water. Grows at temp range of 4-50 C, pHs between 4.9-9.3.
Strains associated with foodborne illness produce emetic (vomiting) or diarrheal toxins in contaminated foods.
The diarrheagenic toxin is designated hemolysin BL produced during exponential growth. Favored in pH range of 6.0-8.5. Relatively
mild. Symptoms include nausea, cramps, and diarrhea within 8-16 h after eating food contaminated with 10^7-10^8 CFU/g of B.
cereus and they last another 6-12 h. B. mycoides and a few other species of Bacillus also produce diarrheagenic enterotoxins.
Symptoms of emetic syndrome are more severe including nausea and vomiting, sometimes accompanied by cramps and diarrhea, 1-6
h after eating food (usually fried or boiled rice dishes) contaminated with the heat-and pH stable enterotoxin. Cell numbers as high as
10^9/g may be necessary to produce sufficient toxin in the food.
Yersinia enterocolitica
Gram -, fac. anaerobic rod found in soils and water and are also found in the intestinal tracts of animals. It is widely believed that pigs
are the single greatest source in humans.
Symptoms appear 1-2 days after eating contaminated food and include fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea and sometimes vomiting.
Because these symptoms mimic appendicitis, a major "complication" of yersiniosis is unnecessary appendectomy surgery. Outbreaks
are more frequent in the fall than in the spring and often strike the very young and old.
Can grow between -2 to 45 C (no other pathogen displays psychrotrophic growth). Destroyed by heating 1-3 min at 60 C.
Parasites cannot grow in food or on culture media and many require more than one animal host to carry out their life cycle.
True. The definitive host is the animal in which the adult parasite carries out its sexual cycle, while the intermediate host is the one in
which larval or juvenile forms develop.
Since parasites cannot be grown in culture media, their presence in food must be detected by direct examination after concentration
and staining.
Giardia lamblia
Flagellate protozoan that exists in water. Beaver and muskrats are major sources of this organism in water. Produces cysts which are
its primary form in water and food. Cysts excyst in the G.I. tract with the help of stomach acids and proteases and cause clinical
giardiasis in some people. Estimates suggest that as many as 15% of the entire U.S. population is infected with this organism.
The infectious dose is thought to be as few as 10 cysts, and incubation time is 7-13 days with cysts appearing in stools after 3-4 weeks.
Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss. Without treatment, symptoms can last months to a year or more.
Giardiasis is highly contagious, with infected persons shedding as many as 9 x 10^8 cysts/day, and cysts can persist for 3 months in
sewage.
Contaminated water is the most common source but fecal contamination of food by humans or animal pests has also been implicated
in disease.
Cryptosporidium parvum
Known pathogen to mammals, birds, and reptiles. Found in environmental waters so transmission through food involves contaminated
water and fecal-oral transmission.
Produces thick-walled, environmentally-resistant oocysts that, when ingested, excyst in the small intestine and invade host cells.
Symptoms include diarrhea and are self-limiting in healthy persons but can be life-threatening in immunocompromised persons like
AIDS patients.
Trichinella spiralis
Althought trichinosis is contracted most frequently by undercooked pork or pork products, about 75 different species can be infected
with this organism including bears, cougars, and marine mammals. Birds appear to be resistant to infection.
Stomach enzymes free the encysted larvae, which then mature in the lumen of the intestines. They remain in the intestine for about 1
month without producing any symptoms (unless high numbers were ingested, in which case symptoms may appear after 1-2 days),
before eggs hatch and larvae penetrate the gut wall, causing nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea and sometimes vomiting. These
symptoms may persist for several days.
The larvae pass throughout the body and 7-9 days after initial symptoms, begin to penetrate skeletal muscles, especially those in the
eye, tongue, and diaphragm. As the larvae burrow in, patients experience severe pain, fever, and sometimes death from heart failure.
The larvae grow in the muscle then encyst in a calcified wall 6-18 months later. They will not undergo any further development unless
consumed by another animal, but can remain viable for up to 10 years in a living host.
To prevent trichinosis, USDA recommends cooking suspect meat to 170 F (76.7oC) or higher. Freezing is also effective in destroying
T. spiralis; 30 days at -15 C should inactivate the larvae. Microwave cooking is a particular concern with trichinosis because rapid
heating and uneven cooking can allow some larvae to persist.
Mycotoxins are produced as secondary metabolites (non-essential for growth, produced during late exponential phase).
True.
Aflatoxins
Most widely studied and most carcinogenic of all mycotoxins. Discovered in 1960 when peanut meal for turkeys, which had been
contaminated with A. flavus. Also produced by A. parasiticus and A. nominus. 18 aflatoxins have been identified and the most potent
one AFB1, is produced by all AF-positive strains. Six aflatoxins, including AFB1 fluoresce under UV light.
Lethal if eaten in large dosages, sub-lethal doses can cause chronic liver disease or liver cancer. In general, young animals are more
susceptible to their effects. Mutagenic effects include point mutations and frameshifts.
Aspergillus growth and aflatoxin production are favored by warm temperatures and humidity.
Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and other genera of molds produce other important mycotoxins such as citrinin, penicillic
acid, and patulin.
True.
Ergot
Claviceps purpurea is a mold that usually grows on rye. Under moist, cool conditions, this mold produces a group of related alkaloids
collectively referred to as ergot. The primary cleavage product of ergot upon alkaline hydrolysis is lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),
and some mycologists believe this reaction can occur in the natural state. Individuals who ingest sufficient amounts of ergot
experience a type of poisoning whose symptoms are similar (but usually more severe) to those of persons that ingest LSD.
FDA has established practical levels for toxins like aflatoxin:
20 ppb in most susceptible commodities, 15 ppb in peanut products, 100 ppb in animal feed-except 20 ppb for dairy cattle food. But
safe tolerance levels for most mycotoxins have not been established.
What can you do to prevent mycotoxicosis?
With moldy cheese; if mold developed in fridge, aflatoxins aren't prod at that temp. so just trim inch (1.3 cm) below growth to avoid
fungal metabolites. Don't try to trim soft cheeses like cream or cottage cheeses. Use good sanitation, handling and storage practices to
delay mold growth. Discard moldy foods outside of your kitchen to prevent high spore numbers near your food handling area.
It is generally accepted that a significant percentage of the foodborne illnesses where etiologic agents cannot be identified are
probably due to viruses.
True. In fact, viral gastroenteritis is believed by some to be second only to the common cold in frequency.
Hepatitis A
RNA virus identified in more foodborne outbreaks than any other virus. UT has highest rate in U.S. with >1000 cases in 1996 and
about 600 in 1997. Fever, anorexia, nausea and abdominal discomfort followed by jaundice 15-45 days after ingestion of virus.
Symptoms last 1-2 weeks. Chronic liver disease is rare, and lifetime immunity follows an attack. A Hep A vaccine has recently been
approved by FDA. Outbreaks of a more serious hepatitis virus, Hep E, are linked to food in developing countries.
Rotaviruses
RNA virus. Six groups identified and 3 are known to be infectious to humans. Estimated to cause 1/3 of hospitalizations for diarrhea in
kids under 5. Children 6 month-2 yrs. are most susceptible, and every U.S. child is infected by age 4. Infection produces immunity but
high doses or lowered immunity can lead to mild illness in older children and adults.
Transmission usually occurs through daycare centers and water, with only sporadic foodborne transmission. Incubation time is 2 days,
vomiting for 3 days, watery diarrhea for 3-8 days with abdominal pain and fever are symptoms.
Norwalk and Norwalk-like viruses
Small, round RNA viruses that are a leading cause of gastroenteritis. Placed into 3 groups based on morphology:
1. SRSVS (small round structural viruses). Infective in older children and adults. Associated with travelers diarrhea and polluted water
is an obvious source. Most outbreaks have been traced to raw oysters. Incubation time is 18-48 hours, and symptoms include nausea,
vomiting, nonbloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Illness lasts 1-2 days.
2. Caliciviruses. Have surface hollows, cause vomiting and diarrhea in children, 1-3 days incubation time.
3. Astroviruses. Contain a 5 or 6-pointed surface star. Cause gastroenteritis in children and adults but children <7 are most susceptible.
Symptoms appear after 1-2 days and include vomiting, diarrhea and fever.
Poliovirus
Can also occur in shellfish collected from polluted waters. There is a low incidence of poliomyelitis in the U.S. but relaxed
immunization requirements in schoolchildren could lead to new outbreaks. Disease still occurs in many nations.
Transmission of AIDS, HBV or herpesvirus has never been linked to food.
True.
Inactivating viruses in foods:
Some viruses can persist in foods for more than one week at 23 C and several months at 4 C. Heat is the most useful method. Even
modest heat will inactivate foreseeable numbers of virus.
Scombroid poisoning
Caused by bacterial decarboxylation of histidine to form histamine in fish or fish products. Often due to Morganella spp. But other
bacteria can be involved. Histamine formation is favored by low pH and temps above 30 C. Symptoms appear within min or up to 3
hours, include flushed face, sensation of heat, burning in mouth or throat, general discomfort and diarrhea followed by intense
headache which diminishes to a dull ache. Dizziness, itching and faintness may also be experienced. Cooking may not destroy
histamine once it has formed in food.
Paralytic shellfish poisoning
Syndrome associated with the consumption of toxic clams, mussels, oysters, scallops and cockles. The shellfish become toxic after
eating certain species of dinoflagellates from the genus Gonyaulax. In the U.S., G. catenella occurs on the Pacific coast, while the
more toxic species, G. tamarensis is found on the Atlantic coast over to northern Europe. A 3rd species, G. acatenella is found off
British Columbia. Large blooms of these microbes give rise to the red tide condition on oceans.
The dinoflagellates contain a heat-stable neurotoxin called saxitoxin that causes cardiovascular and respiratory failure in humans. The
maximum safe level of saxitoxin is 80 mg/100g. Symptoms appear within 2 hours after eating contaminated mollusks and are
characterized by tingling, numbness or burning around the mouth which spreads to the face, scalp, neck, fingertips and toes. Vomiting
may also occur. There is no known antidote and the mortality rate varies between 1-22%.
Why aren't chemotherapeutic compounds (e.g. antibiotics) used as food preservatives?
The costs of this practice outweigh the benefits, and it invariably leads to microorganisms which are resistant to the agent.
Proton ionosphores
Organic acids that inhibit membrane transport functions. In their undissociated state, these acids are soluble in the cell membrane and
so will move into the cell by simple diffusion. Once inside the cell, they dissociate. As more and more protons are released, membrane
potential is disrupted and the proton-motive force is lost. Although cells may not die, growth is arrested.
Benzoic acid
Sodium benzoate was the first chemical food preservative approved in the U.S. by FDA.
Like all proton ionophores, antimicrobial activity is related to pH because only the undissociated molecule is inhibitory. The pK for
benzoate is 4.20 so at pH 6 only 1.5% is undissociated. Consequently benzoate is only effective in high acid foods (apple cider, soda,
catsup, salad dressings, margarine), where its action is primarily aimed at fungi (molds are inhibited more than yeasts).
Maximum permissible amount is 0.1%. In fruit juices, even this level may impart a peppery or burning taste.
Parabens
Esters of hydroxyparabenzoic acid. Far less sensitive to pH than most other ionophores (pKs around 8.7; so effective at pHs as high as
8.0).
Propylparaben is more effective than methyl, and heptyl may be most effective of the 3.
Propyl and methyl have the same max level as benzoate (0.1%), heptyl is allowed at 12 ppm in beer and 20 ppm in noncarbonated and
fruit-based beverages. Also, more effective against molds than yeasts.
Propionate
Ca2+ and Na+ salts permitted in breads, cakes, certain cheeses and other foods, mostly as a mold inhibitor. Also most effective in acid
foods, pK = 4.87. Probably not effective at pHs around 7.0 or above. 0.32% max allowable level.
Sorbic acid
Ca2+, Na+, or K+ salts used as a food preservative at levels not to exceed 0.2%.
pK is 4.80, also more effective in acid foods, ineffective at pH 6.5, but more inhibitory than benzoate when pH is between 4.0-6.0,
same as benzoate but better than propionate at pH<3.0.
Can use higher levels in cakes than propionates without leaving off-flavor.
Although primarily effective against yeasts and molds, sorbic acid is also effective against a wide range of bacteria including Staph,
salmonellae, coliforms, psychrotophic spoilage bacteria, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Lactic acid bacteria are resistant to sorbate, esp.
at pH>4.5, so it is used to control fungi in lactic fermentations.
Widely used in cheese, bakery products, fruit juices, beverages, salad dressings, jellies.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites
200-300 ppm is max allowable level in foods such as molasses, dried fruits, wine, and lemon juice. These compound are more
effective at acid pH.
100-200 ppm SO2 is bacteriostatic to Acetobacter spp. Lactic acid bacteria (higher levels are bactericidal to these and a few other
species of bacteria).
0.2-20 ppm inhibits yeasts like Saccharomyces and Candida. Molds are even more sensitive.
Sulfites also reduce S-S bonds and so can destroy activity in enzymes with these linkages.
Although it is still used to prevent browning in dried foods (where its presence is revealed on the product label), use in salad has been
prohibited because 1-2% of severely asthmatic people are hypersensitive to sulfites.
Bisulfite can be used to destroy aflatoxins AFB1 and AFB2. 1% bisulfate reduced 250 ppb of AFB1 28.2% in 72 hours, and addition
of 0.2% H2O2 increased aflatoxin degradation to 65.5%.
Sulfites were used as meat preservatives as early as 1813 but because they can remove decaying odor and impart a bright red color,
that use has been banned.
Sulfurous acid and sulfites also destroy thiamine so they are not permitted in foods which are recommended sources of vitamin B1.
Nitrites and Nitrates
Used in meat to stabilize red meat color, inhibit spoilage and pathogenic organisms, and contribute to flavor.
Nitrate is reduced by bacteria in the meat to nitrite, which is further reduced to nitric oxide (NO), a compound that reacts with heme or
iron-sulfur groups. In meat, NO reacts with the heme in myoglobin to form nitrosohemochrome which gives meat a red color. In
bacteria, NO reacts with and destroys an iron-sulfur enzyme, ferredoxin, that is involved in ATP synthesis. Without ferredoxin, the
cells cannot synthesize energy and die. Clostridia contain ferredoxin. Endospores will remain viable, however, and can germinate
when transferred to nitrite-free foods. Enterobacteria, including coliforms and Salmonella, and lactic acid bacteria are not inhibited by
z Value
The degree F required for the thermal destruction curve to drop one log cycle. z gives information on the relative resistance of an
organism to different destructive temperatures and allow us to determine equivalent thermal processes at different temperatures.
