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Title: Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals
Author: Thomas Davidson
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The Great Educators

Edited by NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
ARISTOTLE
AND
ANCIENT EDUCATIONAL IDEALS
BY
THOMAS DAVIDSON
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1892

COPYRIGHT, 1892, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS.

PREFACE
In undertaking to treat of Aristotle as the expounder of ancient
educational ideas, I might, with Kapp's _Aristoteles' Staatspaedagogik_
before me, have made my task an easy one. I might simply have presented
in an orderly way and with a little commentary, what is to be found on
the subject of education in his various works--Politics, Ethics,
Rhetoric, Poetics, etc. I had two reasons, however, for not adopting
this course: (1) that this work had been done, better than I could do
it, in the treatise referred to, and (2) that a mere restatement of what
Aristotle says on education would hardly have shown his relation to
ancient pedagogy as a whole. I therefore judged it better, by tracing
briefly the whole history of Greek education up to Aristotle and down
from Aristotle, to show the past which conditioned his theories and the
future which was conditioned by them. Only thus, it seemed to me, could
his teachings be seen in their proper light. And I have found that this
method has many advantages, of which I may mention one. It has enabled
me to show the close connection that existed at all times between Greek
education and Greek social and political life, and to present the one
as the reflection of the other. And this is no small advantage, since it
is just from its relation to the whole of life that Greek education
derives its chief interest for us. We can never, indeed, return to the
purely political education of the Greeks; they themselves had to abandon
that, and, since then,
A boundless hope has passed across the earth-a hope which gives our education a meaning and a scope far wider than
any that the State aims at; but in these days, when the State and the
institution which embodies that hope are contending for the right to
educate, it cannot but aid us in settling their respective claims, to
follow the process by which they came to have distinct claims at all,
and to see just what these mean. This process, the method which I have
followed has, I hope, enabled me, in some degree, to bring into
clearness. This, at all events, has been one of my chief aims.
In treating of the details of Greek educational practice, I have been
guided by a desire to present only, or mainly, those which contribute to
make up the complete picture. For this reason I have omitted all
reference to the training for the Olympic and other games, this (so it
seems to me) being no essential part of the system.
It would have been easy for me to give my book a learned appearance, by
checkering its pages with references to ancient authors, or quotations,
in the original, from them; but this has seemed to me both unnecessary
and unprofitable in a work intended for the general public. I have,
therefore, preferred to place at the heads of the different chapters,
in English mostly, such quotations as seemed to express, in the most
striking way, the spirit of the different periods and theories of Greek
education. Taken together, I believe these quotations will be found to
present a fairly definite outline of the whole subject.
In conclusion, I would say that, though I have used a few modern works,
such as those of Kapp and Grasberger, I have done so almost solely for
the sake of finding references. In regard to every point I believe I

have turned to the original sources. If, therefore, my conclusions on

certain points differ from those of writers of note who have preceded
me, I can only say that I have tried to do my best with the original
materials before me. I am far from flattering myself that I have reached
the truth in every case, and shall be very grateful for corrections, in
whatever spirit they may be offered; but I trust that I have been able
to present in their essential features, the "ancient ideals of
education."
THOMAS DAVIDSON.
"Glenmore,"
Keene, Essex Co., N.Y.
October, 1891.

CONTENTS
BOOK I.
INTRODUCTORY.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
Character and Ideal of Greek Education

CHAPTER II.
Branches of Greek Education

CHAPTER III.
Conditions of Education

CHAPTER IV.
Subjects of Education

12

CHAPTER V.
Education as Influenced by Time, Place,
and Circumstances

15

CHAPTER VI.
Epochs in Greek Education

26

BOOK II.
THE HELLENIC PERIOD (B.C. 776-338).
PART I.
_THE "OLD EDUCATION"_ (B.C. 776-480).
CHAPTER I.
Education for Work and Leisure
CHAPTER II.

