1.

Ethylene
1. b) Cracking of Petrol
Ethylene is produced from petroleum gas
fractions in a process called cracking.
Catalytic cracking: long chain hydrocarbons
are broken into smaller hydrocarbons in
presence of a catalyst (zeolite).
Thermal cracking: alkanes with steam pass
through hot metal coils. Steam removes carbon
from coils and heat breaks bonds, changing
large hydrocarbons to ethylene
C10H22(g) C8H18 + C2H4(g)
1. c) Uses of Ethylene
Ethylene is made into many useful products
because of its double bonds high reactivity.
Product
Formula
Use
Polyethylene
(CH 2) n
Plastic
Ethylene
(CH 2) 2O
Steriliser
oxide
Ethanol
C2H5 OH
Disinfectant
Ethanoic acid CH3 COOH Food
preservative
1. d) Ethylene as a Monomer
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction where
many small molecules (monomers) combine
together by covalent bonds to form one large
molecule (polymer). Ethylene is polymerised to
polyethylene. nCH2=CH2 (-CH2-CH2-)n
1. e) Addition Polymers
Ethylene monomers add together to form
polyethylene and no other product.
1. f) Production of Polyethylene
Initiation: chemical initiator starts reaction by
opening double bond of ethene monomer to
form ethylene, a free radical.

Propagation: monomers form a chain.

Termination: process stops when ethene
chains form a polyethylene molecule.
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE):
High pressures and temperatures, branched
chains, molecular masses <100000, peroxide
catalyst. Soft, flexible, polymer used in plastic
bags and electrical insulation
High Density Polyethylene:
Low pressures and temperatures, aligned
chains, molecular masses >100000, oxide
catalyst. Rigid polymer, chemically resistant
used in plastic crates and heavy duty rubbish
bags.
1. I) Equations
see entire notes
1. II) Reactivites of Alkanes and Alkenes
Method:
1. 1mL of liquid hydrocarbon in test tube and
seal quickly with a stopper
2. Add a drop of bromine water and shake
3. Observe whether bromine water discolours
Results:
Cyclohexane: no reaction - 2 layers formed and
bromine remained brown.
Cyclohexene: bromine water quickly
decolourised - 2 colourless layers. Addition
reaction - 1,2-dibromocyclohexane.
Conclusion: reactivity was higher in alkene
than alkane (halogen can determine
hydrocarbon that has a double bond).
1. III) Polymerisation Process
Use school kits.

1. g), h) Uses and Properties of Commercially Significant Monomers

MONMERS
POLYMERS
Common
Systematic
Name
Properties
Ethylene
Ethene
LDPE
Low density, soft
HDPE
High density, hard
Vinyl
Chloroethylene
Polyvinyl
Water resistant and
Chloride
chloride
flame resistant
Styrene
Ethenylbenzene
Polystyrene Transparent due to
few crystals

Uses
Food bags Buckets
Raincoats, light
switch, waterpipes
CD cases

2. Cellulose
2. a) Alternative Resources
Fossil fuels take millions of years to
accumulate and resources are finite. Current
supplies will run out during the next 100 years.
Over 95% of fossil fuels are burnt for energy
and are no longer available once burned. Less
than 5% makes plastics and even less is
recycled. In the future alternative sources need
to be used for energy and materials. - Biomass,
Cellulose, Ethylene from Ethanol through
dehydration
2. b) Condensation Polymer
Condensation polymers are formed by
monomer molecules condensing out small
molecules (H2O) as the polymer chain forms.
2. c) Condensation Polymer Reaction
When a condensation polymer is formed, two
molecules react, forming the new compound
and a small molecule (usually water).
Glucose monomers react through two hydroxyl
groups (-OH) and a water molecule (H-OH)
condenses out leaving an oxygen (-O-) linking
the two monomer molecules.
2. d) Cellulose
Cellulose is a condensation polymerisation of
-glucose monomers.
nC6H12O6 nH2O + (C6H10O5)n
Structure:
- Flat, straight and rigid molecule
- CH2OH groups on opposite sides of
adjoining glucose monomers
- Hydroxy groups form hydrogen bonds
holding cellulose chains together. This
results in long strong cellulose fibres (wood
is a strong building material)
- Reduced hydroxy groups - insoluble and
resistant to chemicals
Biomass:
- Organic matter produced from plant
- Cellulose is most abundant biopolymer in
nature
- Makes up cell walls of plants - dry plant
material consists of up to 50% cellulose

2. e) Cellulose as a Potential Fuel

Cellulose is a polymer of 3 and 4 carbon chains
in structure of a glucose monomer. Carbon
chains have hydrogen and hydroxide groups
attached. Petrochemicals produced from
petroleum can be obtained from these
Advantages
Cellulose is a renewable
resource abundant in
waste materials
It contains the required
carbon-chain structures
Products are
biodegradable reducing
pollution
structures.