For example, if 3 min at 150 F gives you an adequate heat process and you find that z = 10 F, then 30 min at 140 F or 0.3 min at 160 F
would provide an equivalent heat process.
F value
Better way to express TDT. In simplest terms, F is the time in minutes that are required to kill all spores or cells at 250 F. F is
calculated as follows:
Fo=Dr(log a-log b)
a=initial load and b=final cell numbers
12-D Concept
Used in low acid canned foods (pH>4.6), where C. botulinum is a serious concern. Thermal processing requirement designed to
reduce the probability of survival of the most heat resistant C. botulinum spores to 10-12. So, for the 12-D concept, Fo=Dr(lo9g a-log
b); Dr=0.21 and log a - log b=12 so Fo=2.52 min.
In the U.S., irradiation is defined as an additive instead of a process.
True. It has been approved for use in spices, vegetable seasonings, papayas, strawberries, pork (to control Trichinella), poultry, and
ground beef.
In some foods, radiation treatments can catalyze oxidative changes (e.g. free radical production) that produce:
Product discoloration, tissue softening (in fruits), and rancidity (in high fat products). Radiation at low temperature in the absence of
oxygen can minimize these effects (except softening).
Radappertization
Sterilization treatment. Uses 30-40 kGray (Gray is a unit of absorbed dose measurement = 11 Joule/kg. Rad is another unit of absorbed
dose: 62.4 MeV/g; 1 Gray = 100 rads).
Radicidation
Pasteurization treatment designed specifically to destroy all non-sporeforming pathogens. Levels used are 2.5-10 kGy.
Raduriztion
Thermization-like treatment aimed at reducing numbers of viable spoilage MO. Dose levels are 0.75-2.5 kGy.
UV light
Powerful bactericidal (and virucidal) agent at wavelengths between 2000-2900 angstroms (2600 most effective).
UV is non-ionizing and is absorbed by proteins and nucleic acids, produces lethal mutations.
Poor penetrating capability so used only on surfaces - e.g. packaging materials.
Beta rays (electron rays)
Also have poor penetration but better than UV.
Because electrons have charge, they act as direct ionizing particles.
As they pass through matter, electrons have enough kinetic energy to cause ionization of other molecules through impulses imparted to
orbital electrons of atoms in the medium.
Some of the products from these collisions are radioactive so there is some concern over the use of high energy beta sterilization in
foods.
Microwave
Uses a rapidly alternating electromagnetic field, polar molecules try to align and friction is created as they switch back and forth.
Basically a heat process but, due to uneven heat distribution, microwave radiation is less effective than conventional heat treatment.
Gamma and X rays
Basically the same thing just originate differently. Very effective sterilants.
These are uncharged particles that penetrate almost anything, forming directly ionizing particles (electrons) as they collide with nuclei.
Resistance to radiation:
Generally G+ > G- > yeasts > molds.
Sporeformers are generally more resistant than non-sporeformers, so concerns exist over use of radiation to control botulism.
At present, the most widely used direct applications of radiation in foods are sprout inhibition of seeds and insect
deinfestation.
True. But, recent outbreaks of E. coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella have generated renewed interest in the use of radiation for raw meats.
Foods that are going to be preserved by freezing undergo several processing steps prior to actual freezing.
Sorting, washing, blanching and packaging.
Blanching
Done by either immersion in hot water or by steam injection and accomplishes the following: inactivates enzymes that can cause
undesirable changes during frozen storage, the amount of heat used to inactivate enzymes also reduces the total microbial load in the
food, it enhances or fixes the green color of certain veggies, wilts leafy veggies and displaces air that might be trapped in plant tissue
which makes these products easier to package.
Quick or fast freezing
Drop food to -20 C within 30 min. Best for overall product quality, gives smaller ice crystals in the food which do not disrupt the cells
as much as slow freezing.
Slow freezing
Desired temp reached in 3-72 hours. Large ice crystals are formed that disrupt cells and can affect product texture and flavor.
Preservation by Drying:
Vegetable to be dried are blanched to inactivate enzymes that can catalyze undesirable changes in the dried food.
Some light colored fruits may be treated with SO2 to maintain color (again by inactivating enzymes), conserve certain vitamins and
reduce the microbial load.
Fruits are also pasteurized after drying (150-185 F for 30-70 min).
Meats are usually cooked before they are dried.
b. Salt - Swiss cheese is brined in a saturated NaCl (23%) for 12-48 hours at 8-12 C. After brining, the cheese is stored dry at 7-13 C
for 5-10 days to allow the salt conc. to equilibrate and to encourage the growth of propionibacteria. The salt concentration in Swiss is
lower than Cheddar and can be low enough to permit growth of gaseous spoilage bacteria such as clostridia.
c. Warm Room - the cheese is then moved to a warm room (22-24 C) for 2-7 weeks where the propionibacteria grow and produce the
eyes and the flavor compounds. Good eyes are smooth, 0.4-1.2 inches in diameter, round, and uniformly distributed.
After the warm room, the cheese is stored at 1.5-4.5 C for 3-9 months for final ripening.
Defects in Swiss cheese:
1. Blind - no carbon dioxide produced so no holes or foamy Swiss.
2. Slit open eye defect - too much gas produced or the curd is too brittle.
Parmesan or Romano
Low moisture contents. Made from 2.5% fat milk (pasteurized). The curd is cooked at 47-50 C so thermophilic starters are used.
Characterized by sharp volatile flavors which are the result of milk fat lipolysis. Lipase enzyme powders are added.
A long brine period (2 weeks) is used to help reduce the moisture level. Parmesan and Romano may be aged at 4-15 C anywhere from
5-6 months up to 1-2 yrs.
Pasta filata (pulled curd or mozzarella)
Cooked for 70 min at 42 C, so makers must use thermophilic starters (S. thermophilus and L. delbruekii subsp. bulgaricus or L.
helveticus).
Interestingly, it is also Cheddared but at the higher cook temperature.
The cheddared curd is milled then mechanically mixed and heated in a device called a stretcher-cooker which blends the curd with 70
C water. This step is required to generate the elastic body that characterizes Mozzarella cheese.
The cheese is cooled, brined 2-4 hours, then aged for a short time (7-30 days). Functional characteristics such as stretch, melt, cook
color, and "oiling off" are critical properties.
Surface ripened cheese (Muenster, limburger)
Cook temp is 33-37 C so the mesophilic L. lactis strains are used for acid production.
Limburger is not salted. It is simply hooped and stored at 15-16 C for 4-10 days at 95% RH on wooden racks that provide the surface
inoculum of yeasts and Brevibacterium linens required for proper flavor development.
The yeasts metabolize lactate which raises the pH on the curd surface to about 5.9 which allows B. linens to grow. Within a few days a
characteristic reddish-brown slime of B. linens appears. Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes of B. linens then diffuse into the cheese and
produce the characteristic flavor and aroma of Limburger.
Limburger is kept in the humid room for 20 days, wrapped (without removing the surface smear), and then stored at 4.5 C for 21 days.
Muenster is brined for 2 days at 10 C, and then surface ripening is allowed to proceed for 2-4 days. The smear is dried and annatto is
wiped on to give the cheese an orange exterior.
Blue veined cheese: Blue or Roquefort.
"Blue cheese"-made from cows milk
"Roquefort"- True Roquefort cheese is made only in the Causses region of southern France, from full cream milk collected from a
special breed of sheep (8% fat vs 3.5% for most cows) and ripened in the famous Roquefort caves.
Because cows milk cream is not as white as sheeps, milk for blue cheese in the U.S. is separated, and the cream may be bleached with
benzoyl peroxide to obtain the whiteness desired in this variety. The milk is pasteurized, then recombined and homogenized (increases
the surface area of fat available for mold lipolytic enzymes).
The curd is cooked at 30-33 C so our acid producer will be mesophilic lactococci.
Curd is cut into larger cubes to help create the open body texture required for proper mold growth. After the whey is drained, 2% salt
and 0.0625% powdered spores (1 oz/100 lb curd) of Penicillium roqueforti are sprinkled over the curd. The curd is hooped, pressed,
The addition of salt, and the fermentative conversion of plant sugars to organic acids by LAB.
The degradation of all readily available carbohydrate is important to...
prevent undesirable secondary fermentations by acid tolerant yeasts.
In general, the procedure used to ferment vegetables:
1-remove dirt from vegetables (don't want to scrub them too much or you may lose some of the necessary bacteria).
2-add salt or brine.
3-incubate anaerobically at a mesophilic temperature for several weeks.
The initial concentration of LABs is small;
0.01-0.1% of the total microflora. Under the proper conditions, these organisms will overcome the other dominant microbiota within a
few days.
LAB rapidly convert plant sugars (primarily glucose, fructose, and sucrose) to...
lactic and acetic acids which allows them to overwhelm all other organisms.
A pickle is defined as...
an immature cucumber, properly prepared without taking up any metallic compound other than NaCl, and preserved in any kind of
vinegar, with or without spices and sugar.
Cucumbers should be delivered to the fermentation plant as soon as possible after harvest because...
respiration in the tissues promotes the growth of undesirable softening organisms.
Three major types of pickled cucumbers are produced:
1. Fresh pack pickles, about 50% of the U.S. market, are not a fermented product.
2. Salt stock undergo a complete lactic acid fermentation in wood, plastic, or fiberglass tanks which will hold up to one ton of
cucumbers.
3. Dill pickles are fermented in a dill-flavored, spiced, salt brine to generate their distinctive flavor and aroma.
The composition and evolution of the dominant microbiota in pickles and other fermented vegetables is primarily influenced
by the following:
1. Natural microbiota of the cucumbers. When properly handled (i.e. not washed excessively, or treated with antimicrobials), all
vegetables will have lactic acid bacteria as a minor part of their natural biota (.01-.1% of total MO).
The most important stage of the process is the initiation of the fermentation, which lasts only 2-3 days. During this time, the numbers
of LAB and oxidizing yeasts increase rapidly while undesirable bacteria are eliminated.
2. Salt concentration. Dill pickles are usually fermented in a low-salt brine of 5% or less. Salt stock pickles are fermented in tanks with
a brine solution of 5-8% NaCl. At salt levels below 5%, the fermentation is initiated by Leuconostoc mesenteroides whose early
growth is more rapid than other LAB species. Leuconostoc produces CO2 and organic acids, which drop the pH and inhibit
undesirable microorganisms and enzymes that may damage the product. The CO2 replaces air and creates an anaerobic condition,
which also inhibits growth of undesirable aerobes. The anaerobic environment and stimulatory activity of carbon dioxide promotes the
growth of other lactic acid bacteria. Heterofermentative Lactobacillus brevis and the homofermentative Lactobacillus plantarum and
Pediococcus cerevisiae begin to grow rapidly and produce lactic acid, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and acetic acid which can contribute to
the flavor of the product.
At higher salt levels (5-8% NaCl), the sequence of lactic microflora begins with the heterofermentative bacterium Lactobacillus
brevis. The fermentation is usually complete within 20 to 30 days and the more acid tolerant lactobacilli are predominant.
3. Fermentation temperature. The speed of the fermentation is governed by the temperature of the brine and the concentration of salt.
Optimum temperature for vegetable fermentations is between 21 C and 26.7 C. At the end, total acidity may be as high as 0.9% lactic
acid with a pH as low as 3.3.
4. Availability of fermentable carbohydrate. Vegetables do not generally contain high levels of mono- and disaccharide sugars which
can be easily fermented by most microorganisms. As a consequence, most of the readily available carbohydrate is depleted during the
fermentation. Because residual sugar can exist and thus contribute to undesirable secondary fermentations by acid tolerant yeasts or
lactobacilli, many pickle products undergo pasteurization (74 C for 15 min) in their glass containers before they are sold.
Defects of Pickles:
1. Softening: pectinolytic or cellulolytic enzymes may be secreted by contaminating microorganisms. These enzymes degrade
cucumber outer tissues and result in damage that ranges from a general loss of texture or firmness to "slippery" pickles whose skin
slips off. Though produced by a wide variety of bacteria, yeasts and molds, pectolytic enzymes are inhibited < pH 5.0. As a result, his
defect arises from poor acid production during the initial stages of fermentation. Molds often grow and secrete softening enzymes into
cucumber flowers. If all flowers are not removed from the fermentation tank, softening of the product is possible. Enzymic
contamination caused by flowers can be minimized by draining the brine once and replacing it with new brine. This reduces the
amount of enzyme.
2. Gaseous spoilage: One defect is termed "bloaters" i.e. pickles that float on the brine or are hollow or have large air spaces in the
interior - due to formation of gas inside the pickles. During the early stages of the fermentation, coliforms and certain halophilic
bacteria can produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. Fermentation of carbohydrates by yeasts produces gas. Respiration by the
cucumber itself can produce gas. Methods to control gas production include piercing of the cucumber, purging carbon dioxide away
with nitrogen gas. Nitrogen does not cause undesirable reactions nor does it stimulate aerobic microbes. Bloaters are not a complete
loss since they may be used in cut pickle and relish products at an economic loss of about 50%.
Sauerkraut is obtained by...
the full fermentation, chiefly lactic, of properly prepared and shredded cabbage in the presence of not less than 2% nor more than 3%
salt. When the fermentation is complete, sauerkraut contains no less than 1.5% acid expressed as lactic acid.
Method of Sauerkraut Manufacture:
1. Prior to making sauerkraut, the cabbage heads are wilted for two or more days to improve shredding since fresh heads fracture too
easily.
2. The heads are then trimmed to remove the outer broken or dirty leaves and washed lightly to remove soil bacteria.
3. The cabbage is then sliced into long shreds .16 to .08 cm in width.
4. The shreds are mixed with 2-2.5% dry salt and packed into plastic lined concrete vats that may be as large as 12 to 14 feet in
diameter and 8 feet deep. The shredded cabbage is packed firmly without crushing to reduce air pockets.
5. The vats are then covered with plastic sheets that are weighted with water to provide anaerobic conditions.
6. Respiration of the cabbage tissue and microorganisms quickly uses up residual oxygen in the tank.
7. If the seal is not airtight, aerobic bacteria, yeasts and molds grow on the surface of the kraut and produce undesirable effects.
Sauerkraut Microbiology:
1. Natural microbiota. Cabbage initially contains about 10^6 microbes/gram and this number includes bacteria yeasts and molds.
Within two days of fermentation at 21 C, 90% of the microflora are lactic acid bacteria, and the pH drops from 6.2 to 4.8.
