PDVSA

ENGINEERING DESIGN MANUAL

VOLUME 17
ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE

PDVSA N

90616.1.029

TITLE

VENT SYSTEMS

OCT.02

Modified Figure 3

28

JUL.90

FOR APPROVAL

31

REV.

DATE

APPD.BY Youhad Kerbaje

E PDVSA, 1983

DESCRIPTION
DATE

OCT.02 APPD.BY Ral Rivero

L.T.

PAG. REV.

Y.K.

R.R.
J.S.

APPD.
DATE

APPD.

OCT.02

ESPECIALISTAS

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Index
1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2
4.3

Atmospheric Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Toxic Vapors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
9

5 VENT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

6 VENT STACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vent Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Local Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11
12
14
14

7 REMOVAL OF ENTRAINED LIQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

7.4

Design Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

8 NOISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

8.1
8.2

Excessive Noise Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Noise Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19
20

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SCOPE
This Engineering Guide contains criteria for the selection of vent equipment and
calculation methods for the basic sizing of emergency venting equipment.

REFERENCES
The following publications are referred to herein or are of general interest:

2.1

PDVSA 90616.1.020 Clculos de Dispersin

2.2

PDVSA 90616.1.021 Sistemas de Mechurrios

2.3

PDVSA MDP03S03 LiquidVapor Separators.

2.4

API R.P 520, Recommended Practice for the Design and Installation of Pressure
Relieving Systems in Refineries.

2.5

API RP 521 Guide for Pressure Relief and Depressurizing Systems.

2.6

Loudon, D.E. Requirements for safe discharge of hydrocarbons to atmosphere.

Proceedings American Petroleum Institute. Section III Refining 1963.

2.7

David Evans/Dwight Pfenning. Water sprays suppress gas well blowout fires Oil
and Gas Journal. April 29, 1985 pp 8086.

NOTES
This guide deals only with vent systems. This Engineering Guide does not
discuss, Flare Systems, nor Safety Relief Valves or Header Sizing. Please
refer to Guides 90616.1.021 and 90616.1.022 for information on those subjects.
For Petrochemical Industries, each specific case shall meet regulations of
MARNR.

GENERAL
4.1

The selection of a disposal method is subject to many factors that may be specific
to a particular location or an individual unit. The purpose of a disposal system is
to conduct the relieved fluid to a location where it may be safely discharged.
In general, gases and vapors should be discharged upward well overhead and
liquids downward to proper receivers or nearby trapped drains which lead to
waste collection facilities. Frequently, liquids will be discharged with vapors, and

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this requires a proper separation pot or enlarged section of line. Liquids in flashing
condition require open vent pipes to release vapors overhead as well as
downpipes for safe disposal of liquids. All vent pipes must be drained to minimize
backpressures due to atmospheric condensate, rain, or process fluid condensate.
Vent outlets should be designed to discharge upward in order to prevent the
relieving system from being plugged and inoperative. All gas and vapor must be
projected above equipment, piping, structures, and operating levels or to large
open areas for rapid dissipation in the atmosphere. Considerations must be given
to any phase change either vaporization of liquid or condensation of vapor, that
occurs in the fluid when the pressure is reduced or as result of cooling.
Disposal systems generally consist of piping and vessels. All components must
be suitable in size, pressure rating, and material for the service conditions
intended.
A remote controlled snuffing system is recommended for each vent stack,
specially in locations where the incidence of lightning is high or where access to
the point of discharge would be difficult with conventional fire extinguishing
equipment. An automatic water sprinkling system is required for each vent stack,
specially in locations where the incidence of lightning is high, in order to cool the
tip of the vent stack and avoid reignition (see schematic drawing in Fig. 1).
Other spray geometries, as shown in Figure 2 have been studied to supress gas
fires.

4.2

Atmospheric Discharge

4.2.1

In many situations pressure relief vapor streams may safely be discharged

directly to the atmosphere. Technical work has shown that within the normal
operational range of conventional safety relief devices, well defined flammable
zones can be predicted for most such vapor releases. With proper recognition of
the appropriate design parameters, vapor releases to the atmosphere can
provide for the highest degree of safety.

4.2.2

Atmospheric discharge eliminates the significant problems associated with

analysis of system loads, proper sizing of piping, mechanical design criteria, and
considerations of the back pressure on safety relief valves where closed release
systems are used.

4.2.3

Where feasible, atmospheric discharge offers significant advantages over

alternative methods of disposal because of its inherent simplicity, dependability
and economy. The decision to discharge hydrocarbons or other flammable or
hazardous vapors to the atmosphere requires careful attention to ensure that
disposal can be accomplished without creating a potential hazard or causing other
problems, such as the formation of flammable mixture at grade level or on
elevated structures, exposure of personnel to toxic vapors or corrosive chemicals,

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ignition of relief streams at the point of emission, excesive noise levels, and air
pollution.
4.2.4

Formation of Flammable Mixtures

To evaluate the potential hazards of flammable mixtures that result from
atmospheric discharge of hydrocarbons, the physical state of the released
material is of primary importance, for example, the behavior of a vapor emission
is entirely different from that of a liquid release. Between these two extremes are
situations involving liquidvapor mixtures where mists or sprays are formed.
Vapors, mists, and liquids each introduce special consideration in analyzing the
risk associated with atmospheric relief.

a.