Disadvantages
Expensive to break
down
Takes up lots of space
to grow enough for use
Biodegradable products
dont last as long

1. I)Polyhydroxybutyrate
Properties: thermoplasticity, biodegradability,
biocompatibility, stiff and brittle, highly
crystalline, high melting point.
Enzyme or Organism : polyesters are
produced as energy storage materials by many
bacteria such as Alcaligenes eutrophus.
Use: biodegradable plastics, a wide range of
medical applications.
Economic: cost is a lot higher than plastics
produced from petrochemicals.
Social: (biodegradable) requires separate
collection, involvement of general public and
greater community responsibility in installing
recycling systems.
Environmental: biodegradable but concerns of
how large quantities effect the environment.
Political: possible legislation and tax.
Energy Benefit: low energy content, therefore
saving energy.
PHB is produced from renewable sources, has a
low energy content and similar properties to
those of conventional plastics, therefore
making it a good energy source.

3. Other renewable resources

3. a) Dehydration of Ethanol
Concentrated sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid is
added to heated ethanol as a catalyst.
C2 H5OH H2O
+
C2H4

Ethanol

Water

Ethene

3. b) Hydration of Ethylene
Dilute aqueous sulfuric acid is added to heated
ethene as a catalyst.
H2O
+
C2H4
C2 H5OH

Water

Ethene

Ethanol

Low oxygen concentrations so ethanol

cannot further oxidise
Small amounts of Yeast Nutrients such as
Phosphate Salts
Once ethanol concentration reaches 1415% by volume, the yeast cannot survive
and fermentation stops therefore a dilute
aqueous solution of glucose is needed.

3. f) Chemistry of Fermentation
Water and yeast are added. Sucrose reacts with
water producing glucose and fructose. Yeast
breaks down complex carbohydrates to form
simple sugars, which are used as a source of
energy.
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose + Water Glucose + Fructose
yeast

3. c) Ethanol as a Polar/Non-Polar Solvent

Ethanol has a water loving hydroxide group
that helps dissolve polar molecules and ionic
substance. Its water fearing short hydrocarbon
chains attract non-polar molecules. Uses
include dissolving medicines and food
flavourings that dont easily dissolve in water.
3.d) Ethanol as a Fuel
When ethanol combusts in air it releases carbon
dioxide and heat. Oxygen atom ensures
complete combustion. Hardly any carbon
monoxide and carbon pollutants are produced.
Ethanol is a renewable resource because it can
be made from plant material and the product of
its combustion, CO2 and H2O are the raw
material needed by plants for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Fermentation:
C6H12O6 + 6H2O 2CH3CH2OH + CO2
Combustion of Ethanol:
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
3. e) Conditions for fermentation of sugar
Fermentation: Biochemical process in which
sugars are turned into ethanol and carbon
dioxide by the action of enzymes.
- Micro-organisms such as yeast - catalyst
- Sugar and water
- Suitable temp(37oC) for yeast to grow

C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g)

glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
3.g) Molar Heat of Combustion
Molar heat of combustion is amount of heat
energy released (exothermic)on combustion of
1 mole of a substance. CO2 and H2O are
produced for organic fuels.

3. h) Advantages and Disadvantages

Ethanol can be used in internal combustion if it
can be economically produced from renewable
resources or subsidised as a fuel to reduce air
pollution.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Complete combustion
Low price of still
with minimal pollution
readily available
petroleum
Made in several ways
Large areas of land
needed to grow crops
for ethanol production
Renewable resource

