Combined Convection and Conduction

in Walls
In many practical situations, the temperatures at surfaces (B.C.s) are
not known. However, T for fluids present on both sides are known.
Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer through a
plane wall that is exposed to convection on both sides, no heat losses
between wall and fluids, T1>T2>T3>T4. Isothermal surfaces, constant
K and A.
Rate of
heat convection
into the wall

Rate of
heat conduction
through the wall

Rate of
heat convection
from the wall

q hi AT1 T2 k A A T2 T3
ho AT3 T4
x A
hi and ho are inside and outside convective transfer coefficients,
respectively. They are empirical parameters that we will estimate later.

Like we did before, add (T1-T2)+(T2-T3)+(T3-T4) to get (T1-T4) and

rearrange:
q
,
T1 T2
hi A

qx A
,
T2 T3
kA A

q
T3 T4
ho A

T
(T1 T4 )
T1 T4

overall
1
1
x A
R1 R2 R3
R

hi A k A A ho A

R1 and R3 are convective resistances and R2 is conductive resistance.

Overall heat transfer can be described using an overall heat transfer
coefficient (U) as:
q UAToverall UA(T1 T4 )

By comparison,
1
Btu
W
2 or 0
U
2
1 x A 1 m K
hr
.
F
.
ft

hi k A ho

Combined Convection and Conduction

in Cylinders
Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer (radial),
cylinder is exposed to convection on both sides, no heat losses
between wall and fluids, T1>T2>T3>T4. Isothermal surfaces, constant
K and A.
Rate of
heat convection
into the wall

q hi AT1 T2

Rate of
heat conduction
through the wall

(T2 T3 )

ro ri
k A AAlm

Rate of
heat convection
from the wall

ho AT3 T4

Like we did before, add (T1-T2)+(T2-T3)+(T3-T4) to get (T1-T4) and

rearrange:
T
T1 T4
(T1 T4 )
q

overall
ro ri
1
1
R1 R2 R3
R

hi A k A AAlm ho A

R1 and R3 are convective resistances and R2 is conductive resistance.

Overall heat transfer can be described using an overall heat transfer
coefficient (U) as:
We can use inside or outside
q UAToverall UA(T1 T4 )
areas to calculate U

Ui

Based on Ai:

Based on Ao:

Ai R
Ui

Uo

Ao R

1
W
Btu
2 or 0
2
Ai
1 (ro ri ) Ai
m
K
hr
.
F
.
ft

hi
k A AAlm
Ao ho

1
Btu
W
Uo
or 0

2
Ao (ro ri ) Ao 1 m 2 K
hr
F
ft
.
.

hi Ai
k A AAlm
ho

Example 4.3-3: Heat Loss by Convection and

Conduction and Overall U
Saturated steam at 267 oF is flowing inside a 0.75 in steel
pipe having an ID of 0.824 in and an OD of 1.05 in. The
pipe is insulated with 1.5 in of insulation on the outside.
hi=1000 Btu/oF.ft2.hr and ho=2 Btu/oF.ft2.hr. The mean
thermal conductivity of steel is 26 btu/hr.ft.oF and for
insulation is 0.037 btu/hr.ft.oF.
(a) Calculate the heat loss for 1 ft of pipe using
resistances if the surrounding air is at 80 oF.
(b) Repeat, using overall Ui.

R R R
1

R3 R 4

r3 r2
1
r2 r1
1

R h A k A K A
hi Ai
o o
i ilm
steel steel lm
A3 A2
Ailm
A3
ln
A2
1
Ui
Ai R

q U i Ai (Ti To )

Asteel lm

A2 A1

A2
ln
A1
Di=0.0
254
mm

1 ft

Saturated
steam
T1=2670F
hi=1000
Btu/oF.ft2.hr

k=0.037
k=26

Insulation

h0=2
Btu/oF.ft2.hr

Stainless steel pipe

Di=0.824 and Do=1.05

t=1.5

80 oF

Combined Conduction and Convection in a Sphere

Steady state, one-dimensional heat
transfer through a spherical shell that is
exposed to convection on both sides

Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rconduction Rconv , 2

1
r2 r1
1

2
4r1 h1 4r1r2 k 4r22 h2

T ,1 T , 2
Rtotal

Combined Series-Parallel Arrangement

The total rate of heat transfer through the composite system
Where

T1 T
q
Rtotal

and

Rtotal R12 R3 Rconv

R1 R2

R3 Rconv
R1 R2

L3
L1
L2
1
; R2
; R3
; Rconv
R1
k1 A1
k2 A2
k3 A3
hA3

Conduction with Internal Heat Generation in a Wall

In certain systems, heat is generated in the conducting
medium (body with reactions, nuclear fuel rods, sanitation
fields, and food processing heaters).

Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional heat

transfer (axial), heat is generated in the center of the
wall uniformly, insulated walls (no convection),
constant wall T, A and k.
Rate of
heat in

qx

Rate of
heat out

qx

Rate of
heat generation

x x

Rate of
heat accumulation

q A x 0

Divide by x and take the limit as x approaches zero to get:

dq

qA 0
dx

However,

dT
q kA
,
dx

d 2T q
0
2
dx
k

d 2T
q

2
dx
k
Assume rate of heat generation to be constant,
We have learned how to solve this ODE (integrate twice). We need two B.C.s
Integrate once to get:
B.C.s
x=0, T=T0

T0 C2

dT
q
x C1
dx
k

Integrate again to get:

x=L, T=Tw

q 2
Tw
L C1 L To
2k

Substitute C1 and C2 in the T profile to get:

Solve for C1 to get:

qL2
Tw T0
2k
C1
L

q 2
x C1 x C2
2k

x=-L, T=Tw

nd
This is dependent on the 2 B.C.

q 2 Tw To qL
T

x
x To
2k
2k
L
Total heat loss from the two faces of the wall at steady state is equal to the heat generated qT

qT 2LAq

Generation with Heat Conduction in Walls

1) Considerable temperature difference between the inner and the outer
surfaces of the wall (significant temperature gradient in the x
direction).
2) The wall surface is nearly isothermal.
3) The wall has constant area A normal to heat flow.
4) Ignore convection, friction energies and work against P.
5) Steady state
6) One dimensional
Convective
Transient
7) Constant Properties
2T
k[ 2 ] q
x
q
2T
[ 2]
x
k

cv [

T
T
T
T
vx
vy
vz
]
t
x
y
z

2T 2T 2T
P v x v y v z

k[ 2 2 2 ] q - T (

)
x
y
z
T P x y z
Conductive

Generation

Work done against Friction

pressure

Conduction with Internal Heat Generation in

a Cylinder
Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer (radial), heat is
generated in the center of the cylinder uniformly, insulated walls (no
convection), constant wall T and k.
Rate of
heat in

Aq

Rate of
heat out

Aq

Rate of
heat generation

r r

Rate of
heat accumulation

q V 0

A 2rL,

V Ar

2 rLq r r 2 rLq r r r 2 rL r q 0 ,
Divide by 2Lr and take the limit as r approaches zero to get:

lim

r 0 [

rq

rq

r r

d (qr )

qr 0
dr

] r q 0

r=0

T=Tw

d (qr )
qr
dr

Integrate once to get:

qr C1
qr 2
,
rq
C1 , q
r
2
2

However, we know that at r=0, q is finite. This requires C1 to be 0.

qr
q ,
2

However:

dT
q k
dr

Assume rate of heat generation to be constant, K constant

Our second B.C. is at r=R, T=Tw

qr
qr
dT
dr kdT,
k
Separations of variables, integrate as well
2
2
dr
2
2
qr 2

q
R

q
R
Apply
B.C.
kT C2
kTw C2 ,
kTw C2
4
4
4

Substitute C2 in the T profile to get:

q
T
( R 2 r 2 ) Tw
4k

When r=o, T =To

q 2
T0
R Tw
4k

Heat Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder

q

Examples: Pipes, insulated pipes, and blood vessels.

Consider the long cylindrical layer, r2-r1=t

Assumptions:
The two surfaces of the cylindrical layer are
maintained at constant temperatures T1 and
T2, T1>T2
Constant thermal conductivity,
One-dimensional heat conduction (radial).
1 T 1 2T 2T q gen 1 T

2
2
r
2
k
t
r r r r
z
dT
q 2
d dT
q
1 d dT
q
r

r
r

r ,

dr dr
k
r dr dr
k
dr
2k
0
q 2
dT
q

T r ln r
r ,
4k
dr
2k
r

Conduction with Internal Heat Generation in

a Sphere
Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer (radial), heat is
generated in the center of the sphere uniformly, insulated walls (no
convection), constant wall T and k.
Rate of
heat in

Aq

Rate of
heat out

Aq

+
r

Rate of
heat generation

r r

Rate of
heat accumulation

q V 0

A 4r 2 ,

V Ar

4 r 2 q r r 4 r 2 q r r r 4 r 2 r q 0 ,
Divide by 4r and take the limit as r approaches zero to get:

lim

r 0 [

r 2qr

r 2qr

r r

d (qr 2 )

qr 2 0
dr

] r 2 q 0

d (qr 2 )
qr 2
dr

Integrate once to get:

3
qr C1

q
r
2
2,
r q
C1 , q
3 r
3

However, we know that at r=0, q is finite. This requires C1 to be 0.

qr
q ,
3

However:

dT
q k
dr

Assume rate of heat generation to be constant, K constant

Our second B.C. is at r=R, T=Tw

qr
qr
dT
dr kdT,
k
Separations of variables, integrate as well
3
3
dr
2
2
qr 2

q
R

q
R
Apply
B.C.
kT C2
kTw C2 ,
kTw C2
6
6
6

Substitute C2 in the T profile to get:

q
T
( R 2 r 2 ) Tw
6k

When r=o, T =To

q 2
T0
R Tw
6k

Heat Conduction with Generation In a Hollow Sphere

Consider a layer of sphere, r2-r1=t
Assumptions:
The two surfaces of the spherical layer are
maintained at constant temperatures T1 and
T2, T1>T2
Constant thermal conductivity,
One-dimensional heat conduction (radial).