Vapor Emission
When hydrocarbon relief streams comprised entirely of vapors are discharged
into the atmosphere, mixtures in the flammable range will unavoidably occur
downstream of the outlet as the vapor mixes with air. Under most circumstances
where individual safety relief valves discharge vertically upward through their own
stacks, this flammable zone will be confined to a rather limited definable pattern
at elevations above the level of release. At exit velocities from the safety relief
valve stack, the jet momentum forces of release will usually be dominant. Under
these conditions the air entrainment rate is very high and the released gases will
then be diluted to below the lower flammable limit before the release passes out
of the jetdominated portion if:

Re u 1.54x10 4 f
a
Where:
Re = Reynolds number, calculated at vent outlet.
f
a

= Density of the gas at the vent outlet.

= Density of the air

On the other hand, if the release is at too low a velocity (below 500 fps) and has
too low a Reynolds number, jet entraintment of air will be limited, and the released
material will be wind dominated. Principles of atmospheric dispersion will then
determine the dilution rate and how far flammable conditions can occur. Under
these conditions, it is possible that flammable mixtures can occur at grade or at
distant ignition sources. A complete evaluation requires consideration of the
following:
1.

The velocity and temperature of the exit gas.

2.

Gas composition and quantity of the exit gas.

3.

The prevailing meteorological conditions, specially any adverse conditions

peculiar to the site.

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4.

The local topography and the presence of nearby structures.

5.

The elevation at which the emission enters the atmosphere.

Previous technical investigations have demonstrated the rapid dispersion caused

by the turbulent mixing that results from dissipation of energy in a high velocity gas
jet. For a situation in which a safety relief valve is flowing at or close to full capacity,
discharge velocities through independent atmospheric stacks usually exceed 150
meters per second (500 feet per second). The studies on the discharge of jets into
still air indicate that gases with velocities of 150 meters per second (500 feet per
second) or more have sufficient energy in the jet to cause turbulent mixing air and
effect dilution.
Although a high discharge velocity is characteristic of a relief valve when it is
flowing at design capacity, one cannot assume that a relief valve is flowing at full
capacity. Reduced flow rates may occur as the conditions affecting relief are
corrected. In many cases, overpressure may result from a minor operating upset,
causing the flow rate to be appreciably less than the design capacity. The
probability of this situations occurring can often be minimized by using two or more
relief valves and staggering the set pressure to provide for sequential operation.
The use of a common vent stack for several relief valves can also result in a
discharge at a relatively low velocity if only one valve should be operating.
Typical hydrocarbon relief streams are diluted to their lower flammable limit at
approximately 120 diameters from the end of the discharge pipe, measured along
the axis. In essence when hydrocarbon vapors are diluted with air to
approximately 3 weight percent the concentration of the resultant mixture will be
at or below the lower flammable limit. This value actually vanes from 3.0 weight
percent for methane to 3.6 weight percent for hexane.
For materials that do not have combustion characteristics similar to light
hydrocarbons, the extent of a flammable mixture may differ considerably from 120
diameters. Based on these data, it can be concluded that where high discharge
velocities are achieved, the hazard of flammable concentration below the level of
the discharge point is negligible.
Studies demonstrated the adequacy of the general industry practice of locating
safety relief valve stacks to the atmosphere at least 15 meters (50 feet)
horizontally and at least 3m vertically from any structures or equipment running
to a higher elevation than the discharge point. This would be adequate in most
cases to prevent flammable vapors from reaching the higher structures. There
should also be no concern, with these jet momentum releases, about large clouds
of flammable vapors or flammable conditions existing at levels below the lease
level of the stack.

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Mist Emission
Mists, as referred to in this guide, result from condensation following emissions.
Condensed mists are finely divided, the diameters of most drops is less than 10
micrometers, with few larger than 20 micrometers. Mechanical sprays do not
usually contain many drops below 100 micrometers in diameter.
Whether vapors will condense in appreciable quantities when released to the
atmosphere will depend on the stream composition, atmospheric temperature,
and exit velocity. Frequently, the assumption is made that if the lowest anticipated
atmospheric temperature is below the dew point of a released hydrocarbon,
significant condensation will occur.
In cases in which vapor discharges from safety relief valves condense,
consideration must be given to how the condensation influences the formation of
a flammable atmosphere. Combustible liquid mists in air are capable of
propagating flame when ignited, even though the liquid is so involatile that no
appreciable amount of vapor is formed at the ambient temperature. Thus, mists
of flammable liquids can present a hazard even at temperatures well below the
flash point.
In cases in which calculation indicates that vapor discharges from safety relief
valves may condense, it is possible for coalescence to produce droplets that
rapidly settle to grade rather than dispersing as a mist similar to vapors. The
hydrocarbon partial pressure at which the calculated cooling curve intersects the
dewpoint curve should be considered indicative of bounding the region in which
coalescence seems unlikely.
Although no conclusive data are now available, it is suggested that condensation
at hydrocarbon partial pressures of 34 kilopascals absolute (5 pounds per square
inch absolute) or lees should be treated as finely divided mists without
coalescence. In the absence of coalescence, the effect of gravity should be
negligible since the freefall velocity of 10 micrometer hydrocarbon particles in air
is approximately 3 millimeters per second (0.01 feet per second). Therefore, even
with very light wind, the discharge from an elevated location will travel a
considerable distance before reaching grade.
Based on the foregoing factors pertaining to the dispersion and combustion
characteristics of a mist, it can be concluded that as long as the condensate
remains in finely divided form and is airborne, the mixture can be treated for
flammability and dispersion characteristics as though it were completely
vaporized.