3. i) Naming Alkanols
General Formula: CnH2n + 1OH
1. Methanol
2. Ethanol
3. 1-Propanol, 2- Propanol
4. 1-Butanol, 2-Butanol
5. 1-Pentanol, 2-Pentanol, 3-Pentanol
6. 1-Hexanol, 2-Hexanol, 3-Hexanol
7. 1-Heptanol, 2-Heptanol, 3-Heptanol, 4Heptanol
8. 1-Octanol, 2-Octanol, 3-Octanol, 4-Octanal
3. I) Hydration and Dehydration Reaction
see 3.a, 3.b
3. II) Ethanol from Sugar Cane
C6H12O6(aq) 2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
1.
Ethanol (15%) solution is distilled in
2.
distillation column, chemicals remove
water, distilled column, condensed, end
product is pure ethanol
3. III) Ethanol as an Alternative Car Fuel
Ethanol is renewable because its created using
biomass and fermentation. It undergoes
complete combustion because it contains an
oxygen atom, thus it doesnt release harmful
products. It also produces water and carbon
dioxide which are required for photosynthesis,
which creates monomers to make cellulose.
Howver it costs more to produce and only
contains 2/3 amount of energy of petrol. It
causes more wear on a combustion engine and
speeds up engine corrosion when in a
concentration of >10-15%, so a more
sophisticated motor must be invented. Need to
modify fuel lines and even the engine if ethanol
is more than 10-55% when mixed with petrol
3. IV) Alcoholic Fermentation
Method:
1. 0.15 mol L solution of
glucose
2. Add 1 g of dried yeast
and mix
3. Add water to second
test tube
4. Weigh
5. Repeat but with lime water in second test
tube
6. Leave to ferment then record mass

Results:
Yeast Flask
Control

1
215.22g
238.24g

2
212.30g
238.04g

Difference
-2.92g
-0.2g

3. V) Fermentation of Glucose to Ethanol

yeast

C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g)

3. VI) Heat of Combustion
Method:
1. Measure initial mass of burner plus alkanol
2. Measure mass in copper container
3. Light wick and allow fuel to burn until
temperature is 20C higher
4. Extinguish flame and reweigh burnet
5. Repeat with other alkanols
Results:
Copper container: 112.15
Spirit Burner methanol:
Temp: 24 to 48

Risks: flammability of the alkanols and

combustion was done in an open, wellventilated area. However, this reduced accuracy
as calorimetry needs an insulated environment.
Reasons for errors: loss of heat into
surrounding environment, heat used in heating
water vessel and incomplete combustion.

4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
4. a) Displacement of metals
More active metals displace less active metal
ions from solution. More active metal atom
loses electrons and becomes a positive ion.
Electrons are transferred to ions of less active
metal, resulting in them becoming metal atoms.
Fe nail in solution of blue CuSO4 dissolves:
Fe(s) Fe2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
Blue colour of Cu2+ ions disappear and dark
copper coating appears on nail surface.
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) (reduction)
Fe + Cu2+ Fe2+ + Cu (redox reduction)
4. b) Displacement vs. Activity
Metals higher in activity series displace ions of
less active metals when placed in a solution
containing ions of that metal. The active metal
atoms lose electrons to form cations. Less
active metal ions are displaced out of solution
as they form atoms.
4. c) Oxidation State
Measure of a chemical species degree in
oxidation.
- Oxidation - oxidation state increases OIL
- Reduction - oxidation state decreases RIG
- Reductant is oxidised
- Oxidant is reduced
- O = -2, H = 1
ClO-4
Cl x (-2) x 4 = -1
Cl x -8 = -1
Cl = 7
4. d), e), f) Half Cell Reactions

The Galvanic Cell:

- Reductant half cell
- Oxidant half cell
Electrons move through conductor (electrical
energy) from reductant to oxidant half cell.

Oxidation/Reduction:
- Oxidation occurs at anode AnOX
- Reduction occurs at cathode RedCat
- Electrons move from anode to cathode
- Cathode is part of oxidant half cell
- Anode is part of reductant half cell
Electrode: solid electric conductor which
electric current enters or leaves electrolytic cell.
Electricity flows by movement of electrons.
Anode: positively charged electrode where
oxidation occurs.
Cathode: negatively charged electrode where
reduction occurs.
Electrolyte: chemical compound that ionises
when dissolved to produce electrically
conductive medium. Electricity flows by
movement of ions.
Salt bridge: allows movement of ions between
half cells to prevent build up of positive charge
in anode cell as electrons leave.
4. I) Conditions of a Galvanic Cell
- transfer of electrons between two dissimilar
electrodes
- electrolyte (a salt solution)
- salt bridge for transfer of ions between cells
- conductive wire between electrodes
- each electrode must be in 1M salt solution
containing its own ion
- 25C, 100kPa of pressure
4. II) Potential of Half Cells
Method:
Samples of metals - Mg, Cu, Zn
1.
Beaker with 50mL of 0.15M CuSO4
2.
Attach each metal to circuit
3.
Use salt bridge soaked in potassium nitrate
4.
Record reading
5.
Repeat using different metal combinations
6.
Results:

Conclusion: able to find the reactivity of

metals tested and place in order of strongest
electron donor to weakest electron donor.