2. Salt. Like pickles, salt has an important role in the production of sauerkraut. Most producers use between 2.2 and 2.5%, which
serves several functions: extracts water from the shredded cabbage through osmosis thus forming the fermentation brine which
contains carbohydrates and other nutrients needed for growth of the lactic acid bacteria, suppresses the growth of some undesirable
bacteria and influences the type and extent of lactic fermentation, and contributes to the flavor and texture of the sauerkraut. At the salt
levels used in sauerkraut, fermentation is initiated by Leuconostoc mesenteroides and the succession of lactic acid bacteria proceeds as
described for pickles. The anaerobic environment these bacteria help to create prevents oxidation of ascorbic acid and color in the
cabbage.
Another important feature of the sauerkraut fermentation is that mannitol in the cabbage is fermented by the lactobacilli which keeps
the product from tasting bitter.
3. Fermentation Temp. The optimum fermentation temperature is 18.3-21.1 C. Above 26.7 C, pediococci and Enterococcus faecalis
initiate a rapid homolactic fermentation, which results in a raw or sour product.
4. Carbohydrate levels. The sugar content of cabbage is about 3-6%. After four weeks at 21 C, the sugar content of the cabbage is
totally depleted. The fermentation is completed in 1 to 2 months depending on the quantity of fermented materials, concentration of
salt, and temperature used.
The final product may have as much as 1.7% lactic acid, 0.25% acetic acid, a final pH of 3.6 or less, from 2.0 to 2.5% NaCl, and,
hopefully, less than 0.13% ethanol. A higher ethanol content indicates the growth of yeasts and a lower acetic acid content indicates a
depressed heterolactic fermentation.
Raw sauerkraut is packed in barrels or plastic pouches and is highly perishable so it must be kept under continuous refrigeration.
Sauerkraut canned in metal or in glass is pasteurized at 74 C to destroy the lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. Canned sauerkraut rarely
spoils.
Sauerkraut Defects and Spoilage:
Most result from oxygen getting into the vat.
Surface discoloration due to auto oxidation.
Loss of acidity, off-flavors, colors, texture, and odors caused by growth of aerobic bacteria, molds and yeasts.
Slimy or ropy kraut has been observed for many years. It usually is caused by dextran formation by Leuconostoc mesenteroides. The
slime is usually found at an intermediate stage of fermentation but with time, the dextrans are usually utilized by other LAB.
In rare instances, some strains of L. brevis will produce a water-soluble, heat-stable red pigment. It appears that production of the
pigment is pH dependent, occurring at higher pHs of about 5.5 and studies have linked this defect to conditions where the pH does not
fall properly.
There five main varieties of olives produced in California:
Mission variety: with 20% or more oil.
Ascolano variety: with less than 15% oil - used to produce ripe olives.
Seveillano variety: with 15% oil is used for both ripe and green olives
Manzanillo variety: 16-18% oil, is an all-purpose olive.
Barouni variety: sold as a fresh product.
Lye Treatment
Olives may be treated with lye (NaOH) prior to processing or fermentation in order to hydrolyze the bitter component in the olive,
oleuropein.
The concentrations of lye and the number of treatments will vary depending on the particular type of olive and the manufacturers
preference.
Lye is allowed to penetrate to the pit when ripe olives are desired and about two-thirds of the way in green olives.
The time of exposure varies from 4-7 hours depending on the size of the olive and the temperature. Above 27 C, a strong lye solution
may cause blistering of the olive skin by dissolving the pectins.
After the lye treatment, olives are washed several times to remove the base.
To prevent softening, the olive flesh must be kept below pH 8.0. If there is too much residual lye, the final pH of the product will be
too high.
Olives contain glucose, fructose, sucrose, and mannitol in concentrations between 3.7 and 7.5%. When olives are lye treated, as much
as 65% of the sugars may be lost so glucose or sucrose are often added to the olives after the lye treatment.
Ripe black olives
Most popular variety. No fermentation is involved. The black ripe olives are harvested when green with a red blush and made dark
purple by oxidation of polyphenols in the flesh. Oxidation is achieved by treating the olives in lye solution (1-2% NaOH) with
aeration. After oxidation treatment, the olives are rinsed, packed, and heat-treated at ll6 C for 60 min.
Beer is made with bottom-fermenting Saccharomyces carlsburgensis yeast. After 7-12 days of fermentation at 6-15 C, the final pH is
4.1-4.2. There are 2 kinds of lager beer; light and dark, named after the color of the product, which comes from roasted malt or
caramel or both.
Ale
Beer is made with top-fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. These lower the pH to about 3.8 after 5-7 days at 18-22 C. Ales are
also distinguished by color.
Good quality water is of prime importance to the manufacture of good beer.
True. Water quality is defined in terms of purity and mineral composition.
Malting
Yeasts are unable to utilize starch and other complex carbohydrates in grains, so these must be broken down to simpler sugars prior to
fermentation. Malt is prepared from barley sprouted under controlled conditions, then dried in a kiln. Germination triggers synthesis of
endogenous enzymes which seedlings normally use to provide fuel during the early growth period. Barley grains are steeped in water
at 10-15 C then germinated at 15-20 C for 3-7 days. Malt contains a- and b amylases, proteolytic enzymes, and substrates for each.
Mashing
Process wherein malt and adjuncts of other cereals are enzymatically converted into a fermentable fluid called wort. Adjuncts are
unmalted cereals, usually corn or rice, which are milled, mixed with water, and boiled in a separate tank before they are added to the
malt mash.
In the first stages of mashing, the malt is ground in a mill until a coarse flour is obtained. The ground malt is mixed with hot water in a
"mashing tun". During mashing, enzymes convert much of the insoluble and unfermentable grain carbohydrates and proteins into
soluble fermentable substrates. The mash is then heated to more than 75 C which inactivates all of the enzymes. By this time, enzyme
activity has converted starches to simpler sugars, principally maltose, and proteins have been reduced to peptides and amino acids.
Extraction and boiling of wort
After mashing, the aqueous extract or "wort" is filtered. The wort is collected in a wort boiling kettle, hops are added, and the mixture
is boiled for 60-90 min.
Hops
Dried flowers of the female vine Humulus lupus.
Reasons for hop addition:
Aid in the coagulation of proteins, inhibition of spoilage bacteria, make important contributions to flavor. Humulone and lupulone
(bitter acids in hops) possess antiseptic properties and together with hop essential oils to impart characteristic flavors to beer.
Beer Fermentation
The wort is pumped into a fermentor with aeration to bring levels of dissolved O2 up to 8-10 ppm. It is then inoculated with 7-15
million yeast per ml and fermentation begins. Beer fermentation consists of a primary aerobic and secondary anaerobic stage.
The purpose of the primary fermentation is to increase yeast numbers in the wort. Aerobic fermentation proceeds for 4-5 days while
dissolved O2 is available. Within 12-26 hours after inoculation, yeast metabolism is very high and the wort becomes saturated with
CO2. As CO2 is produced, agitation is used to keep yeast suspended, and cooling coils may be required to keep the temperature under
control. During the secondary fermentation that follows, metabolism becomes anaerobic and ethanol is produced. At the end of the
fermentation, the beer is cooled and yeast settle out. The final alcohol content may vary between 3.6 and 6.5% depending on the
amount of starch conversion during mashing and the type of beer that is being produced.
Beer Aging
The young or "green" beer is separated from residual yeast and pumped to a 0-2 C storage tank where "lagering" or aging occurs. As
the name implies, lagers are generally aged for longer periods than ales. Lagering provides (1) flavor maturation, (2) physical
stabilization, and (3) clarification.
Sometimes an additional fermentation is desired during aging to produce carbonation. Priming sugar may be added. Carbonation is
performed in closed tanks so that the beer will become saturated with CO2. Carbonation can also be achieved by CO2 injection.
Beer Finishing
This process includes clarification, carbonation, and use of various additives. Then, clarification is performed to remove residual yeast
and other particular matter. The beer is then aged at 0 C to further precipitate insoluble compounds, and during this time the flavor
becomes more mellow. After a final filtration, the beer may be pasteurized before or after it is packaged.
Sugar content increases with maturation time in the grape.
True.
Grape sugar content:
Dry wines require grapes with just enough sugar (<0.2%) to reach a minimal alcohol level while sweet wines require a high sugar
content (up to 6%) and low acidity. At harvest, the main fermentable sugars in the grape are glucose and fructose.
At harvest, the grapes are...
carefully picked by hand to avoid moldy or damaged fruit and to minimize injury. They are transported to the winery as soon as
possible where they are destemmed and crushed.
Must
The resulting mixture of juice, skin and seeds. The pH of the must varies between 3.0-3.9 (optimal is 3.6) with malic and tartaric acids
predominating. The high acidity is desirable because it inhibits spoilage bacteria and yeast autolysis, aids in the extraction of skin
pigments, and in flavor development.
Sulfur dioxide (liquid SO2 or potassium or sodium bisulfite) is added to the must at 100-200 ppm:
SO2 serves several important functions in the wine: control undesirable wild yeasts, molds and bacteria, disrupt grape skin cells thus
releasing pigments, inhibit enzymatic browning (sulfurous acid denatures enzymes involved in Maillard browning), maintain a
reduced environment (act as an antioxidant), react with excess acetaldehydes formed during fermentation and aging, and promotes
proper flavor development. Too much SO2 will inhibit desirable yeast and impart a burnt, sulfur off flavor and odor.
Finally, the juice is separated from the must by pressing it out of the seeds and skin.
The latter fraction is called the pomace. Wine color may be influenced by the time juice is allowed to remain mixed with the pomace.
If red wine is being made, juice and pomace are fermented together and then the pomace is discarded. Skin pigments provide color
and the seeds and skin also contribute flavor compounds such as tannins. For rose, the juice and pomace are left together for 24 hours
before the pomace is discarded and white wines are made either by using white grapes or by separating juice and pomace immediately
after the grapes are crushed.
Wine Fermentation
The juice is pumped into a fermentation tank and inoculated with 1% of a pure wine yeast, usually a strain of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae although other species may be used (S. bayanus, S. fermentation). The finest wines are fermented at temperatures below 30
C. Red wines are fermented with the pomace at 20-32 C for 3-6 days. White wines are fermented for 1-2 weeks at 10-21 C. At the
beginning of the fermentation, metabolic activity is high and generates heat so high capacity cooling systems are needed to control the
temperature.
Effective wine fermentation requires that enough oxygen be present to allow yeast to attain high cell numbers. Once the dissolved O2
is consumed, the anaerobic alcoholic fermentation can proceed. If too much O2 is present, sugars are exhausted by respiration and cell
multiplication and a flat, oxidized wine with poor flavor results.
After the initial fermentation, wine is...
separated from the pomace (if it is present) and transferred into storage vats for 7-11 days at 20-30 C to complete the alcoholic
fermentation and to undergo aging and stabilization. During this time, yeast and other suspended materials sediment to form the
"lees". The wine is then carefully siphoned off ("racked") without disturbing the lees. Racking as soon as possible helps to avoid off
flavors introduced by yeast autolysis in the lees.
Racked wine is stored in...
wooded containers that are filled to the top or else the headspace is filled with CO2 or N3 gas to inhibit spoilage by acetic acid
bacteria. A small amount of O2 diffuses through the cask and helps promote some the oxidation reactions that occur during aging.
During aging, the wine...
clarifies and color stabilizes while alcohols and acids form esters which are important to aroma and flavor. The wine is then filtered,
pasteurized (30 min at 60 C) and bottled. Aging continues in the bottles and a good red wine should be held 5-10 years to reach its
zenith while white wines require about 2-5 years of aging in bottles.
Vinegars sold in the United States must have a minimum of...
4.0% acetic acid. This equals a strength of 40 grains; one grain is equal to 0.1% acid. Most of the vinegars marketed have greater
acetic acid concentrations than the minimum required.
Biochemical reactions in vinegar production:
sugar------>ethanol
2 ethanol + oxygen------>2 acetaldehyde + water
2 acetaldehyde--------aldehyde dehydrogenase---> 2 acetic acid + water
Acetic acid bacteria:
Acetobacter and Gluconobacter.
Gram - rods, aerobic, nonfermentative, and oxidize alcohols to keto compounds.
Organism used commercially is usually an Acetobacter species.
Vinegar made in slow processes...
generally have more aroma, and flavor than those made by quick processes.
In addition to acetic acid, vinegars contain small quantities of...
glycerol, organic phosphates, various organic acids as a result of microbial fermentation, and various aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols.
The distinctive flavor of vinegar is due mainly to compounds other than acetic acid.
Two slow processes:
1. Natural acetification of wines and ciders.
2. The Orleans process - uses oak kegs placed on their sides. To allow exchange of gasses, a hole is left open but is covered. Finished
vinegar is diluted with wine stock to fill half the keg and the film-forming Acetobacter xylinum grows as a thick film on the surface.
When the oxidation of ethanol is complete, a portion of the vinegar is taken off and replaced with new wine stock. Each cycle takes
several weeks.
Two fast processes:
3. Vinegar generator. Developed in 1732 in Holland and in 1823 it was adapted to commercial vinegar production in Germany. The
generator is a cylinder made of wood and is filled with stone, corn cobs, wood shavings, or other particulate material on which the
vinegar bacteria can become established. Wine or another solution containing ethanol is trickled over the surfaces and the acetic acid
bacteria oxidizes the ethanol to acetic acid. Commercial generators use beechwood shavings usually. The packing materials must be
insoluble, indestructable, and must not impart color, odor, or flavor to the vinegar. The effluent is diverted into two portions; one part
is kept for finished vinegar while the other dilutes the fresh wine stock. Cooling coils keep the internal temperature between 25 and 30
Microorganisms involved in sourdough fermentation are usually a mix of yeast and lactobacilli.
Yeast species can include highly acid-tolerant strains of Candida krusei, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or Torulopsis holmi. Candida
krusei is the most dominant species and it is also the most acid tolerant, being able to ferment dough at pH 3.6. The lactobacilli have
been identified as homofermentative species such as Lb. plantarum and Lb. delbruekii, or any one of several heterofermentors like Lb.
fermentum, Lb. brevis, and Lb. buchneri.
Whole cereal grains or flour typically contain 10^4-10^6 bacteria per gram:
This number includes 10^2-10^4 coliforms/g and 10^2-10^3 LAB/g. Through "rebuilding" of backslopping from a previous good
batch of dough, numbers of LAB can be raised to 10^7-10^8 CFU/g, which gives little possibility for growth of undesirable
microorganisms. As a consequence, rebuilding has been universally adopted by the sourdough industry. Rebuilding provides the
dough with a good boost in numbers of LAB that are acclimated to the dough environment and thus are well suited to rapid growth in
this substrate.