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Liquid Emission
Unlike discharges composed of vapor or mist, which rapidly disperse when vented
to the atmosphere at high velocity, liquid discharges settle to grade. If volatile
components are present a flammable atmosphere may result. The risk of fire or
explosion may be high if appreciable quantities of liquid hydrocarbon are released
to the atmosphere when the ambient temperature is at or above the flash point
of the liquid or when their presence concur whith an unexpected source of ignition.
Theoretically, liquide that have a flash point above the maximum anticipated
ambient temperature would not vaporize enough to create a flammable
atmosphere. However widespread spraying of oil droplets could create concern
in an emergency and could constitute a serious nuisance. Also, minor fires might
occur if liquid came in contact with very hot line or equipment.
Fluids that are discharged from relief devices as liquide should be handled in the
following manner.
Flammable liquide with atmospheric boiling points above 35C (95F) should be
directed downward within 1020 cm (48 inches) of grade and shielded to prevent
splashing of liquid and debris. The discharge should be in or near a trapped drain
or some other safe location.
Flammable liquide with atmospheric boiling points between 35C (95 F) and
50C (58 F) should be routed to a liquid knockout pot to separate vapor and
liquid. The vapors should be disposed of as in the section on Vapors Emission.
Flammable liquide with atmospheric boiling points below 50C (58 F) should
be directed upward and discharged at least 45 meters (150 feet) above grade or
above the tallest column in the unit. The discharge should be a minimum of 2.4
m (8 feet) above the shutoff valve underneath the relief device.
Nonflammable liquids that are not hazardous to personnel with atmospheric
boiling points above 35C (95F) should be directed downward within 1020 cm
(48 inches) above grade and shielded to prevent splashing of liquid and debris.
Nonflammable liquids that are not hazardous to personnel with atmospheric
boiling points below 35C (95F) should be discharged up in the air a minimum
of 2.4 m (8 feet) above the shutoff valve under the relief device.
Nonflammable liquide that are hazardous to personnel must be discharged in a
safe manner to prevent personnel injury. Each case will require individual
consideration because of the many types of hazards that can be encountered.

d.

Sources of Ignition
The possibility of accidental ignition of the outflow of hydrocarbon vapors from a
safety relief valve can best be analyzed in terms of four possible causes of ignition:
outside sources (including open flames, hot surfaces, or nonclassified electrical
equipment), lightning, static electricity, and autoignition.

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1.

Outside ignition sources: The possible existence of outside ignition

sources such as open flame, hot surfaces, and nonclassified electrical
equipment in stalled in surrounding areas and on structures will be known
or can be anticipated. With jet momentum releases from safety relief valves,
emission points can be located so that the flammable pattern evolved will not
reach such sources. This becomes more difficult where wind dominated low
velocity releases are involved, since flammable patterns could extend
considerable distance from the release point. Also in these instances, the
ignition potential from temporary sources, such as automotive equipment on
land, floating equipment on offshore or lake operations, or hot activities
(welding) must be recognized. Therefore, with normal atmospheric
releases, outside ignition sources can be readily avoided by proper location
of vents. On the other hand, with low velocity, low momentum releases, there
must be a careful design check of conditions at various emission rates and
atmospheric conditions to avoid the potential of ignition by outside sources.

2.

Lightning: Discharges from open atmospheric vents have been ignited by

lightning. Except for emergency discharges associated with power outages
that may occur during thunderstorms, the probability of lightning occurring
simultaneously with the opening of a relief valve is negligible. Intermittent
discharges over long periods and continous discharges, for example, from
leaking relief valves, increase the probability of lightning ignition.

3.

Static electricity: During high velocity discharges from gas wells,

compression plants or gas systems to the atmosphere, static charges
sufficient to cause sparks and ignition are developed. The condensate zone
in the jet of well head gas apparently tends to produce a high level of charge,
although ignition does not actually occur. Another theory relating to static
ignition propose that gas flow through a piping system during venting
induces a static charge on any solid or liquid particles in the pipe stream that
contact the pipe wall. As the gas reaches the sharp edges of the vent outlet,
static discharges may occur either by complete electrical breakdown (spark
discharge) or by partial breakdown (corona discharge).
The experience of pipeline companies (who customarily discharge natural
gas to the atmosphere at low elevations) includes gas pressures as high as
6200 kilopascals gage (900 pounds per square inch gauge) and discharge
rate as high as 650000 pounds per hour (295200 kilograms per hour) from
a single vent stack.
Hence, the probability of ignition by static electricity is very low because of
a relatively weak charge buildup in the jet and reasonable isolation from the
wellgrounded vent stack.

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This conclusion pertains to hydrocarbon vapor releases. Experience

indicates that streams with high hydrogen content are susceptible to ignition
by static electricity as a result of the described mechanism because of
electrostatic discharges at the sharp edge of the vent outlet. The National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, USA) investigated this
phenomenon and found such electrostatic discharges can be prevented by
the installation of a toroidal ring on the vent stack outlet. The ring inhibits the
flow of current at the vent stack lip by removing the cause of turbulence
characteristics of a sharply defined vent exit. (See Figure 3).
4.

4.3

Autoignition: Relief streams, which are above the autoignition temperature

on the upstream side of the valve, may ignite spontaneously on contact with
air unless sufficient cooling occurs before a flammable vapor air mixture is
formed. For this reason, these hot streams should usually be routed to a
closed system, cooler, or quench tower. Under some circumstances, with
proper location of the discharge stack, ignition can be tolerated.

Toxic Vapors

4.3.1

Although most vapor streams would be harmful to breathe at high concentrations,

the majority present little or no risk to personnel whendischarged from safety
relief valves at a remote location. The average person can tolerate shortterm
exposure to most hydrocarbon vapors at concentration levels equivalent to or
above the lower flammable limit. Thus, if facilities are designed to avoid flammable
atmosphere the results of inhalation at the same location will not be injurious.