4. III), IV) Electrochemical Cells

Cell Feature
Anode
Anode Reaction
Cathode
Cathode Reaction
Electrolyte
Cost and
Practicality
Impact on Society
Environmental
Impact

Advantages
Disadvantages

TYPE OF CELL
Dry Cell
Button Cell
Zinc
Zinc
2+
Zn Zn + 2e
Zn +2OH ZnO + H2O + 2eC + MnO2
C + Ag2O
NH4 + MnO2 + H2O + e Mn(OH)3 Ag2O + H2O + 2e- 2Ag + 2OH+ NH3
Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride Potassium hydroxide solution in a
paste
porous carrier
Inexpensive to produce, cheap to buy. Expensive to produce (metals). Small
Large but practical for devices
size watches, hearing aids
needing small currents clocks
Inexpensive positive impact
Small positive impact
Minimal magnese is oxidised to
Small size small impact
insoluble magnese oxide and
immobilised. Small amounts of zinc,
ammonia salts and carbon are
harmless
Cheap
High energy density over a long period
of time. Small.
Polarise so they cant be used for long
Expensive

4. V) Calculate a Potential E
Galvanic cell involving zinc and copper:
Cu | Cu2+ || Zn2+ | Zn
- single vertical line represents boundary
between phases
- double vertical line represents a salt bridge
or porous pot through which ions can move

In this galvanic cell, the changes are:

Zn
Zn2+ + 2eE = +0.76V
2+
Cu + 2e Cu
E = +0.34 V
2+
2+
Zn + Cu Zn + Cu
E = 1.10V
Thus, this galvanic cell is predicted to produce
1.10 volts.

5. Nuclear Chemistry
5.a) Stable and radioactive isotopes AZE
Isotopes have same atomic number(Z) but
different mass(A), which is caused by different
numbers of neutrons.
Radioactive isotopes are unstable and emit
energy or decay (atomic number larger than 83
- nucleus becomes too heavy). Stability is
measured using half-life (time for half unstable
nuclei to decay.
Radiation

Sign

Type

Electric Field

Alpha

Helium
nuclei 42He

Beta

Electron -10e

Gamma

High energy
electromagne
tic radiation

particles
deflect towards
negative plate
particles
deflect towards
positive plate
not deflected

5. b) Transuranic Elements
Transuranic elements have atomic number >92.
23 are man made. Z = 93, 94, 95 are produced
in nuclear reactors by absorbing neutrons.
When Uranium U-238 is bombarded with
neutrons it is converted to U-239 which
undergoes beta decay to produce neptunium
and plutonium.
5.c) Production of Radioisotopes
Nuclear transformation occurs when highspeed subatomic particle collide with nucleus
of atom. Particle is neutron produced in reactor
or charged particle sped up (in linear
accelerator). Bombarding particles may become
included in target nucleus creating a new
unstable or radioactive isotope.
Technetium does not occur naturally on earth
but can be synthesised by bombardment of
molybdenum-98 with hydrogen-2 nuclei.
5. d) Detecting Radioisotopes
Photographic Film: radiation affects
photographic film - greater extent of exposure,
the darker the area of the developed negative.

Geiger-Muller tube: detects ionisation

radiation. Tube contains a gas that is ionised by
radiation entering, which causes a current that
is recorded.
Scintillation Counter: detects low energy
radiation (non-ionising). Radiation causes
electrons to have a higher energy level. As they
give out light they return to their usual level.
The light is changed to a pulse of electricity
that is recorded.
5. e), f) Use of Radioisotopes
Technetium-99m:
- number of oxidation states enables wide
range of biologically active chemicals that
concentrate in organs - heart defect,
pinpointing brain tumours, cancerous
growth
- short half life of 6 hours and quickly
eliminated from the body
- emits low energy gamma rays
- kills healthy cells and risk of long-term
danger to equipment operators and over
radiation to patient
Cobalt-60:
- inspect metal parts and welds for defects radiographic film on opposite side of source
is exposed when struck by radiation passing
through object. More passes through cracks.
Sructural problems are detected from film.
- gamma radiation penetrates metal parts
- 5.3 year half life and chemically inert form
enables long life and low maintenance
- production produces radioactive waste
materials and used Co-60 is difficult to
dispose of. Accidental contamination
5. I) Recent Discoveries of Elements
Transuranic elements do not occur in nature.
They are all produced artificially and are
radioactive. Twenty elements with atomic
numbers 96-118 require high-energy particle
accelerators to be produced. Technetium
discovered in 1937, others in 1940s, and in 50s
and 60s made from high speed particles.
Element 106 was made in 1974, and others
continue to be discovered.

5. II) Radioactive Isotopes

see 5.e, f