San Francisco sourdough
The starter sponge contains one species of yeast and one species of bacteria at a ration of 1:100.
Yeast: Candida milleri, an acid-tolerant species that cannot ferment maltose and which is resistant to cyclohexamide, an antibiotic that
inhibits the growth of most yeasts.
Bacterium: Lactobacillus sanfrancisco, heterofermentative LAB that requires an acidic environment (pH < 6.0), unsaturated fatty
acids, and a CO2 rich atmosphere. This bacterium is even more unusual because it ferments only maltose-not glucose, galactose or
sucrose- and because it requires a small peptide (MW=1065) comprised of Asp, Cys, Glu, Gly, and Lys. The peptide is found in fresh
yeast extract and is thought to be produced in the dough through autolysis of C. miller.
The sponge for SF sourdough, which has been maintained continuously for over 140 years, is rebuilt 3 times per day, 7 days a week, to
keep it's good leavening and souring ability. Dough is inoculated with 11% starter sponge then fermented at 27 C for 7-8 hours. The
pH falls from about 5.2 to 3.9-4.0 and the populations of yeast and bacteria approach 10^9 CFU/g.
Original Alphabetical
Staphylococcus aureus food poisoning is caused by....
an enterotoxin that is heat resistant
What type of foods may harbor Staph. aureus
protein rich foods,
meats, fish, and dairy
What is the 2nd most reported food disease?
Staphylococcocal food poisoning
How is food contaminated with Staph. aureus?
boils or abcesses on the handler's skin
sneezing
What are some characteristics of the Staph. aureus organism that help it thrive in/on foods?
the enterotoxin it produces is heat resistant
the organism itself is salt tolerant (halophile)
How is the Staph. toxin dected in foods?
DACK test: a precipitation test with antitoxin
strains are identified by phage-typing
What type of foods harbor clostridial food poisoning? and is it caused by an infection or intoxication?
Protein rich foods: meat, poltry, fish
intoxication...
What organism causes clostridial food poisoning? How does it cause sickness?
Clostridium perfringens
although the enterotoxin itself is heat liable, the SPORES survive cooking, then germinate to produce the enterotoxins
What is a key symptom of clostridium perfringens food poisoning? Does it take much for clinical symptoms to appear?
abdominal cramping and watery diarrhea
yes, high infectious dose is required
symptoms appear after 8-24 hours
The strongest toxin known to man is produced by what organism?
Clostridium botulinum
7 strains based on toxin (types A, B, E cause most human disease)
The gram +, spore forming, ANAEROBIC rod produced a deadly NEUROTOXIN (neurotoxins are a type of exotoxin)
the toxin IS heat liable (cook canned foods!)
Botulism is a type of food poisoning that is extremly dangerous. Why?
caused by a powerful neurotoxin.
attacks NERVOUS SYSTEM
causes FLACCID PARALYSIS
within 1-2 days of syptoms onset, the respiratory tract is paralyzed resulting in DEATH
the nervous sytem sends out a nerotransmitter known as _____________ which induces muscle contraction. How does the
botulism toxin cause paralysis?
Acetylcholine
botulism toxin block the release of acetycholine
what is fodder disease?
botulism in animals
botulism in a fowl is know as...
Limberneck
Can botulism be treated?
If treated early, large doses of antitoxins can neutralze the toxin (polyvalent anti-toxin
What causes floppy baby syndrome?
botulism toxin, can occur if you feed babies HONEY bc babies don't have the immune system to fight off even very tiny doses of
toxins
Ironically, the botulism toxin, although the most deadly toxin in the world, has some medical uses. explain.
Since it is a neurotoxin that inhibits muscle contraction. It can be used to treat movement disorders and to remove facial wrinkes
(botox)
A pateint comes in and complains of symptoms such as weakness, blurred vision, nausea, diffuculty swallowing, and is having
trouble speaking.
Yesterday they ate some canned tuna.
What do you suspect? How will you diagnose it?
Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin
precipitation test to find the toxin in the patients serum
find the toxin in the food
it will be rare/difficult to isolate the actual organism since it is anaerobic
typically occurs from eating contaminated GRAINS
Bacillus cereus food poisoning
caused by an toxin
2-6 hour incubation. Recovery in 2 days without treatment
How is typhoid fever transmitted?
Food
Flies
Feces
Fingers
Fomites
What organism causes Typhoid Fever?
Salmonella typhi
A patient comes in with bloody stool, and red spots on their abdomen, they have a fever, are lethargic, and DELERIOUS
What do they have?
Salmonella typhi
bc it is Acid resistant it can pass through the stomach and enter the small intestin causing bloody stool
the organism invades the blood resulting in hemorrhaging (the red spots)
"typhus" = "cloudy/smoky" (hints the delerium)
treatment for typhoid fever
cholamphenicol
Vaccine/s for Typhoid fever?
1. ViCPS: polysaccharide form capsule
2. Ty21a: dead or attenuated Salmonella typhi
Salmonellosis is causes by the organism...
various species of salmonella.
Salmonella sereotypes
What foods is salmonella usually found in?
unpasturized milk and poultry.
Recent outbreak in cantalopes
this foodborne illness is usually found amoung those who work with ruminant animals and its key symptoms is UNDULANT
fever: high fever and sweating during day, low fever and chills at night)
Brucellosis causes by Brucella species
treatment for listeriosis
A, T, Ts
Ampicillin, Tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
treatment for brucellosis
Doxycyline and or gentamicin
Discuss the two types of foodborne illnesses known as Vibriosis
Vibriosis vulnificus is found in raw oysters and clams, brackish and sea water areas, it can become systemic and cause necrotic skin
lesions
Vibriosis parahaemolyticus is found in Japan
food poisoning that can be caught from domesticated animals or raw pork
yersiniosis caused by Yersinia enterolitica
Antibiotics are unessecary for this type of food poisoning
Yersiniosis
Yersinia enterocolitica
Original Alphabetical
5 Reasons why agribusiness is imporant
1. patients are now better educated
2. Food is a necessity
3. Market constant evolving
4. Awareness of career opportunities
5. You required knowledge
A food product made without chemical or artificial additives
Natural
Plant or animal food produced without using growth hormones, antibiotics, or petrol based sewage sludge fertilizers
Organic
Development of new products by making a genetic modification in a living organism
Biotechnology
Plant or animal food developed by genetic manipulation
GMO
Chemical compounds in plants that are important to promote healthful reactions in the body but not nutrients or vital for life
Phytochemicals
statement; the hypothesis/goal
Purpose
explains plan used to prepare experiment
Methods
The final project judgement
Evaluation
Often a result of mishandled food, can affect elderly and children the most. Can happen anywhere.
Food Born Illness
Developed by NASA to ensure astronaut safety
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System)
FBI is caused by
bacteria
2 types of bacteria
1. Aerobic
2. Anaerobic
Requires oxygen for growth and survival
Aerobic
Requires an oxygen free environment for survival
Anaerobic
Examples of 1. Aerobic
2. Anaerobic
1. E. Coli and Salmonella
2. Botulism
Poison formed as waste when certain bacteria thrive and multiply
Exotoxin
Poison in cell walls of certain bacteria
Endotoxin
Special structure of bacteria capable of retaining viability under extremely adverse conditions
Spore
The most fatal form of FBI, requires an antitoxin, produces exotoxins, and is anaerobic.
Botulism
Capable of producing enterotoxin as it grows; found in mucus membranes, boils, and open cuts
Stap aureus
Sometimes found in yoke of unbroken eggs
salmonella
Always caused by fecal matter
E. Coli
Freezing does not ___ bacteria, and only ___ growth
kill; retards
Usually found in meat, meat products unpasteurized milk
Listeria
Pregnant women should avoid __ to avoid getting__
soft cheese; listeria
capable of being engulfed by body cell and eventually altering or killing host cell.
Virus
The most common virus that causes FBI; occurs from fecal matter and can be found in undercooked shellfish.
Hep. A
produces mycotoxins and is commonly found in peanuts
mold
poison produced by some molds that can be lethal when consumed
Mycotoxin
heavy resonsibility for safe food supply; regulates lables, additives, and inspects food plants.
FDA
Ensures meat, poultry, and eggs are safe to consume
USDA
6 methods of food preservation
1. Freezing
2. Canning
3. Drying
4. Pasteurization
5. Salting
6. Smoking
A convenient preservation that doesn't significantly alter the product; retards bacterial growth.
freezing
4 categories of frozen foods
1. Perishable raw foods
2. " " cooked foods
3. Semiperishable foods
4. Nonperishable
When freezinf fruits and vegetables, they must be ___
blanched to wash bacteria and microorganisms
get curdled when frozen unless they contain winterized oil
Emulsified foods
Preservation by heat, usually kept up to 2 years
Canning
Food that has been heat processed enough to kill all pathogenic microorganisms and spores
commercially sterile
2 methods of home canning
1. Pressurized
2. Hot water bath
1. pH of 4.5 or lower can be canned in
2. pH of 4.5 or higher must be
1. Hot water bath
2. Pressurized
processing done under pressure so that temperature is elevated enough to kill microorg.
Pressurized canning
Processing of foods in containers immersed in water at atmospheric pressure; most common method
Water bath canning
Added to fruits to maintain texture
Sugar syrups
Antient pres. method; affective due to absence of moisture
Drying
Exposing fruit to smoke from sulfur flowers to preserve color
Sulfuring
High concentration of sugar establishes osmotic pressure
Sugar preserves
substance added in small amounts to impart or improve desirable qualities or suppress undesirable
Food Additive
any additive, before hitting the market, must be tested by this org.
GRAS - Generally Recognized as Safe
Legislation that burdens proof of safety of food on manufacturers
Food Additives Ammend. 1958
Required that additives produced that cause cancer when consumed in animals or humans can not be added to food
Delany Clause
9 reasons Additives are used:
1. Enhance nutritive value
2. Improve flavor
3. color
4. shelf life
5. texture
6.control pH
7. leavening
8. Bleaching
9. Ease manufacturing problems
2 Categories of Additives
1. Intentional
2. Accidental
Calcium silicate, mannitol, silicon dioxide
Anticaking
Acetic acid, benzoic acid, propylene oxide
Antimicrobial
Ascorbic acid, BHA, BHT
Antioxidants
Ultramarine, yellow dye no. 5, turmeric
Coloring
Ammonium sulfate, locust bean gum, potassium bromide
Dough Strength
Lecithin, monoglycerides, potassium pyrophosphate
Emulsifiers
Amylase, rennet, pectinase
Enzymes
Monosodium glutimate
Flavor enhancers
Synergists
Citric acid, tartaric acid
Subjective method of testing; how you relate opinion to taste
Sensory evaluation
2 ways to sensory evaluate:
1. conducted within company
2. large/small focus group
1. In-house testing
2. Consumer testing
The evaluation of aroma
Smell
The higher the temperature;
the more aroma released
5 flavors of taste
1. Bitter
2. Salty
3. Sweet
4. Sour
5. Umami
Enhance the flavor of other compounds without adding its own unique flavor
flavor potentiator
The examination of texture and color is done by
Sight
Sucrose
Most soluble of monosaccharides
Fructose
large areas of organized sugar crystals
Crystaline candies; fudge and fondant
Dry heat __ to sugar via ___
melts sugar, changes taste, color, and texture via carmelization
Non-enzymatic browning that occurs when a protein and a sugar are heated or stored together
Maillard
Sugar having a free carbonyl that can combine with an amine, leading to non-enzymatic browning via maillard
Reducing sugar
Sugar formed by hydrolysis of sucrose; mix of fructose and glucose
invert sugar
7 Nutritive sweeteners and their kcal/g
sucrose
brown
invert
confectioners/powdered
honey
molasses
corn syrup
4kcal/g
5 non nutritive sweeteners
Saccharin
Aspartame
Sucralose
Sweet One
Stevia
The storage form of glucose in plants
Starch
2 components of starch; the building blocks of glucose
Amylose
Amylopectin
Long & chainlike; contributes to gelling
Amylose
a polysaccharide that is the chief constituent of all plant tissues and fibers
Cellulose
carbohydrate polymers composed of various sugars and uronic acids; structural feature of plant cell walls
Hemicellulose
Structural component of some plant foods that is removed to avoid wooded quality
Lignin
4 Veg. botanically classified as fruit
Tomato
Cucumber
Squash
Eggplant
Grown below the ground; i.e. carrots
root vegetables
Short, thick, fleshy part of underground stem
tubers
Short stem with fleshy leaves
bulb
Seeds; dried; more protein than most veggies
legumes
Flavor found in onion, chive, garlic, and leeks.
allium
Found in brussles, broccoli, cabbage, rutabaga, turnips, cauliflower, kale, and mustard
cruciferae
strong compound formed when garlic clove is crushed.
Alliin
Eye irritating acid substance in onions that decomposes rapidly
propenylsulfenic acid
The 3 tissue systems of fruits and vegetables
dermal, vascular, and ground
Dermal tissueVascularGroundouterlayer
System that transports water and other nutrients
inner layer
the vascular system is composed of 2 things
xylem and phloem
Responsible for transporting water
xylem
Responsible for transporting organic matter
phloem
Typical cell type in F & V, most abundant in ground system
parenchyma cell
Original Alphabetical
Food Chemistry
The systematic evaluation and understanding of water carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and other ingredients, such
as additives, as they undergo chemical interaction/reaction during harvest, storage and distribution of foods
Pigments
Chlorophylls, carotenoids, anthocyanins, betalains
Toxins
Solanine, amygdaline
Preservatives
citric acid, benzoic acid
Enzymes
papain
Pigments in Fruits and Veggies: Anthocyanins
Water soluble compounds ranging from purple to orange: eggplant, radish, red potato
Pigments in Fruits and Veggies: Betalains
Purple to red-yellow: Beets
Pigments in Fruits and Veggies: Carotenoids
Potato
Amygdaline
Peach Pits
Myristician
Nutmeg
Safrole
Sassafras root
Thiocyanate
Cabbage
Coumarin
Citrus fruits
Hydrazine
Mushrooms
Ames Test
Developed to identify the mutagenic potential of chemical substances. Based on testing the response of bacterial cells to chemical
structures.