4.3.2

However, certain refinery and production streams may contain vapors that are
dangerous at extremely low concentrations: for example, hydrogen sulfide vapors
can cause unconsciousness and death within seconds following exposure to a
concentration above 1000 parts per million. This is approximately onetenth the
concentration representing the lowest flammable limits of any hydrocarbon.
Therefore where hydrogen sulfide or similar toxic materials are present in a relief
stream, an investigation should be made to predict the maximum downwind
concentration at any location where personnel may be exposed. Special attention
should be given to adjacent elevated structures that may he within the path of the
plume and will thus be subject to relatively high concentrations. If the presence
of toxic vapors can not be avoided proper disposal system must be designed and
installed, and safety equipment must be available on site.

4.3.3

The ground level concentration of toxic vapors at any location downwind a stack
can be estimated as described in PDVSA Guide 90616.1.020.

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VENT SYSTEMS
5.1

Process gases released from pressure safety valves (PSVs) or depressurization

valves must be collected in two closed vent systems defined as low and high
pressure relief systems (LP and HP relief). Typically, the LP relief collects gases
from equipment operating below 31 bar (450 PSIG), and HP relief from equipment
operating at 31 bar (450 PSIG) and above, nevertheless other pressures could
be set according to the operating conditions of the plant. Both headers will be
routed to a common blowdown knock out drum (BDKO).

5.2

Systems shall be designed so that 90% depressurization of the plant must be

achieved within 5 minutes without overpressure of any component.

5.3

Headers shall be in elevated position inside compression modules and sloped

downward to the BDKO drum (usually the slope is in the order of 1%). The BDKO
drum shall be horizontal type connected through a short line (or directly) to a vent
stack. The gas outlet should be connected through a single point. Methods of
separators calculations are presented in PDVSA Engineering Guides
MDP03S03 LiquidVapor Separators.

5.4

Collected liquids will be pumped to the common K.O drum at plant inlet or at any
other suitable location. The pump should be spared, start automatically at high
liquid level and cut out at low liquid level and shall be connected to the emergency
power generator. An on/of f light in the control room should indicate on/off of the
pump. The pumps shall be sized for specific gravity range from 0.6 to 1.0.

5.5

The complete system shall be continuously purged at a low and sufficient rate. A
restriction orifice should be installed to pass the required amount. Provide purge
connection at the farthest end of vent header to ensure that the entire system will
remain purged.

5.6

A flashing light and an audible alarm should be activated in case of venting to

prevent boats presence (offshore location). Confusion with fire or gas alarm
should be avoided.

5.7

For atmospheric vents the discharge shall be vertical, with the vent pipe:

5.8

Being at least 2 m long.

Terminating at least 5 m above grade.
At least 3 m above the tallest structure within an 8 m radius.
At least 30 m horizontally from furnaces, boilers etc. or their air intakes.

In addition, for production facilities and gas compression plants the discharge
shall be:

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Remotely located at field installations, no less than X meters from operating

areas and downwind from them.
Preferably located no less then Y meters from operating areas in gas
compression plants and downwind from them.
X and Y should be agreed upon by the engineering, safety and operating
organizations.

5.9

The possibility that the vented stream catches fire should be considered, in which
case the heat input on neighbouring working platforms shall not exceed 5400
kcal/m2hr (2000 BTU/sq.ft.hr.) nor be damaging to the nearest structures. A
flame arrestor should not be fitted.

5.10

The tail pipes shall be provided with a steam hose connection or other systems
for flame extinguishing.

5.11

The vent outlet velocity shall not be lees than 150 m/sec (500 ft/sec) and not
higher than 80% of the sonic velocity at the rated capacity. The tail pipe shall not
be smaller in diameter than the relief valve outlet.

5.12

The bottom of the vent shall be provided with a 1/2 dia (minimum) drain at the
lowest point, which should be opened frequently (i.e. once a week), to prevent the
liquid build up. The vent pipe shall be adequately supported against reaction
forces.

VENT STACKS
6.1

Sizing

6.1.1

The size of a vent stack is determined by the available pressure drop and by any
minimum velocity required to prevent hazardous conditions due to combustible
or toxic material at grade or working levels. Normally, a size is selected that will
result in a high discharge velocity for example, velocity of 150 meters per second
(500 feet per second) will provide excellent dispersion. The size should be
checked to ensure that sonic flow is not established or, if it is, that allowance has
been made for the pressure discontinuity at the discharge end in calculating
pressure drop. A sample calculation is presented afterwards.

6.1.2

Assume the following conditions: The maximum relief rate, W, is 113400 kg/h
(250000 pounds per hour). The molecular weight of the vapor, M, is 44. The
temperature of the vapor just inside the tip, T. is 361K (650R). The exit velocity,
V, is 150 meters per second (500 feet per second)).

6.1.3

The pressure of the vapor just inside the vent tip, P, is 101 kilopascals absolute
(14.7 pounds per square inch absolute). The gas constant, R, is 8.3 for metric
units (10.7). The density is then calculated as follows:

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+ MP
RT
+

(44) (101)
+ 1.48 kilograms per cubic meter
(8.3) (361)

In British units, this translates to:

+ MP
RT
(44) (14.7)
+
+ 0.1 pounds per cubic foot
(10.7) (650)
The tip size is determined as follows:
Tip size + W
V
113400
+ 0.14 square meter
(1.48) (150) (3600)
In British units, this translates to.
Tip size +

W
3600 V

250000
+ 1.39 square feet
(3600) (0.1) (500)
Thus the pipe diameter should be about 16 inches nominal pipe size.

6.2

Design Details

6.2.1

Once the vent stack has been sized in accordance with recommendations,
indicated in section 6.1, the design is primarily a structural problem.