1 2 T
1
1
2T q gen 1 T

T

2 2
2
sin
r
2
2
r r r r sin
k
t
r sin
1 2 T
q
d 2 dT
q 2

r
r
0
r 2 r r
k
k
dr dr
q 3
2 dT
2
dT
q

T r
r 2

dr
3
k

3k
r
r
6k
dr

Example 4.3-4 Heat Generation in a Cylinder

An electric current of 200A is passed through a stainless-steel wire
having a radius R of 0.001268 m. The wire length is 0.091 m and
has a resistance R=0.126 ohms. The outer surface temperature Tw is
held constant at 422.1 K. the average thermal conductivity k is 22.5
W/m.K. Calculate the center temperature.

Solution
We have shown before that:
q 2
T0
R Tw
4k
We know:
Tw= 422.1 K, K=22.5 W/m.K, R=0.0112368 m
We only need the heat generation rate

Vq I 2 Re

R 2 Lq I 2 Re
(0.001268) 2 m 2 (0.91)m q (W ) 200 2 A2 0.126
q 1.096 109

W
m3

Substitute to get T0=441.7 K

Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder

Assumptions: Steady state, one-dimensional
heat transfer (radial), ignore convection of fluid
inside (r1), high k, outside convection is important,
T1, T2 and k are constants. T1>T2>T0.
Example: A metal pipe with steam inside it.
We have convection and conduction due to insulation. As insulation
is added, T2 will decrease.

A2 A1
(T1 T2 )
, Alm
q ho A(T2 To ), q
r2 r1
A2
ln
A 2r2 L
kAlm
A1

A1 2r1 L
A2 2r2 L

Assume no heat losses between insulator and outside (qConvection = qConduction),

substitute for A, A1 and A2, rearrange equations to get (T2-T0) and (T1-T2) and add
them to get q.

2L(T1 T0 )
q
ln(r2 / r1 )
1

k
ho r2
In order for us to determine the critical thickness of insulation, or to investigate
the effect of r2 over q, we need to evaluate dq/dr2.

1
1
[2L(T1 T0 )]

2
r
k
h
r
dq
o 2
2

ln(r2 / r1 )
1 2
dr2
[

]
k
ho r2
When dq/dr2=0, we can get critical thickness.

1
1
k

, r2 Critical
2
r2 k ho r2
ho

If r2<r2C, adding more insulation will increase heat transfer

and vice versa.
For common ho and k, r2C is ~mms.
For small electric wires, insulation increase heat loss
For large pipes, insulation decrease heat loss
Adding layers in the winter may not always be a good idea
k of insulation materials really matters

Example 4.3-5 Insulating an electrical wire and critical

radius
An electric wire having a diameter of 1.5 mm and covered with
a plastic insulation (k=0.4 W/m.K) with a 2.5 mm thickness is
exposed to air at 300 K with ho = 20 W/m2.K. Assume that
the wire surface temperature is constant at 400 K and is not
affected by covering.
(a)Calculate the value of critical radius.
(b)Calculate the heat loss per m of wire length with no
insulation.
(c)Repeat (b) for wire with insulation.

Solution
(a)

r2 Critical

k
20 mm
ho

Since r2 is smaller than r2C, adding insulation will increase heat loss.
(b) Without insulation, heat loss is due to convection. Ignore conduction for the wire
thickness

q ho A(Twire Tair ) 9.42 W

(c) With insulation, heat loss is due to conduction and convection

2L(Twire Tair )
q
ln(r2 / r1 )
1

k
ho r2

2 (1)(400 300)
q
32.98 W
ln((3.25 / 0.75)
1

0.4
3.25 10 3 20

Contact Resistance at the Interface

In reality, surfaces have some roughness.
When two surfaces are pressed against each other,
the peaks form good material contact but the
valleys form voids filled with stagnant air. No
perfect contact.
As a result, an interface contains numerous air
gaps of varying sizes are developed that act as
insulation because of the low k of air.
An interface offers some resistance to heat
transfer, which is termed the thermal contact
R is a function of:
resistance, Rc.
RMS,
This means that T at the interfaces are not
Pressure holding surfaces,
constant.
T at the interface,
In nuclear plants, when heat fluxes are present, Type of trapped fluid
significant T drop may occur at the interface.

Heat transfer can take place in fluid via conduction, convection, and radiation
as well as through conduction at solid joints.
No reliable theories or empirical correlations exist to predict Rc.
However,

T T

q hc AT
1
Rc
hc A

hc is the contact heat transfer coefficient

and ranges from 0.2 104 to 1 104
W/m2.K between two metals.
A is the contact area.
If known, we can add Rc to other resistances in the system and study
its
effect on heat flux.
If we know the maximum gap between two surfaces (x), then the
maximum Rc can be calculated.
k
We assume that conduction dominates heat transfer in the gap, hc
If radiation or convection (not stagnant fluid) are present, they will x
decrease Rc.