Preservatives work by
slowing, stopping or killing microbes
Salt & Sugar
are the most common preservatives and work by decreasing water activity
Other preservatives include
Organic acids (acetic, citric, benzoic acids) and salts (potassium sorbate)
Food Additive
A substance added to food. Most are intentional and must be approved by FDA. Indirect additives are contaminants but are often
anticipated at a minimal level
Indirect Additive Examples
Antibiotics, dioxins, dirt/dust, hair, hormones, insects, microwave packaging
Major Types of Food Additives: Anticaking and free-flowing agents
Calcium silicates and talc
Oils provide
essential fatty acids and are needed for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
Bioavailability
refers to the degree to which nutrients are digested and absorbed
Enzymes are largely responsible for the
digestion or breakdown of food molecules into absorbable units
Enzymes are
protein molecules that cause chemical reactions to occur without being altered in the process. Name usually end in "ase"
Absorption
occurs when digested nutrients enter the bloodstream through capillaries of the small intestine
Transport
is the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to all of the body's cells by the vascular (aka circulatory) system. Exchange of nutrients and
wastes takes place across the walls of capillaries.
Digestive Disorders
-Constipation
-Irritable bowel syndrome
-Flatulence/belching
-Acid reflux
-Ulcers (Helicobacter pylori)
Reduced intake of calories may be due to several situations
-Starvation
-Anorexia
-Bulimia
-Kwashiorkor (limited protein)
-Marasmus
Deficiency Diseases
Anemia: iron
Beriber: thiamin
Goiter: iodine
Osteoporosis: calcium
rickets: vitamin D
scurvy: vitamin C
Microbes are responsible for
almost all food borne illness and cause most food spoilage
Pathogens cause
disease and death
Beneficial microbes may control harmful ones and are used from many products
yogurt, bread, beer, wine, and sausage
Microbiology
the study of the physiology, genetics, growth characteristics, survival, and behavior of microbes
Food Microbiologists focus on
Microbes that contaminate or grow in food
Protozoa
Single-celled eukaryotes
-classified by their morphology, locomotion and life cycle
-they do not grow in foods, but are parasites that require a host to complete their life cycle
Key example: Giardia Lamblia
source: intestinal tract, water
Leg
no or slow growth, getting used to the environment
-control here is most effective
Log
rapid growth
Stationary
as many cells are dying as are being created
-food and waste products become limiting
Death
waste products are toxic, food is gone
Acid Foods
those that have a natural pH of 4.6 or less
Acidified Foods
low acid foods to which acids are added
-pH of 4.6 or less and aw of 0.85 or more
Low Acid Foods
those with a pH greater than 4.6 and aw of 0.85 or more
Psychrophiles
55 degrees
Mesophiles
95 degrees
Thermophiles
150 degrees
Aerobes
require oxygen
Facultative anaerobes
prefer oxygen
Microaerophilic
utilize a trace of oxygen
anaerobes
cannot tolerate oxygen
Original Alphabetical
What are the causative agents of lumpy jaw and woody tongue in the cow and how would you differentiate between the two?
Actinomyces bovis (lumpy jaw); Actinobacillus lignieresii (Woody Tongue) Ac. bovis is gram positive rod; A. lignieresii is gram
negative rod Ac. Bovis has a non-painful lesion, bone involvement, A. lignieresii is painful,soft tissues
What clinical signs you would expect to see in a calf or calves affected with Bovine Papular Stomatitis virus?
Asymptomatic at first with an outbreak of signs; Hyperemic foci on various areas (nose, mouth, palate, tongue, esophagus, abdomen,
rumen, rear legs, scrotum (not on feet); In severe cases - weight loss, diarrhea, possible fever,
Name the two oral cavity diseases commonly caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum. How would you clinically differentiate
one from the other?
Oral necrobacillosis (or Necrotic Stomatitis), and Laryngeal Necrobacillosis (Calf Diphtheria), Necrotic stomatitis - younger animals
(2weeks to 6 months), problems eating, Calf diphtheria - older calves (6-18 months), no stomatitis, problems breathing (may have
problems eating)
What is the treatment of choice for each of the following conditions? Lumpy jaw, woody tongue, calf diphtheria:
Lumpy Jaw - Debulk, drain, curette, Penicillin, oxtetracycline, Woody Tongue - Iodides, penicillin, oxytetracycline, soft diet,
supportive care, Calf diphtheria - penicillin, anti-inflammatories, supportive care, fluids, soft feeds
In ruminants, which test on a standard serum chemistry panel serves as the most reliable indicator of renal compromise?
Creatinine (but also BUN)
Urinary tract infections in ruminants are most commonly due to what 2 organisms?
Corynbacterium renale, E. coli
What is the most common route of infection leading to cystitis, ureteritis, and pyelonephritis in ruminants?
Ascending infection
95% calf crop, 60-day calving season, 500 lb average weaning weights
How do you drive intake in beef cattle?
Salt supplementation
What are the two most critical periods nutritionally for cow-calf operations?
Early lactation (coincides with re-breeding); and Late gestation (coincides with late pregnancy
During what time period of a cows reproductive cycle does protein-energy malnutrition occur?
Late gestation
T or F - Beef cattle with protein-energy malnutrition are models of starvation for other species:
True
What is the most common nutritional deficiency of beef cattle?
Protein-energy malnutrition
Define Protein-energy malnutrition?
Deficiency (but not complete absence) of protein and/or energy in the diet of overwintering beef cows, resulting in a specific clinical
syndrome
What are three consequences of PEM that is economically important?
Dead cows, Anestrus, Weak or dead calves (also reduced weaning weights of calves that live)
What is the number one cause of infertility in beef cattle?
Protein-energy malnutrition
What is the Lower Critical Temperature for a beef cattle?
about 10 degree F
What increases in energy contribute to risk of PEM?
Late gestation, growing heifers, poor condition in fall, cold stress, muddy conditions, parasitism
What are the two general contributors to PEM risk?
Increased demand for protein and energy; Inadequate availability of protein and energy
What is the relationship between plant maturity and forage quality?
Inverse relationship
When feeding beef cattle over winter, what is one thing to remember about pastures?
Never graze after January 1st due to nutrient leaching and selective grazing
Can you feed just corn silage to beef cattle over the winter?
What can be supplemented in a feedlot diet to help with the low protein in the diets?
NPN
When is protein feeding important in the progression of feedlot cattle?
Early on in the feeding period; later lower protein diets are used as fat deposition takes over for muscle growth
What is the most critical period nutritionally for beef feedlot animals?
Upon arrival at the feedlot
How can you prevent problems nutritionally for new arrivals at beef feedlots?
High-energy, palatable feeds and adequate source of long fiber; no NPO at this time (all natural proteins); easily accessible water
source
What is the cause of Chronic Bloat Syndrome in feedlot cattle?
Usually caused by ruminal acidosis - may favor bacteria that produce a stable foam in the rumen
T or F - Urolithiais is not a problem in beef feedlot cattle:
False, it is a problem
How can you prevent urolithiasis in beef feedlot animals?
Promote dieresis with additional salt and calcium; acidify urine with ammonium chloride or calcium chloride
What is "Grass Tetany"?
Hypomagnesemia
What are the risk factors for cows to develop Grass Tetany?
Spring calving beef cattle in early lactation, lush pastures, rapidly growing grass
What are the metabolic abnormalities associated with grass tetany?
Mg required for every metabolic pathway; decreased milk production, anorexia, nervousness, twitching muscle of face, shoulder and
flank, rumen stasis, restless, hyperexcitability, aggressive, frequent urination, bellowing, stiff-gated, sensitive to sound, progresses to
titanic spasm of muscles, ataxia, fall , bounding heart sounds, tachycardia, recumbent, seizure, eyelid flutter, nystagmus, death
How do you treat grass tetany?
Minimize handling (decrease risk of seizure), Ca gluconate with 5% Mg hypophosphate, MgSO4 slowly IV, give some oral, SQ or Mg
enema to help with relapses
What is the initial compound associated with development of Acute Bovine Pulmonary Edema and Emphysema and What is
the toxic metabolite?
L-tryptophan; 3-methylindole and #MI metabolites
How do you manage or prevent ABPEE from occurring in pastured beef cattle?
Pasture management - avoid toxic pastures, prefeed hay, limit access to pasture, delay use of lush pasture till after hard frost, mow
pasture before use, pregraze with less susceptible animals, use continuous strip-grazing; use prophylactic medication - Monensin,
Lasalocid
What is the causative agent of IBK and How is it treated?
Moraxella bovis; Antibiotic - Draxin, long acting Oxytet, Subconjunctival antibiotics - Ceftiofur, ampicillin, penicillin,topical
antibiotics and atropine, protect eye from sunlight, allow for cleansing and discharge from eye, fly control, avoid corticosteroids
Define metaphylaxis?
Timely, mass medication of a group of animals to minimize or eliminate an expected outbreak
What is the cattle lungworm?
Dictyocaulus viviparus
How do you diagnosis Lung worms in live cattle?
Signs in cattle on pasture, Baermann apparatus, Transtracheal wash - eosinophils, larvae
What is the appropriate treatment for liver flukes in stocker cattle?
Flukecidal drugs for adults and juvenile flukes (Fenbendazole, albendazole, closulon for juvenile flukes
What bacterial diseases are associated with liver flukes in cattle?
Black's disease (C. novyi), and bacillary hemoglobinuria (C. haemolyticum)
What are the clinical signs of copper deficiency in stocker cattle?
Young stock - poor growth and loss of coordination of the hind limbs; Adult cattle - diarrhea and hair coat changes; Anemia, diarrhea,
swollen painful joints, infertility, decreased resistance to disease
What is (are) the nutritional factors associated with the development of copper deficiency in these cattle?
Can be primary deficiency or secondary due to dietary imbalance - excess molybdenum, excess sulfates, cadmium, zinc and calcium,
soil ingestion due to overgrazing
What is Buller Steer Syndrome?
Behavioral problem among feedlot steers characterized by repeated mounting of a steer (buller) by a group of steers (riders) - buller
steer becomes exhausted, often shows hair loss, swelling and trauma on rump and tail head, may have broken bones or even die from
injuries;
How do you manage Buller Steer Syndrome?
Prompt isolation and removal of buller to separate sick pen where bulling usually subsides
What are the characteristics and clinical signs of Tracheal Edema Syndrome in feedlot cattle?
An acute dyspnea syndrome in heavy feedlot cattle in last half of feeding period, sporadic during summer; Acute onset of dyspnea
with increased respiratory effort, coughing, loud guttural stertor, open-mouth breathing, cyanosis and possibly death; Edematous
thickening, hemorrhages of the dorsal wall of the trachea from mid-cervical region to tracheal bifurcation; No significant lung disease
What is the major respiratory cause of animal death and/or economic loss in Stocker and Feedlot cattle?
15 months; 8 weeks
How frequently do you have to trim the hooves of cattle?
Benefits from hoof trimming last around 4 months; All cows should be trimmed at dry off and once during lactation (80-150 DIM);
Heifers with overgrown hoofs should be trimmed before calving
What are the 6 questions you need to answer when assessing trimming of feet on cattle?
Are the toes trimmed too short; Is the heal of the inner claw trimmed too much; Is the axial wall in the toe removed; Is the sole
trimmed with a concave slope rather than flat; Is the outer wall removed excessively; Is the sole too thin
What is the common reason for trimming the toes too short and removing too much sole and heal horn leading to thin soles,
white line disease and toe ulcers?
Problem of adapting to hoof wear in an expanding herd
Why might there be excessive removal of outer wall horn, removal of the axial wall in the toe region, and poor treatment of
existing lesions?
Poor hoof trimming technique
What are 5 general parts to deliberate surveillance for lameness?
Staff members trained to use locomotion scoring, ID and record lame cows when moving to parlor, in each pen once a week, when
returning from a vet check, and at dry off
What are the claw horn lesions?
Sole hemorrhage, sole ulcer, toe ulcer, heel ulcer (sole fracture), white line disease (hemorrhage, fissure, abscess), horizontal fissure,
vertical fissure
Name the infectious hoof lesions:
Digital dermatitis, Interdigital phlegmon (Foot rot), Heel horn erosion
What is another name for Interdigital hyperplasia?
Corn
What are some comparisons you can make with hoof lesion records?
First lactation vs mature cows, Trimmers lameness findings vs lesions causing lameness later, ratio of infectious to claw horn lesions,
ratio of sole ulcers to white line disease
What is the typical location of a sole ulcer?
Beneath the flexor tuberosity of the pedal bone near the axial groove, usually in the outer claw of the rear foot; often bilateral
Where do sole fractures (heel ulcers) typically occur?
At the junction of the sole and perioplic horn (may occur on the medial claw)
What are possible causes of toe ulcers?
Could be from wear or over timming
Acute or sub-acute inflammation of skin and subcutaneous tissues above the interdigital space; deeply seated process resulting in
disintegration of tissue, necrosis and sloughing; Cellulitis and swelling of the foot above the ID space, extending to the fetlock,
pushing apart the claws
What is the predominant isolate from Foot rot cases?
Fusobacterium necrophorum (endotoxin is leucocidal and hemolytic)
What do you treat foot rot with in dairy cattle? Beef cattle?
Ceftiofur sodium (Naxcel) at 1 ml/100 lbs for 3 days; Long acting oxytetracycline (LA200)
Can you vaccinate against foot rot?
Yes; Fusobacterium necrophorum bacterin
What is the only reason for giving antibiotics in a lame cow?
Foot rot
What is another name for digital dermatitis?
Heel warts
What percent of dairy cattle worldwide suffer with digital dermatitis at any given time?
20% of dairy cattle worldwide
Describe the M stage classification of Digital dermatitis:
M0 - normal skin; M1 - small (<2 cm), circumscribed red or grey erosion (focal bacterial keratolysis); M2 - acute ulcerative or
granulomatous lesion, the acute clinical stage; M3 - healing scab, the healing stage; M4 - chronic dyskeratotic or proliferative, the
chronic stage; M4.1 - chronic w/subacute component
What is the reservoir for digital dermatitis infection on the farm?
The hoof of the cow
What are the bacteria associated with digital dermatitis?
Treponemas - spirochetes
What are Treponemes?
Strictly anaerobic, gram negative spirochetes
What farm conditions are associated with digital dermatitis?
A disease of modern freestall facilities where the cows feet are not adequately separated from their manure - hydropic maceration and
low oxygen tension
What does early effective treatment of digital dermatitis do?
Reduces transition from M2 to M4
What does effective footbath programs do?
Less lameness (maybe); Have white line disease, axial wall cracks, sole hemorrhages and bruising; But very little infectious causes
and few sole ulcers
Who spends more time laying down each day, Grazing cow or free stall cow?
Free stall cow
How can we impact a cows time budget in the biggest way?