6.2.2

If the vent stack is in a location remote from other facilities, a guyed stack will
usually be as satisfactory as, and more economical than, providing a structure to
support the stack. Vent stacks are frequently located in a process area that
contains equipment connected to the stack. It is often possible to support the stack
from a fractionating tower, chimney, or other tall structure in the unit. Such an
arrangement provides for economical discharge at a safe elevation.

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6.2.3

The height of the vent stack is selected so that the concentration of vapor at a point
of interest is well below the lower flammable limit of the vapor. Usually 0.10.5
times the lower flammable limit is an acceptable concentration. Toxicity requires
much lower concentrations on certain applications and is therefore the controlling
factor. The radiant heat intensity for vent stack should also be checked in the event
a relieving vapor should ignite; calculation should be made assuming a flow rate
equivalent to an outlet velocity of 150 m/seg (500 FPS), this is done by the same
means as for flare stacks, and the came limits apply for radiant heat intensity.
Radiant heat levels sometimes take precedence over dispersion in determining
stack height. Methods of flare calculations are presented in PDVSA Guide
90616.1.021.

6.2.4

In every vent stack installation, careful consideration should be given to two

potential problems: accumulation of liquid in line terminating at the vent stack and
accidental ignition by lightning. Accumulation of liquid in line to the vent stack may
result from leakage into the system of highmolecularweight vapors that
condense at ambient temperature. If appreciable quantities of liquid collect, they
will subsequently be discharged to the atmosphere when vapors are released into
the system.

6.2.5

To avoid liquid accumulation, it is important to prevent pockets from occurring the

lines and to dope the system to a lowpoint dram. These drains can be installed
to function automatically by use of a properly designed seal. The height of the seal
should provide a head equivalent to at least 1 1/2 times the backpressure under
the maximum relief load to avoid release of vapor through the seal. As an
alternative to a sealed dram, a small disengaging drum may be installed at the
base of the vent stack. This type of installation is recommended where significant
quantities of liquid may occur.

6.2.6

The possibility that vapors from the vent stack may be accidentally ignited by
lightning or other sources usually makes a remotecontrolled snuffing steam,
water (for cooling) or CO2 connection necessary on the vent stack. This is
specially true in locations where the incidence of lightning is high or where access
to the point of discharge would be difficult with conventional fireextinguishing
equipment. Each system consists of CO2 cylinders, connected by flexible
discharge loops to a manifold which is piped to two opposed discharge nozzles,
installed approximately 4.5 m (15 feet) below the top of the vent stack. The
operation of the valves is manual.

6.2.7

It is frequently impractical to size the steam supply line for a rate sufficient to
extinguish a fire under maximum venting conditions, however, steam would still
be essential, since in most cases, vent fires occur when the only flow to the system
consist of leakage or minor venting. With relatively small amounts of vented vapor
in small stacks, it is possible to dilute the vented vapor to the point where

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combustion ceases. It requires on the order of one pound of steam per cubic foot
of vented vapor to dilute a flammable vapor to this point. As the vented vapor rate
and stack size increase, the steam rate for dilution to the extinguishing ratio
becomes excessive, and. it becomes necessary to depend on a blowout
phenomena for achieving extinguishment. Blowout results from the combined
effects of dilution with steam and outside air at high velocities and cooling resulting
from the dilution.
6.2.8

6.3

Furthermore, unless steam or cooling water and CO2 is supplied, if ignition occurs
when venting at or near the maximum design load, the fire will quite likely continue
to burn when the cause of overpressure is corrected with an accompanying
reduction in venting.

Vent Valves
Vent valves are frequently installed for relieving pressure in piping systems prior
to opening for maintenance. In some cases the pressure can be safely relieved
by cautiously opening a flange or loosening a threaded connection. For example,
it is not necessary to install vent valves under pressure gages in the typical plant
cooling water system. However, when fluids hazardous to personnel are handled
(phosgene, carcinogens, strong caustic, or acid solutions, etc.) vent valves should
be provided in portions of the piping where the fluid can be trapped under
pressure.

6.4

Local Vents

6.4.1

Often neglected from a safety point of view are local vents, such as those on fixed
roof tanks and lube oil/seal oil tanks.

6.4.2

The hazardous area around local vents shall be classified according to the
frequency of flammable vapor release. In addition, high ignition risk vents, such
as those on oil savers shall be positioned so as not to endanger nearby
equipment, especially electric cables, when ignited.

6.4.3

In complying with hazardous area requirements, special care should be taken not
to extend a tank vent to a height where overfilling the tank will overpressures it due
to the liquid column in the vent. In such cases, a separate pressure/vacuum valve
or permanent vent drains must be installed.

6.4.4

During drilling, flammable vapors released from low pressure or atmospheric mud
separators may be vented without being ignited through the vent line attached to
the derrick.

6.4.5

Vents from atmospheric systems shall not be connected to a closed process

venting system, since higher pressure from other sources might cause
overpressure.

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REMOVAL OF ENTRAINED LIQUID

7.1

When complex mixtures of hydrocarbon vapors at high temperatures are

released into a vent system, cooling occurs and liquide condense out as the dew
point is reached. In the case of a flare, even a small amount of entrained liquids
will cause a smoky flare and great emissions of light. Heavy carryover of large
drops can produce a rain of liquid, thus it is necessary to prevent entrainment by
providing a knockout drum.