Lower the length of time a cow is milked each day; more time for resting; everything else is non-negotiable
Original Alphabetical
lipids
nonpolar, water-insoluble compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and a small amount of oxygen.
simple fats
lipids comprised only of glycerol and fatty acids
glycerol
polyhydric alcohol containing three carbon atoms, each of which is joined to a hydroxyl group
fatty acid
organic acid containing usually between 4 and 24 carbon atoms.
saturated fatty acids
fatty acids containing all of the hydrogen atoms they can possibly hold
mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids with one (mono) or two or more double bonds (polyunsaturated).
eicosapentonoic acid (EPA)
biologically active omega-3 fatty acid with 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds.
docosahexonic acid (DHA)
biologically active omega-3 fatty acid containing 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
fatty acid in milk fat that has one cis and one trans double bond on alternate carbons; not considered to be a trans fat
melting point
the temperature at which the crystals of a solid fat melt
unsaturation
lack of hydrogen relative to the amount that can be held, a situation characterized by a double bond between two carbon atoms in the
fatty acid chain
stearic acid
saturated 18-carbon fatty acid
oleic acid
monounsaturated 18-carbon fatty acid
linolenic acid
fatty acid (18 carbons) containing three double bonds
cis configuration
the hydrogens attached to the carbon atoms on either end of the double bond are from the same orientation and cause a lower melting
point
trans configuration
the hydrogens attached to the carbon atoms on either end of the double bond are from opposite directions and cause a higher melting
point.
monoglyceride
lipid consisting of one fatty acid esterified to one of the hydroxyl groups of glycerol; synonym for monoacylglycerid
monoacylglyceride
chemical name used to clarify the ester formed with one fatty acid and glycerol
diglyceride (diacylglyceride)
simple fat containing two fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
triglyceride (triacylglyceride)
simple fat containing three fatty acids esterified to glycerol; the most common form of simple fat.
alpha crystals
extremely fine and unstable form of fat crystals
beta prime crystals
very fine and reasonably stable fat crystals.
intermediate crystals
slightly coarse fat crystals that form when B` crystals melt and recrystallize.
beta crystals
extremely coarse and undesirable fat crystals
spherulite
spherical crystalline body of radiating crystal fibers.
rancidity
chemical deterioration of a fat caused by the uptake of oxygen (oxidation) or water (hydrolysis).
oxidative rancidity
development of off flavors and odors in fats as a result of the uptake of oxygen and the formation of peroxides, hydroperoxides, and
numerous other compounds.
free radical
unstable compound containing an unpaired electron
peroxide
compound with oxygen attached to oxygen
hydroperoxide
compound containing a -O-O-H group
autoxidation
oxidation reaction capable of continuing easily with little added energy
antioxidant
compound that can retard oxidative rancidity by providing hydrogen to block formation of free radicals in fatty acids or by scavenging
metal or oxygen.
tertiary-butylhydro-quinone (TBHQ)
antioxidant often added to animal fats used in baking and frying
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
antioxidant effective in animal fats used in baking
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
antioxidant used to retard oxidation in animal fats.
propyl gallate (PG)
antioxidant somewhat effective in vegetable oils, often used in combination with BHA and BHT.
lipolysis
reaction of a molecule of water with a fat molecule to release a free fatty acid in the presence of lipase or heat.
lipase
enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fat to yield free fatty acids and glycerol
hydrolytic rancidity
lipolysis (hydrolysis) of lipids to free fatty acids and glycerol, often catalyzed by lipases
reversion
development of an off flavor (beany or fishy) in soybean, rapeseed, or various fish oils as a result of a reaction involving only very
minor amounts of oxygen.
smoke point
temperature at which a fat or oil begins to emit some traces of smoke.
acrolein
a highly irritating and volatile aldehyde formed when glycerol is heated to the point at which two molecules of water split from it.
polymerization
formation of a variety of polymers, including simple dimers and trimers, when free fatty acis are subjected to intense heat for a long
period during frying.
acrylamide
carcinogen formed from natural sugars and asparagines in starchy fried foods and also in baked products.
rendering
removing fat from animal tissues by either dry or moist heat
cold pressing
mechanical pressing of appropriate seeds, plant tissue, or nuts to express oil without heat, resulting in an oil of excellent purity.
hot pressing
using steam or hot water to heat plant seeds to about 70 degrees celsius to facilitate extraction of lipids from the seeds, a process that
also extracts some gums, off flavors, and free fatty acids.
degumming
separating natural gums from extracted fats; an important step in refining fats and oils.
neutralizing
removing free fatty acids from fats and oils; a step in refining
bleaching
refining step in which coloring and flavoring contaminants are removed from fats, often by filtration through active charcoal or other
suitable substrate.
deodorizing
using steam distillation or other suitable procedure to remove low molecular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, hydrocarbons, and
free fatty acids that would be detrimental to the aroma and flavor of fats.
winterizing
refining step in which oils are chilled carefully to precipitate and remove fractions with high melting points that would interfere with
the flow properties of salad dressings or other products containing the oils.
fractionation
process of separating oils into fractions using controlled temperature to crystallize fatty acids with high melting points and separate
them from oils with lower melting points.
tempering
removing heat resulting from crystallization of fats and maintaining a selected temperature to promote the formation of stable,
desirable crystals.
bloom
granular-appearing, discolored areas on the surface of chocolate; the result of melting of less stable crystals and recrystallization as
beta crystals on the surface.
hydrogenation
addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated fatty acid in the presence of a catalyst to reduce the unsaturation of the molecule and raise the
melting point.
elaidic acid
trans isomer of oleic acid produced during hydrogenation; raises LDLs.
vaccenic acid
trans isomer of oleic acid occurring naturally in butterfat; does not raise LDLs.
interesterification
treatment of a fat, usually lard, with sodium methoxide or another agent to split fatty acids from glycerol and then to reorganize them
on glycerol to form different fat molecules with less tendency to form coarse crystals.
randomized interesterification
intereserification accomplished using melted fat
directed interesterification
process of interesterification in which the fat is kept below its melting temperature
intraesterification
catalyzed reaction in wihc the fatty acids split from glycerol and rejoin in a different configuration, but with the same fatty acids being
retained in the molecule.
asoyia ultra low linolenic acid soybean oil
soybean oil produced through plant breeding for reduced linolenic acid and no trans fat.
docosahexanoic (DHA)
omega-3 fatty acid containing 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds
eicosapentanoic acid (EPA)
omega-3 fatty acid containing 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds
omega-3 fatty acid
polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond on the third carbon from the methyl end of the molecule.
oryzanols
class of sterols in rice bran oil of significance for their antioxidant properties
tocotrienols
class of sterols related to vitamin E valued for their antioxidant properties; found in rice bran and palm oils.
stick margarines
spreads made by hydrogenating plant oils and adding water, milk solids, flavorings, and coloring to achieve a product similar to butter
soft or tub margarines
spreads with melting points lower than those of stick margarines because of a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
whipped margarines
stick margarines that have been whipped mechanically into fat foam; increased volume results in fewer calories per given volume.
plasticity
ability of a fat to be spread or creamed.
shortening power
ability of a fat to cover a large surface area to minimize the contact between water and gluten during the mixing of batters and doughs
creaming
vigorous blending of fat and sugar to incorporate air to promote fine, light texture in cakes
flakiness
quality of thin layers of pastry that shatter when cut or chewed.
salatrim
acronym for short and long acyltriglyceride molecules
recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST)
genetically engineered hormone that stimulates milk production in cattle.
fat-globule membrane
outer layer of a fat globule in milk; phospholipids and protein coating the fat globule aid in emulsifying the fat
alpha-lactose
less soluble form of lactose, the disaccharide prominent in milk; form of lactose largely responsible for the sandy texture of some ice
creams.
whey
liquid that drains from the curd of clotted milk; contains lactose, proteins, water-soluble vitamins, and some minerals.
curd
milk precipitate that contains casein and forms readily in an acidic medium.
casein
collective name for milk proteins precipitated at pH 4.6
casein micelle
casein aggregate that is comparatively stable and remains colloidally dispersed unless a change such as a shift toward the isoelectric
point or the use of rennin destabilizes and precipitates casein.
rennin
enzyme from the stomach lining of calves that eliminates the protective function of k-casein in micelles and results in curd formation
certified raw milk
milk that has a small microorganism population but has not been heat treated and, therefore, may cause serious illness
pasteurization
heat treatment of milk adequate to kill microorganisms that can cause illness in people
hold method
pasteurization in which milk is heated to 63 degrees celsius and held there 30 minutes before it is cooled to 7 degrees celsius
HTST method
high-temperature short-time pasteurization in which milk is heated to 72 degrees celsius and held there at least 15 seconds before it is
cooled to 10 degrees celsius
UHT pasteurization
extreme pasteurization that kills all microorganisms and makes possible the storage of milk in a closed, sterile container at room
temperature.
creaming
separation of fat from the aqueous portion of milk that takes place when fat globules cluster into larger aggregates and rise to the
surface of the milk.
homogenization
mechanical process in which milk is forced through tiny apertures under a pressure of 2,000-2,500 psi, which breaks up the fat
globules (3-10 microns in diameter) into smaller units (less than 2 microns in diameter) that do not separate from the milk
evaporated milk
sterilized, canned milk that has been concentrated to about half its original volume by evaporation under a partial vacuum
sweetened condensed milk
canned milk to which sugar is added (contains more than 54 percent carbohydrate because of milk sugar and added sugar);
evaporation of about half the water and heat treatment to kill harmful microorganisms precede the canning process.
instantized dried milk
milk that has been dried, moistened until sticky, and then re-dried into spongy aggregates of solids that rehydrate readily without
lumping
glassy lactose
amorphous (noncrystalline) milk sugar
labneh
soft cheese made by separating the curd from yogurt.
cultured buttermilk
low fat or nonfat milk containing S. lactis ad L. bulgaricus that has been incubated to produce some lactic acid.
sweet acidophilus milk
unfermented milk to which l. acidophilus has been added.
kefir
fermented milk that is about 3 percent alcohol because of fermentation by lactobacillus kefir, which also adds CO2.
lactaid
milk in which lactose content has been reduced by an enzyme (lactase) that splits lactose in glucose and galactose
yogurt
milk clotted by inoculating with s. thermophilus and l. bulgaricus and fermenting to pH ~ 5.5
insulin
fructose polymer linked by B-2,1-linkages and with a glucose unit at the end; obtained from chicory root.
soymilk
beverage made from whole, finely ground defatted soybeans; a beverage designed to compete with milk
natural cheese
any cheese made by clotting milk to form a curd and then concentrating the curd by draining the whey; variations are produced by
varying the curd concentration and by ripening with or without the addition of selected microorganisms or other ingredients.
stilton cheese
blue-veined cheese made by an approved process in any of six creameries in leicestershire, nottinghamshire, and derbyshire, england
product designation of origin
legal designation that the european union can grant to food products from specific locations
pasteurized process cheese
cheese product made by heating natural cheeses with an emulsifier and then cooling in a brick form; moisture level is about 41 percent
process cheese food
process cheese product with a moisture content of about 45 percent, which causes the food to be comparatively soft, yet firm.
process cheese spread
spreadable process cheese product with a moisture content of about 50 percent
coldpack (club) cheese
cheese product made by adding an emulsifier to a mixture of natural cheeses
plain ice cream
frozen dessert containing at least 10 percent milk fat and 20 percent total milk solids and no more than 0.5 percent edible stabilizer;
flavoring particles must not show.
composite ice cream
frozen dessert containing at least 8 percent milk fat and 18 percent total milk solids and no more than 0.5 percent edible stabilizer;
flavoring particles are not to exceed 5 percent by volume
frozen custard
ice cream-like product that is a frozen, egg yolk custard
low-fat ice cream
frozen dairy product containing 2-7 percent milk fat and 11 percent total milk solids
sherbet
somewhat acidic frozen dessert containing from 2 to 5 percent milk solids, and no milk fat.
mellorine
imitation ice cream in which the milk fat has been removed and replaced by a different fat
parevine
imitation ice cream in which both the milk fat and the milk solids have been replaced by nondairy ingredients
overrun
increase in volume (expressed as a percentage) that occurs when ice cream is frozen with agitation. calculated as; (volume of
dispersion-original volume/original volume) x 100
meat
red meats, including beef, veal, pork, and lamb.
poultry
fowl, notably turkey, chicken, and duck.
fish
broadly defined as aquatic animals, but more narrowly defined to designate those with fins, gills, a backbone, and a skull
shellfish
subclassification of fish; includes mollusks and crustaceans
mollusks
shellfish with a protective shell
crustaceans
shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and other shellfish with a horny covering.
mysoin
principal myofibrillar protein; long, thin molecule
actin
myofibrillar protein existing primarily in two forms [F (very long) and G (smaller)]
tropomysoin
very small, least abundant of the three principal myofibrillar proteins
actomyosin
muscle protein formed from the union of actin and myosin during muscle contraction
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
key compound in metabolism that contains energy-rich bonds
adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)
enzyme in muscle tissue involved in glycolytic reactions leading to lactic acid formation
neutral pyrophosphatase (PPase)
group of enzymes in muscle tissue ingluencing the water-holding capacity of meat
cathepsins
group of proteolytic enzymes that can catalyze hydrolytic reactions leading to the passing of rigor mortis
calcium-activated factor (CAF)
proteolytic enzyme activated by calcium; contributes to tenderizing of aging meat.
myofilament
simplest level of organization in muscle; classified as thick or thin myofilaments
thick myofilament
the thicker, longer type of myofliament; composed of myosin molecules joined together to form a screw-like, thick, and elongated
filament
thin myofilament
thin filament formed by the helical twisting of two strands of polymerized actin
sarcomere
portion of a myofibril
myofibril
linear bundle of several myofilaments that contain a number of sarcomeres
fiber
bundle of myofibrils and sarcoplasm encased in the sarcolemma
sarcoplasm
jelly-like protein surrounding the myofibrils in muscle fibers.
sarcolemma
thin, transparent membrane surrounding the bundle of myofibrils that constitute a fiber.
collagen
fibrous protein composed of three strands of tropocollagen
tropocollagen
fibrous protein consisting of three strands twisted together and containing large amounts of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline.
pyrrolidine ring
organic ring structure containing one atom of nitrogen; linkage to another amino acid through this nitrogen favors formation of a linear
fibrous protein molecule
elastin
yellow connective tissue occurring in limited amounts intramuscularly and in somewhat greater concentrations in deposits outside the
muscles.
ground substance
undifferentiated matrix of plasma proteins and glycoproteins in which fibrous molecules of collagen and/or elastin are bound
reticulin
a type of connective tissue protein associated with a fatty acid (myristic acid)
endomysium
delicate connective tissue found between fibers
perimysium
connective tissue surrounding an entire muscle (many bundles of bundles of fibers)
Original Alphabetical
______ means you have a lack in calcium
ostreoprosis
6 essential nutrients
water, carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals
anorexia nervosa
lose weight, fear of gaining, diet and excersice, sypmtoms include dieting when thin, obession with colories, fat, pretending to eat
apples
b.c and p.e.i
bacteria
fungi, bacterium
bacteria needs
moisture warmth oxygen
bolus
a ball of chewed food
botulism
canned or preserved foods
bulimia nervosa
binge eating then vomiting
attainable
realistic
time bound
other
high sal, high fat, low nutrient qualities
oxidation
chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances
pancreas
produces enzymes that aid in digestion and hormones that regulate blood sugar
peristalsis
constriction and relaxition of muscles in the digestion
pork
quebec
preserve
made with whole or large peices of fruit cooked in thick rich syrup of juice and sugar
removing bones
boning knife
removing skin from fruits
paring knife
roast beef temperature
60c
roast chicken temperature
74c
rubber spatula
removes food from sides
samll intestine
nutrient absorbes
samonella
raw things, yeast, peanut butter and chocolates
slicing bread
bread knife
staple food
food that can be stored thorughout the year and stay fresh
stomach
chemical breakdown
to fight bac
clean, separate, chill, cook
tong
use tongs to lift and turn hot foods
vegetables and fruits: 14- 19
female 7
male 8
vegetables you can freeze
beans, corn
vegetables you cant freeze
radishes, lettuce
villi
lining of small intestine
water displacement method
place water in cup to make up difference, add pices of fat until its at top level
what age group should consume the highest amount of calcium
14-18
what are 6 ways to keep the kitchen safe
wash hands, remove loose clothing, tie back hair, keep drawers and doors closed, minimize clutter, never leave fat unattended
what are nutritional claims
free none
low small amount
reduced 25% less
light 50% les
Food Security.
Commercial reasons:
Extending the shelf-life,
Enhance product's characteristics,
Create a new product,
Recycling of meat, offal and other food
sources.
Food Preservation Concerns
(6)
= Food safety:
Raw materials,
Ingredients,
Packaging,
Growth of pathogenic bacteria,
Shelf-life.
= Nutritional value,
= Healthy eating (e.g. fat and salt in the diet),
= Additives and colorants,
Formation of toxic substances.
= Change in organoleptic properties.
= New technologies (e.g. radiation, UV light)
Food Spoilage
Spoilage is the process in which food
deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible
to humans or its quality of edibility becomes
reduced.
(10)
Growth and activities of micro-organisms (bacteria,
yeast and moulds),
Activity of food enzymes,
Chemical reactions in food,
Inappropriate storage temperature for a given food,
Infestation by parasites,
Either excessive gain or loss on moisture,
Reaction with oxygen,
Light exposure,
Physical stress,
Time.
Aim of Food Preservation
Inactivating or controlling:
(2)
= Inactivating or controlling:
Microorganisms,
Enzymes.
= Reducing or eliminating chemical / physical reactions that cause food
spoilage.
Growth of Microorganisms
A Two Way System
(7)
= pH,
= Oxidation-reduction potential Eh),
= Moisture content or Water activity (aw),
= Nutrient content,
= Antimicrobial constituents,
= Ambient temperature,
= Humidity of environment,
= Microbial competition,
= CO2, O2 and O3
Controlling Microorganisms
(4)
= Ambient temperature processing
=Processing by application of heat
=Processing by removal of heat
=Post-processing operation
Controlling Microorganisms
- Heat
-Cold
-Drying
-Acid
-Sugar
-Probiotics
-Bacteriophages
-Curing
-Micro filtration
-Smoke
-Vacuum Packaging
-Additives
-Radiation
-High Pressure
Clostridium botulinum
(5)
- Heat treatment of 90C for 10 minutes, or a time and
temperature combination sufficient to kill C. botulinum spores.
- pH of 5 or less in all parts of the food.
- Minimum salt level of 3.5% in the water phase
throughout all parts of the food.
- Water activity of 0.97 or less in all components of the food.
- Combination of the controlling factors can be
used at lower levels or with other preservative factors, such as nitrite.
Processed Products
2
= Process Products results from the processing of:
Meat
Raw milk
Eggs
Fishery
= Or from further processing of such processed products.
Shelf-life,
Colour and Odour,
Consistency and Taste
Meat Products
"Products resulting from the processing
of meat or from further processing of
such processed products, so that the
cut surface shows that the product
no longer has the characteristics of
Main Parameters
Heat penetration characteristics in a
particular food:
Size,
Geometry,
Moisture content,
Can or container of choice, if it is packed.
Effects of Food Constituents
(3)
=> Dry salt:
Dry salt (salt alone or in junction with nitrite and nitrate),
Dry "country style" curing - salt, sugar, nitrate and nitrite,
Brine soaking.
=> Curing pickle injection:
Artery pumping,
Stitch pumping,
Multiple needle injection curing.
=> Any Combination of the above
Salt as Antimicrobial Agent
(4)
- Dehydration. -> psmotic agent
- Remove oxygen from the product.
- Bacteria more sensitive to CO2.
- Depends on concentration.
Nitrate and Nitrite
(6)
=Nitrate (NO3)
=Nitrite (NO2)
=Nitrous Acid (HNO2)
=Meat colour
=Antimicrobial effect (especially on Clostridium Spp.)
= Limitations (nitrosamine, abnormal meat)
Responsible for typical pink colour.
Smoking
=It consists in exposing food products to smoke obtained from the incomplete combustion of
different types of wood (beech, oak, juniper, chestnut).
= Herbs, spices, twigs of juniper and twigs, needles and cones of picea may be added if they are free
of residues of intentional or unintentional chemical treatment.
= These fumes are rich in aromatic substances (phenol) which are of particular antiseptic power.
Smoking Effects
(6)
= Drying effect to meat, fish and dairy products
= Taste
= Pleasant odour
= Brings out the colour of the meat
= Antioxidant
= Antimicrobial
Smoke Antimicrobial Effects
From the combustion of lignin:
(6)
Phenolic compounds (pyrogallol - cresol -creosote - guaiacol, etc.).
Tar From the combustion of cellulose:
Acids (acetic - butyric - caprylic - carbonic -etc.).
Alcohol (methanol - ethanol)
Ketones (acetone)
Aldehydes (acetaldehyde - furfural)
Smoke Antimicrobial Effects
Strong: enterobacteria spp, salmonella
spp, bacillus subtilis;
Poor: clostridia spp, yeast
Mutagen agents:
Forma
Smoke House
(4)
Size and types
Hot versus cold smoke
Airflow
Humidity
Smoke Generation
Regulation (EC) No 2065/2003: on
smoke flavourings used or intended for
use in or on foods.
Art. 4:
The use of smoke flavourings in
or on foods shall only be authorised if it
is sufficiently demonstrated that:
It does not present risks to human health,
It does not mislead consumers.
Smoke Generation
Wood is subjected to controlled burning,
with a maximum temperature of 600C.
The smoke is condensed and separated
to obtain the following phases:
A water-based 'primary smoke condensate'
mainly containing CARBOXLIC acids, CARBONYLIC and PHENOLIC compounds,
A water-insoluble high-density TAR phase
which during the phase separation will
precipitate,
A 'water-insoluble OILY phase'.
Smoke Generation
Alkali (caustic) or physical (steam)- treatment to remove FFA (and possibly PLs/pigments).
Economic advantage to physical with oils having high FFA and low PL. Physical gives higher yield, uses less water, less effluent,
fewer chemicals.
Caustic removes a variety of impurities.
Hydrogenations
Addition of molecular hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids. Reduces the degree of unsaturation and alters the degree of CIS and
TRANS isomers.
Interesterfications
The interchange of FA between TG molecules to alter the FA attached to the glycerol- in order to alter function. (random, directed and
enzymatic)
Winterization
Removes fractions in oil that will crystallize during cooling.
Fractionation
Separation of fats and oils into new materials
Dewaxing
Removes waxes from oils for high unsaturated salad oils to maintain clarity.
Alcoholysis (esterfication)
Formation of mono/diglycerides from glycerol and FFA- process to form emulsifiers from fat.
Emulsifiers
Mono/diglycerides, phospholipids (lecithins), proteins, sterols.
Esters
Carbon linked to another carbon by an oxygen, from a reaction between a carboxyl group (acid and an alcohol)
Basic Steps for Crude Vegetable Oil Processing
Dehulled, crushed/ground, expression using hot/cold press and expellers
Impurities of crude vegetable oil
Pigments, water, FFA, gums, peroxides, waxes
Degumming
Removal of PL or waxes using water/salt sol'n/acid to hydrate the gums
2 methods of refining crude oil to remove impurities
Chemical/caustic (burn/destroy/NaOH) & physical (steam)
Soap stock
Spoilage caused by
-insect damage
-physical injury
-enzymatic degradation
-microbial acitivity
Types of spoilage
1. appearance: colonies on surface, cloudiness
2.textural: slime formation, softening due to enzymatic degradation
3. changes in taste and odor: nitrogenous compounds, sulfides, organic acids
number and types of MO determined by:
1. environment
2.intrinsic factors
3. handling and processing sanitation
4. packaging, handling and storage conditions
Microflora of whole meats
1. gram negative aerobic rods (pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Moraxella)
2. Bacillus and clostridia
3. subsurface of meat is generally sterile but lymph nodes may be heavily contaminated
among most perishable foods
most important control factor for meat spoilage
temperature
Meat spoilage characterized by
-off odors
-slime
-surface loads exceed 10E7 cfu/cm2
Ground meats MO
-same MO as whole meats but always higher microbial loads due to greater surface area and additional processing and handling
Ground Meat additives
1. soy extenders
2. mechanically deboned meat
-raise pH which leads to more rapid spoilage
Vacuum packed meats
increased CO2 due to cell respiration gives longer shelf life
Impermeable films
1. CO2 levels are higher
2. Eh lower
microflora shifts to G+ anaerobes and LAB
spoilage of vacuum packed meats manifest by
1. slime
2. greening caused by production of H2O2 (lactic acid bacteria)
-H2O2 reacts with nitrosohemochrome to form porphyrin
H2S greening
vacuum packed fresh meats stored at 1-5 degrees celcius
H2S reacts with myoglobin to form sulphmyoglobin
-Shewanella putrefaciens and Pseudomonas spp. and some lactobacilli
off odors in meats produced by
-release of short chain fatty acids
-production of acetoin, diacetyl, and H2S
Type of spoilage factor in meats influenced by
1. cooked or raw
-cooked:pH 6.=G- facultative path. like Yersinia enterocolitica
-Raw: pH 5.6=LAB
2. nitrate concentration
-High=LAB
-Low= Bronchothrix thermosphacta (G+ rod, facultative anaerobe @ 0-30*C and pH 5.0-9.0)
B. thermosphacta
meat spoilage
anaerobic
low temp
inhibited by nitrate
3 spoilage manifestations in processed meats
1. Slimy- yeasts, lactobacilli, enterococci, B. thermosphacta
2. Sour- LAB
3. Greening- H2O2 and H2S production
Reasons cured meats are resistant to spoilage
1. use of nitrate/nitrite
2. smoking or brining of hams
3. high fat content (low aw) of bacon
-spoilage of cured meats caused by molds
Visceral taint
-in poultry
-a condition manifest by off odors in abdominal cavity
-odors appear before slime
poultry skin spoilage
during initial stages, skin supports growth better than tissue. skin can be removed to save food
Fish factors
-high nitrogen content
-MO content influenced by quality of water it came from
Bacteria on fish are found...
-outer slime
-gills (most susceptible to spoilage)-sniff area for odors produced by Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter-Moraxella (ammonia,
Triethylamine, H2S)
-intestine- if fish is not cleaned quickly, bacteria move through intestine and invade meat.
Spoilage of Crustaceans
-similar to fish
-products have CHO and more free AA so spoilage occurs faster
Spoilage of Mollusks
-have more CHO than crustaceans and the least amount of Nitrogen of all fish
Fish Microflora
-shellfish are filter feeders and can contain almost any MO
-clean water fish-Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter-Moraxella
Vegetable composition
- 88% water
- 8.6% CHO
- 1.9% protein
- 0.3% fat
- 0.84% minerals
-pH around 6.0
- good substrate for yeasts, molds, bacteria
- 20% all harvested fruits and vegetables are lost to spoilage
Microflora of Vegetables
1. Gram+ like LAB
2. Coryneforms and Staphylococci (handling)
3. staph usually can't proliferate but can be transmitted to other foods.
soft rot
-most common type of bacterial spilage
-caused by Erwinia carotovora and Pseudomonas spp. which grow at 4*C
FavrSavr story
1. polygalacturonase (PB) hydrolyzes a glycosidic bond in pectin which leads to softening
2. Calgene made antisense RNA to tomato PB. This gives slower softening so fruit can be harvested after ripe (better flavor)
3. First commercially available genetically engineered vegetable
Mold Spoilage in Vegetables
1. where bacterial growth is not favored
2. invade plant tissue through surface wounds
3. spores are deposited by insects (fruit fly)
4. Botrytis cinerea causes grey mold rot and can penetrate skin on its own
Microflora of veggies reflect...
1. sanitation of processing steps
2. condition of original raw product
vegetable sources of contamination
1. low aw
2. low pH
3. high salt
inhibit most spoilage MO's except surface mold growth
eggs
-very protected
-pseudomonads
-molds like penicillium and cladosporium can grow in air sac
cereal and bakery products
-low aw
-restricts all MO except molds
-refrigerated frozen dough have more aw and can be spoiled by LAB
common bread mold
Rhizopus stolonifer
Beer and Wine
-pH 4-5
-spoilage by yeasts and bacteria
-LAB, and acetic acid bacteria like Acetobacter and Guconobacter spp. which convert ethanol to acetic acid in presence of oxygen.
Megasphaera cerevisia
-anaerbic, spoil by producing isovaleric acid and H2S
spoilage in packages beer often due to...
- growth of yest Sccharomyces diastaticus which grows on dextrins
- turbidity, off flavors result
spoilage in wine most often due to...