7.2

It is estimated that the loss of heat in a vent system is 24.4 to 48.8 kcal/ m2 C (5
to 10 British thermal units per square foot of surface per degree Fahrenheit)
temperature difference between the steel and the atmosphere. The range is due
partly to the effect of wind, while the rate of cooling would be greater in a rain
storm. The vapor space in the knockout drum must be sufficiently large to reduce
the vapor velocity below the dropout velocity of the fine entrained droplets. API
RP 521 present a method for sizing knockout drums to remove droplets of 150
microns and larger. Drums equipped with pumps on automatic control should
have sufficient capacity for the maximum liquid accumulation expected in 15
minutes. The pumps must be capable of handling the lowest molecular weight
liquids that are likely to accumulate.

7.3

If a very heavy flow of vapor should occur suddenly, previously condensed liquide
may be entrained and carried out the stack. Experiments carried out showed the
relative effectiveness of cyclones, mist eliminators, water seals, and knockout
drums. The use of mist eliminators is objected because they may become plugged
and increase the pressure drop of the systems. Experience has demostrated that
a combination of water seals with vane type mist eliminators is a good design to
prevent liquid carryover. Cyclones are effective at high velocities but poor at less
than design flows.

7.4

Design Consideration
Blowdown drums for normal hydrocarbon service are designed in accordance
with the following (see Figures 4 and 4A for typical refineries and gas compression
plants respectively):

7.4.1

A typical noncondensible blowdown drum and its associated equipment and

headers are illustrated in Figure 4.

7.4.2

A single blowdown drum may be used for more than one process unit, if
economically attractive. However, when this is done, all units served by it must be
shut down in order to take the drum out of service, unless cross connections are
made to another system of adequate capacity.

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7.4.3

Normally all closed safety valve discharges are combined into one header
entering the drum, although separate headers and inlet nozzles are acceptable
if economically advantageous

7.4.4

Sizing of the blowdown drum and location of the level instruments are based on
the following (see Figure 4 and 4A):

a.

Liquid holdup below the LH (CO) A (AB in Figure 4 and 4A) is the light ends
stream diversion requirement or the closed drainage requirement for residual
process liquide at a normal shutdown, whichever is greater. This closed dram
requirement is taken as 10% of the total liquid hydrocarbon inventory of all vessels
in one process unit which are provided with closed dram header connections. This
assumes that 90% of the liquid inventory of these vessels can be removed by
pressuring or pumping out through normal process disposal routes. The process
unit to be used for sizing purpose is the one which has the largest closed dram
requirement and which can shutdown independently for turnaround. Inventory of
vessels is calculated at the top of the working level range, excluding tray holdup
and the contents of piping. In the case of vessels containing large liquid
inventories, e.g., surge drums, the individual closed dram header requirement
may be reduced below 10%, where appropriate, by taking credit for alternative
means of disposal of the liquid contents, e.g. water displacement to storage.

b.

The space in the drum above the LH (CO) A (Above the upper LH (CO) A when
two are installed) is made up of a holdup capacity (BD in Figure 4 and 4A) for 30
minutes accumulation of liquid safety valve releases, plus a vapor space (DF)
for the associated vapor release. The drum sizing is determined by the single
contingency which requires the maximum combined space BD plus DF.

c.

In addition to the contingency which requires the maximum combined space BD

plus DF and which determines the drum sizing, other contingencies are
considered as follows:

d.

1.

The single contingency which results in the largest accumulation (BE) of

liquid safety valve releases during 30 minutes, regardless of any associated
vapor rate. The level at point E is used for pumpout pump sizing.

2.

The single contingency which results in the largest vapor load regardless of
any associated liquid load, is used to determine the maximum required
vapor space CF, and a high level alarm is placed at point C.

In considering the contingencies described in paragraphs b and c above, vapor

and liquid loads are evaluated on the following basis:
1.

Vapor load considerations must include all safety valve, emergency vapor
blowdown and vapor stream diversion sources which release as a result of
a single contingency.

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2.

Liquid loads are considered from all safety valves that discharge as a result
of a single contingency, plus in each case an allowance for knockout drum
liquids (fuel gas K.O. drums, absorber overhead K.O. drums) equal to the
inventory of all drums which discharge to the blowdown drum, at their LHA
point. In a typical gas compression plant, this allowance is not necessary
since those liquids are not directed to the vent knock out drum, they are
connected either to the suction plant knock out drum or with another suitable
facility.

3.

Vapor space velocities normally should not exceed 100% of critical;

experience demonstrates that this keeps liquid entrainment into the flare line
within acceptable limits. However, a velocity of 175% of critical is permitted
when one is applying the 1.5 times Design Pressure Rule to remote
contingencies. The constant value 0.157 could be different if any type of
internals are installed inside the vessel.
V c + 0.157

L * v
v

Where:
VC

= Critical vapor velocity, ft/s

= Liquid density, lb/ft3 at operating conditions.

= Vapor density, lb/ft3 at operating conditions.

Crinkled wire mesh screens are not permissible.

4.
e.

The depth of the vapor space should under no contingency be less than 20%
of the drum diameter, or less than 30 cm (12 inch).

A LL (CO) A with local manual reset is provided to trip the pumpout pump when
the liquid has been pump down to a low level.

7.4.5

The blowdown drum design pressure is 3.4 bar g. (50 psig) or less.

7.4.6

The maximum allowable operating pressure in the blowdown drum is determined

by the lower of the following:

a.

The maximum allowable back pressure on safety valves which discharge to the
blowdown drum, according to set pressure and type of safety valve, or

b.

The pressure at which vapor diversion from any gas compressor suction to the
blowdown drum is required to be released. These facilities are normally provided
on cat cracker and steam cracker process gas compressors.

c.

The maximum allowable operating pressure on any condensible blowdown drum,

water disengaging drum, etc., which vents into the same flare or vent header.

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7.4.7

The blowdown drum design temperature is set by the extremes of emergency

operating temperature which can result from any of the streams tied into it. If
materials are handled at temperatures below 1600 (60F), or if they can
autorefrigerate to below 1600 (60F), a minimum design temperature must also
be specified.

7.4.8

Blowdown drum materials must be adequate for any corrosive substance that
may be released into it, and for the temperature limits defined by paragraph 7.1.7
above. The corrosion allowance shall be 3 mm.

7.4.9

Depending on the weather or operating conditions at the plant site a heating coil
could be provided in the blowdown drum for deicing, winterizing and weathering
purposes. Sizing of the coil is based upon weathering off the light ends from the
flashed liquids at the maximum level accumulated as a result of any of the design
contingencies described in paragraph 7.1.4 above. This material must be
weathered in two hours to temperature and vapor pressure conditions which will
permit safe pumpout to associated shops or other receiving facilities. In some
cases weathering must be followed by cooling of the pumpout stream (see
paragraph 7.1.13 below). For most applications when steam is available, a steam
coil consisting of a nominal 60 m (200 ft) of 2 inch pipe is adequated. The coil
should be sloped to insure condensate drainage.

7.4.10

For services where a steam coil may be exposed to cold or autorefrigerated

liquids, the design should be such as to prevent blockage by freezing of steam
condensate. The following methods are available to achieve this:

a.

A 5 cm (2 inch) steam trap by pass direct to sewer. This is required in all cases
where temperatures below 0C (32F) may occur in the blowdown drum.

b.

Connections for methanol injection into the steam coil inlet and outlet piping for
deicing.

c.

Use of vertical doublepipe (bayonet type) steam heaters.

d.

Use of a hot oil heating medium to the coil, or a cascade heating system (e.g.,
steam, methanol).

7.4.11

In some cases the drum is provided with a drawoff boot of nominal 60 cm (2 ft)
diameter by 90 cm (3 feet) in height, with a separate steam coil fabricated from
1 inch pipe. Normally it is not necessary to withdraw hydrocarbon and water
separately, and the pumpout pump takes suction from the bottom of the boot. The
LL (CO) A is located as close as possible to the top of the boot to ensure that the
pump is shutdown before losing suction.

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7.4.12

An electrical or in some cases a steamdriven manually controlled pump is used

for the pumpout service. A reciprocating pump is used due to its greater ability to
hold suction with volatile liquids; however, if a centrifugal pump is used, both
suction and discharge lines must be vented back to the drum, the discharge vent
being sized for 15% of the pump capacity. Pump sizing is based on pumping out
in 2 hours the total drum contents from the maximum accumulated liquid level, due
to the wide range of fluids handled, the pump should be specified for 2.1 to 2.9
m (7 to 8 ft) NPSH requirement at the suction flange. Drum elevation should be
such as to meet the pump NPSH requirement. The pump design temperature
should be the same as that of the blowdown drum, and design pressure is set
according to the disposal routing downstream.

7.4.13

Disposal of pumpout material from the blowdown drum at the refineries is normally
to pressure shops storage, light atmospheric slops storage, or other atmospheric
tankage. At the gas compression plants these liquids are directed either to the
suction plant knock out drum or another suitable location. Design features must
be incorporated to avoid the hazards of excessive vapor evolution or boilover
which can result from routing light or hot materials to atmospheric tankage.
Requirements for weathering off light ends from liquid accumulated in the
blowdown drum are defined in paragraph 7.1.9 above.
In addition, a cooler should be provided in the discharge line from the pumpout
pump if either of the following applies:

a.

The blowdown drum can receive hot liquids above 93C (200F), or

b.

The blowdown drum liquid (after weathering, if necessary), if routed to an

atmospheric tank for disposal, could result in the true vapor pressure of material
in the tank exceeding 0.9 bar (13 psia).
The cooler should be sized to cool the maximum pumpout flow to 49C (120F).

NOISE
8.1

Excessive Noise Levels

8.1.1

Noise created from the venting of hydrocarbons may cause problems due to either
the potential hearing loss of exposed personnel or the nuisance created in
surrounding areas.

8.1.2

The noise generated by a pressure relief valve discharging to the atmosphere can
be relatively loud. Emergency relief is ordinarily of short duration and occurs
infrequently, so a high noise level is usually acceptable.

8.1.3

The allowable noise intensity and duration should be evaluated at areas where
operating personnel would normally work or at property limits. Where two or more
pressure relief valves can discharge to the atmosphere simultaneously, the
combined effects will need to be evaluated.

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8.2

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Noise Calculation
The noise level at 30 meters (100 feet) from the point of discharge to the
atmosphere can be approximated by equation:
L100 = L(from figure 5) + L log 1012 MC 2
Figure 5 ilustrates the noise intensity measured as the sound pressure level at 30
meters (100 feet) from the stack tip versus the pressure ratio across the safety
valve.
The following symbols are used in the procedure for calculating the noise level:
M = Mass flow through the valve, in kilograms per second (slugs per second).
C = Speed of sound in the gas at the valve, in meters per second (feet per
second).
Notes:
In feet per second:
C + 223

MolecularkT Weight

In meters per second:

C + 91.2

MolecularkT Weight

Where,
k

= ratio of the specific heats in the gas

= gas temperature in degrees Rankine (kelvins)

PR = ratio of the upstream to the downstream pressure across the safety valve
(absolute)
An example of calculating in English units, the noise level at 100 feet from the point
of discharge to the atmosphere is presented below:
a.