- Candida valida yeast
- turbidity, off flavors result
LAB in wine
convert malic acid to lactic acid (malo-lactic fermentation)
-reduces acidity which affects flavor
Original Alphabetical
Leeuwenhoek
first to observe yeast cells
lister
first to isolate lactococcus lactis (bug organism in cheese) in pure culture
Tyndall
observed that bacteria that contaminated foods were always traceable to air, substance or containers
Tyndallization
heat a solution to kill everything in it and then you let it grow and then kill everything again (heat treat things more than once)
thermophile
bacteria that likes hot temperatures
psychrophile/psychrotrophe
adapted to grow in the cold`
osmophilic
organisms that could grow in the presence of high osmotic pressure
bacillus stearothermophilus
heat loving organism
bacillus
hot dog/rod shaped
pectinases
enzyme that gelatinizes
staphylococcus aureus
gold color when grown
staphylococcus
associated with food poisoning
clostridium botulinum
anaerobic, produces spores, extremely deadly, produces a neurotoxin
bacillus cereus
produces 2 types of illness, emetic (vomiting) and diarrhea
diphyllobothriasis
flat worm/tape worm
zootic
disease passed from animals to people
halophile
there is endotoxins
prions
limitation for prions means
that there is an acceptable range
for ax. not more tan 1000 CFU
why products contain API w excipients?
to make the formula easy to manufacture, stable, effective, convientent to the patient
what is the high microbial specifications,
i.e. if not sterile?
they are expected to have no more than a minimal microbial population at the time of product release.
what is the consequences of unacceptable level and type of contamination that will escape the quality assurance net?
1- the product may be spoiled, rendering it unfit for use
2- major financial problems for the manufacturer through direct loss of faulty product & loss of publicity through product recall
3- use of contaminated products may present a potential health hazard to patients, perhaps resulting in outbreaks of medicamentrelated infections, and ironically therefore contributing to the spread of disease
what is a very hard system to add a preservative?
emulsion
when there is higher risk for contamination?
in natural products more than the synthetic ones
m.o. possess a wide variety of degradative capabilities, which they are able to exert under relatively mild physicochemical
conditions.
T OR F
T
___________ more effective co-operative biodeteriogens than the individual species alone
Mixed natural communities
example on Mixed natural communities
attack of complex substrates occur where initial attack by
one group of microorganisms renders them susceptible
to further deterioration by secondary, and subsequent, microorganisms
two examples on m.o. that contaminate drugs?
pseudomonas, salmonella
fastidious & non-fastidious examples
salmonella
pseudomonas
what does fastidious means?
ease of degradation _________ with increasing chain length and complexity of branching of the alkyl chain
decreases
Non-ionic surfactants examples
alkylpolyoxyethylene alcohol emulsifiers
Alkylphenol polyoxyethylene alcohols
Alkylphenol polyoxyethylene alcohols or alkylpolyoxyethylene alcohol emulsifiers
more resistant?
Alkylphenol polyoxyethylene alcohols
other example of Non-ionic surfactants
Lipolytic cleavage of the fatty acids from sorbitan
esters, polysorbates and sucrose esters is often
followed by degradation of the cyclic nuclei, producing
numerous small molecules readily utilizable
for microbial growth
Ampholytic surfactants,
phosphatides, betains, alkylamino substetiuted AA readily biodegradable, heavily used in pharmacy industry
cationic surfactants in antiseptic
only slowly degraded at high dilution in sewage by more resistant gm -ve Pseudomonads
Organic polymers. use? spoilage?
Many of the thickening and suspending agents used in pharmaceutical formulations are subject to microbial depolymerization by
specific classes of extracellular enzymes, yielding nutritive fragments and monomers.
examples on enzymes affecting organic polymers?
amylases (starches), pectinases (pectins),
cellulases (carboxymethylcelluloses, but not
alkylcelluloses), uronidases (polyuronides such as
in tragacanth and acacia), dextranases (dextrans)
and proteases (proteins)
________ not biodegradable organic polymers
Agar (a complex polysaccharide) is an example of a relatively inert polymer and, as such, is used as a support for solidifying
microbiological culture media.
Synthetic packaging polymers such as ______________________, resistance?
nylon, polystyrene and polyester are extremely resistant to attack,
Synthetic packaging polymers example susceptible under some humid conditions
cellophane (modified cellulose)
Low molecular weight materials Humectants. example
Original Alphabetical
Mucor (characteristics)
Nonseptate hyphae
Smooth, non-striated sporangiospore.
Produce no rhizoids
Mucor (properties)
Grow on refrigerated meat, causes "whiskers"
Black spots on frozen mutton
Very common on bread
Rhizopus (characteristics)
Nonseptate hyphae
Umbrella-shaped columellae
Large sporangiospore with striated wall
Dark sporangia containing dark to pale spores
Rhizopus (properties)
Bread mold
Water soft rot of fruits
Black spot on beef, bacon, frozen mutton
Aspergillus (characteristics)
Black, brownish black, purple brown conidiophore
Yellow to green conidia
Dark sclerotia
Aspergillus (properties)
A. niger: black rot on fruits and vegetables
Yellow, green to black on large number of foods
Penicillium (characteristics)
P. digitarum: yellow-green conidia
P. italicum, P. expansum: blue-green conidia
P. camemberti: grey conidia
Penicillium (properties)
Blue/green rots of citrus fruits
Soft rots of apples, pears, peaches
Geotrichum (characteristics)
Arthroconidia formation
Colorless conidia
White colonies
Geotrichum (properties)
Machinery mold
Soft rots of citrus fruits (peaches)
Fresh range meat (5.3-7.0). The growth of aerobic and anaerobic organisms (Pseudomona, lactic acid bacteria) is sensitive to pH.
-Water activity.
(Aw)- above 0.98 is OPTIMAL for bacterial growth.
Fresh meat is above this value so inhibition of bacterial growth by reduction of Aw needs to be engineered by drying and/or cured
products by the addition of solutes such as sat and water.
Initial contaminating flora.
Major sources are the slaughter animals themselves, the process workers and the environment
Microbial spoilage.
To solve the problem of food spoilage of fresh meat, the classical preservation methods include drying, smoking, salting, curing,
pickling, fermenting and icing or freezing.
Temperature.
Microbial spoilage is prevented if meat is
FROZEN to temperatures too low for microbial growth.
Chilled storage of meat between -2C and -5C prevents the growth of MESOPHILLIC pathogens and delays the onset of spoilage.
The flora developing on chilled meat are the ones carried on the hides of slaughter animals and contaminating carcasses during
dressing.
At chill temperatures, Pseudomonas are the bacteria that dominate in spoilage.
-Gaseous environment.
Gases that influence more the meat spoilage microflora are: oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Requirements for meat packaging:Containment.
The containment function of meat packaging extends from the packing plant to the consumer's refrigerator.
Requirements for meat packaging:
-Protection.
Packaging isolates its contents from environmental effects such as dust, microorganisms, water, chemicals, gases, odors and
compressive forces.
Requirements for meat packaging:Preservation.
For meat and other perishable products, the major cause of deterioration is the MICROBIAL SPOILAGE.
Other causes of deterioration are moisture loss (dessication), color change, and oxidative rancidity.
Loss of water from fresh meat reduces the weight of meat available for sale. However, the packaging with water-impermeable film
prevents the moisture loss but will accelerate the microbial growth.
The color of raw meat is determined by the oxidation state of myoglobin. If no oxygen present (anoxic packs) the meat becomes very
red because myoglobin is deoxygenated.
Fat; the reaction of this with oxygen is responsible for development of rancid odour and flavours.
Requirements for meat packaging:-Apportionament.
This is to reduce the industrial output to an appropriate size.
Requirements for meat packaging:
-Unitization.
Is the function by which primary packages are transferred into secondary or tertiary ones with insertion of cardboard cartons,
pallets ....
Requirements for meat packaging:Convenience.
Microwaveable packs and meat-based whole meals.
Requirements for meat packaging:Comunication.
An attractive and easy recognizable product.
Packaging methods.
Chilled and frozen raw meats are generally protected by flexible plastic packaging. However, consumer packs take a variety of
forms:
-rigid (glass jars, cans, etc..)
-semi-rigid (plastic trays, boxes, etc..)
-flexible (plastic bags, pouches, etc..).
Nonpreservative packaging.
Protects from contamination and water loss without creating in-pack conditions verty different from ambient.
-Wrappers- simplest type of flexible packaging, in which the sheet material is used to enclose a quantity of product.
-Overwrapped trays- widely used in supermarkets for fresh meat and poultry. Fresh meats are placed on a semi-rigid plastic tray that is
overwrapped with a plastic film with high oxygen permeability.
-Preservative packaging.
This group has an ability to extend product life by modifying or restricting microbial growth. This is created by maintaining in-pack
conditions that differ markedly from the environment ones.
-Vacuum packaging- product is placed into a bag that is evacuated and heat sealed. The packaging material has a low permeability to
oxygen and the anoxic environment is maintained.----as a primary transport package and for storage of large cuts.
Product is purple-red (unattractive presentation)
-In modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP)-the gaseous environment around the product is modified before heat sealing, and then
gradually changes as a result of the interaction between product and packaging
-Controlled-atmosphere packaging (CAP)- the gaseous environment around the product is altered but is then maintained at a specific
composition regardless of product or microbial respiration, temperature, or other environmental changes. As plastic materials are not
impermeable to gases, the composition of the in-pack atmosphere will change but very slowly. Gas-impermeable packaging like
plastic aluminium foil have to be used.
Two-phase packaging.
Combined extended product life and a good display potential.
The general principle is to CHANGE the GASEOUS ENVIRONMENT surrounding the meat between storage and display phases.
This can be achieved by allowing gaseous exchange. This will result in the meat COLOUR CHANGE from purple to bright red.
Colour.
Dark Red Discolourations;1. Imperfect bleeding
2. Bruising
3. Haematoma
4. Fevered flesh
5. Suffocation
6. Foetal flesh
Pale Carcasses:-
1. reduced pH
2. anaemic carcasses
3. white muscle disease
Pigmentations:1. anthracosis
2. bile staining
3. carotene pigmentation
4. melanosis
Test for Jaundice.
RIMINGTON FOWRIE TEST
This test is done on YELLOW FAT to determine whether the colour of the fat is due to CAROTENE which would indicate a dietary
problem or the presence of BILE which would be suggestive of jaundice.
The fat is boiled in 5% SODIUM HYDROXIDE, cooled and mixed with an equal volume of ether. The phases are allowed to separate.
If BILE SALTS are present they form water soluble sodium salts in the lower layer and demonstrate a green/yellow colour. If the
upper layer is yellow carotene is present. Both pigments can be present together.
Odours
Two tests can be employed;1. BOILING. The meat is boiled in water for 15 minutes allowed to cool before cutting up and smelling for unpleasant odours such as
the presences of urea.
2. FRYING. Add meat (with a little cooking fat if there is no fat on the meat) to a very hot pan and note nay smell. Allow to cool and
cut up and smell as before.
Original Alphabetical
Osteoporesis is associated with
Calcium.
Which mineral is essential for proper ATP function?
Magnesium.
Hemochromatosis is associated with excess absorption of
Iron.
A mineral associated with control of the amount of fluid in the body is
Sodium.
The mineral that would most likely interfere with calcium absorption is
Phosphorous.
The mineral related to Vitamin E is
Selenium.
The major positively charged ion inside human cells is:
Potassium.
A salt-sensitive person has :
Increased blood pressure after ingesting sodium and Increased risk for heart disease.
The mineral that requires vitamin D for absorption is
Calcium.
A person with high iron levels and one with low levels are fed a dose of iron. The one most likely to absorb the most iron is the
one with
Low Levels.
One of the two mineral that are most important in fluid balance is
Potassium.
Goiter is caused by a lack of?
Iodine.
The major mineral in bone is:
Calcium.
Dwarfism can be associated with the lack of ________ in the diet?
Zinc.
The mineral that in small amount can strengthen bones and teeth is
Fluorine.
Which is true for BMR?
Is lower with an increased ratio of fat cells to muscle cells.
From a food safety standpoint, the "Danger Zone" is:
Between 40F and 140F.
All bacteria contain:
One chromosome.
An organism that can grow a refrigerator temperatures is called
Psychrophilic.
An organism that can make you sick is called
Pathogen.
Bacterial spores are formed:
As a survival mechanism.
If you have been loosing weight for 2 or 3 weeks, your body will::
Become more efficient.
Who dies from food poisoning?
Old people, Very young people, Immuno-compromised people.
The daily value for fat is 75 grams. This means a person should
Try to consume no more than 75 grams of fat.
A psychrophile:
Can grow at refrigerated temperatures.
Water activity refers to
Water available for microbial growth.
Prokaryotes:
Have no nucleus.
Which of these would be a disqualifying nutrient if present at high enough a level?
Fat.
Which is/are a characteristic of Anorexia Nervosa?
Occurs mostly in female and has a higher death rate than other psychological disorders.
Pathogens cannot grow
Below pH 4.6.
Chicken is a common source of
Salmonella.
The organism that is a cause of spontaneous abortions is: :
Listeria monocytogenes.
Bloody diarrhea is a symptom caused by:
E coli O157:H7.
The mycotoxin associated with peanuts is:
Aflatoxin.
Which releases a toxin when it forms spores in the gut?
C. perfringens.
Most deaths caused by __________ result from under processing of home canned foods
Botulinum.
Fever would be associated with food poisoning caused by
Salmonella.
The organism that grows in the refrigerator is:
Listeria monocytogenes.
Food contaminated by ___________ toxin would still be harmful even if it were boiled for 10 minutes.
Staph.
The organism that forms spores is:
Clostridium botulinum.
The food poisoning organism associated with open, runny sores is:
Staphylococcus.
Kidney failure in children is associated with:
E coli.
Almost all food poisoning can be prevented by:
Preventing contamination with pathogens, Keeping the food cold , Keeping the food hot.
The food most commonly associated with B. cereus poisoning is:
Rice.
Jam is safe to store at room temperature because of its high sugar content. The sugar:
Decreases the water activity.
The oldest form of drying is
Sun Drying.
Refreezing thawed food:
Should be done with care.
The FDA has ruled the food irradiation is
A food additive.
An organism that can cause vomiting and diarrhea within 1 to 6 hours is:
Staphylococcus.
A heat process designed to kill all pathogens and all other organisms is called:
Sterilization.
The average person who gets food poisoning will:
Never realize why they were sick.
Which of the following is/are true about pasteurization?
Reduces pathogenic organisms.
A process designed to inactivate enzymes is:
Blanching.
An example of a product that is almost always sun dried:
Raisins.
Dried mashed potatoes would be made with a _______________ dryer
Drum.
The form of drying that can only be applied to liquids is :
Spray Drying.
A company that sells irradiated hamburger in a number of its stores is:
Dairy Queen.
Salting preserves food by:
Lowering water activity.
The processing of low acid foods in the U. S. is designed to kill spores of:
Clostridium botulinum.