Calculate 1/2 MC2: in watts. Divide the weight flow (pounds per second) by 32 to
obtain M. Multiply 1/2 MC2 (foot pounds per second) by 1.36 to obtain 1/2 MC2 in
watts.

b.

Calculate 10 log10 (1/2 MC2).

c.

In Figure 5, enter PR as the abscissa and read the ordinate.

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d.

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Add items a and c to obtain the average sound pressure level at 100 feet, L100 in
decibels. Assume the followings:
M = 1 slug per second
= 32 pounds per second
k = 1.4
Molecular weight = 29
T = 560 degrees Rankine
PR = 48/16 = 3
C + 223

(1.4)29(560)

= 1159 feet per second

a.

1/2 MC2 =(1/2) (1) (1159)2 (1.36) = (9.1) (105)

b.

10 log (1/2 MC2) = 60

c.

From Figure 5, at PR = 3, the ordinate = 54

d.

L100 at 100 feet = 54 + 60 = 114 decibels.

An example of calculating, in metric units the noise level at 30 meters from the
point of discharge to the atmosphere is presented below:
1.

Calculate 1/2 MC2 in watts.

2.

Calculate 10 log10 (1/2 MC2)

3.

In Figure 5, enter PR as the abscissa and read the ordinate.

4.

Add item 2 and 3 to obtain the average sound pressure level at 30 meters,
L100 in decibels. Assume the following:
M = 14.6 kilograms per second
k = 1.4
Molecular weight = 29
T = 311 degrees Kelvin
PR = 48/16 = 3
C + (91.2)

(1.4)29(311)

C = 353 meters per second

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a.

1/2 MC2 = (1/2) (14.6) (353)2 = (9.1) (105)

b.

10 log10 (1/2 MC2) = 60

c.

From Figure 5, at PR = 3 the ordinate = 54

d.

L100 at 30 meters = 54 + 60 = 114 decibels.

Indice norma

Note: The calculations are based on spherical spreading of the sound. If distances
much larger than the height of the vent above ground are of concem, add 3
decibels to the calculated result to correct for hemispherical diffusion.

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Fig 1. VENT STACK WATER SPRAY

12
SPRINKLING NOZZLES (3/4)

PIPING SUPPORTS
1 1/2

1 1/2
CO2 CONNECTION

2

1 1/2

GATE VALVE
2

LINE
2
DRAIN LINE

STACK PLATFORM

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Fig 2. WATER SPRAY TO SUPRESS GAS FIRES

SPRAY GEOMETRIES

Mw/Mg = 6.4

30
Mw/Mg = 4.2

Mw/Mg =9.5

Mw/Mg =5.3

FROM OIL AND GAS JOURNAL APRIL 29, 1985

Indice norma

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Fig 3. TOROIDAL RING VENTS

Toroidal antistatic discharge ring
(Stainless steel tubing, wall thinckness
not critical)

Vent Stack
Weld

Stack diameter D,
inches

Required Toroidal Ring

diameter d, inches

Less than 8

1/2

8 to 12

3/4

12 to 20

20 to 24

Over 24

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Fig 4. NONCONDENSIBLE BLOWDOWN DRUM SIZING

(REFINERIES)

VAPOR AND LIQUID SAFETY VALVE RELEASES

EMERGENCY VAPOR BLOWDOWNS
FUEL GAS AND ABSORBER KNOCKOUT DRUM DRAINS
VAPOR STREAM DIVERSION

TO FLARE

F
*
VAPOR SPACE FOR 100% OF CRITICAL VALOCITY
30 MINUTES LIQUID FROM SAFETY VALVES
PLUS
ALLOWANCE FOR LIQUID FROM KNOCKOUT DRUM

MAX. LIQUID LEVElL FOR PUMPOUT

PUMP SIZING
MAX. LIQUID LEVEL FOR DRUM SIZING

E
D
C

LHA

MAX. LIQUID LEVEL FOR

LHA LOCATION

LH(CO) A

CLOSED DRAIN HEADER REQUIREMENT

OR

LIQUID STREAM DIVERSION REQUIREMENT

A

TI
LL(CO) A

CLOSED DRAIN
HEADER

(1)
STEAM

PUMPOUT FROM
MAXIMUM
LIQUID LEVEL IN
2 HOURS

NOTE: SEE TEXT FOR DETAILS OF ABOVE SIZING BASIS

* 175% FOR REMOTE CONTINGENCIES
(1) PUMP DRIVER COULD BE AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

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Fig.4A NONCONDENSIBLE VENT STACK DRUM SIZING

(GAS COMPRESSION PLANTS)

VAPOR AND LIQUID SAFETY VALVE RELEASES

EMERGENCY VAPOR BLOWDOWNS

TO VENT

F
MAX. LIQUID LEVEL FOR PUMPOUT
PUMP SIZING
MAX. LIQUID LEVEL FOR DRUM SIZING
VAPOR SPACE FOR 100% OF CRITICAL VALOCITY * E
D
30 MINUTES LIQUID FROM SAFETY VALVES

LHA MAX. LIQUID LEVEL FOR

LHA LOCATION

TI

B
A
LL(CO) A

PUMPOUT FROM
MAXIMUM
LIQUID LEVEL
IN 2 HOURS

NOTE: SEE TEXT FOR DETAILS OF ABOVE SIZING BASIS

* 175% FOR REMOTE CONTINGENCIES

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Fig 5. NOISE INTENSITY AT 100 FEET (30 METERS) FROM THE STACK TIP
10
9
8
7

PRESSURE RATIO (PR)

1.5
20

30

40

50

60

(DECIBELS)
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL AT 100 FEET
(30 METERS) FROM STACK TIP

70