33

olian or Theban Education

38

CHAPTER III.
Dorian or Spartan Education

41

CHAPTER IV.
Pythagoras

52

CHAPTER V.
Ionian or Athenian Education
(1) Family Education
(2) School Education
() Music l ( nd Liter ry) Educ tion
() Gymn stics, or Bodily Tr ining
() Dancin

(3) Colle
e Education
(4) University Education

60
64
67
72
77
82
85
90

PART II.
_THE "NEW EDUCATION"_ (B.C. 480-338).
CHAPTER I.
Individualism and Philosophy

93

CHAPTER II.
Xenophon

114

CHAPTER III.
Plato

133

BOOK III.
ARISTOTLE (B.C. 384-322).
CHAPTER I.
His Life and Works

153

CHAPTER II.
His Philosophy

161

CHAPTER III.
His Theory of the State

166

CHAPTER IV.
His Peda
o
ical State

172

CHAPTER V.
Education durin
the first Seven Years

184

CHAPTER VI.
Education from Seven To Twenty-one

188

CHAPTER VII.
Education after Twenty-one

200

BOOK IV.
THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD (B.C. 338-A.D. 313).
CHAPTER I.
From Ethnic to Cosmopolitan Life

205

CHAPTER II.
Quintilian and Rhetorical Education

214

CHAPTER III.
Plotinus and Philosophic Education

225

CHAPTER IV.
Conclusion

231

APPENDIX.
The Seven Liberal Arts

239

BIBLIOGRAPHY

249

INDEX

253

BOOK I
INTRODUCTORY

ERRATA.
Pa
e 19, line 5 from below, insert 102.
53, " 6 "
"
" 133.
181, " 14 "
"
for "and" read "or."
250, " 11 "
"
" "Watsno" read "Watson."

ARISTOTLE

CHAPTER I
CHARACTER AND IDEAL OF GREEK EDUCATION
Nothin
in excess!--Solon.

No citizen has a ri
ht to consider himself as belon
in
to himself;

but all ou
ht to re
ard themselves as belon
in
to the State,
inasmuch as each is a part of the State; and care for the part
naturally looks to care for the whole.--Aristotle.
Greek life, in all its manifestations, was dominated by a sin
le idea,
and that an sthetic one. This idea, which worked sometimes consciously,
sometimes unconsciously, was PROPORTION. The Greek term for this
(_Lo
os_) not only came to desi
nate the incarnate Word of Reli
ion, but
has also supplied many modern lan
ua
es with a name for the Science of
Manifested Reason--Lo
ic. To the Greek, indeed, Reason always meant
ratio, proportion; and a rational life meant to him a life of which all
the parts, internal and external, stood to each other in just
proportion. Such proportion was threefold; _first_, between the
different parts of the individual human bein
; _second_, between the
individual and his fellows in a social whole; _third_, between the
human, as such, and the overrulin
divine. The realization of this
threefold harmony in the individual was called by the Greeks WORTH
(, usually, bu incocly, ndd Viu). Th has com down
o us, fom h pn of Aisol, in whom all ha was implici in
Hllnism bcam xplici, a poion of a pan addssd o his idal.
I may b fily insd h, in a lial anslaion.
TO WORTH.
O Woh! sn askmisss of human kind,
Lif's nobls piz:
O Vigin! fo hy bauy's sak
I is an nvid lo in Hllas vn o di,
And suff oils dvouing, unassuagd-So wll dos hou dic h spii
To fui immoal, b han gold
And pans and sof-yd slp.
Fo hy caus Jov-bon Hculs and Lda's sons
Much undwn, by dds
Thy pow poclaiming.
Fo lov of h Achills and Ajax o Hads' halls wn down.
Fo hy da bauy's sak Aanus' nusling oo widowd h glancs
of h sun.
Thfo, as on nownd fo dds and dahlss, him h Muss
shall xal,
Th daughs of Mmoy, xaling so h gloy of Sang-guading
Jov, and h hono of findship fim.
Wih gad o his idal, fou hings a spcially nowohy;
_fis_, ha i ook an xhausiv suvy of man's nau and
laions; _scond_, ha i calld fo song, psisn, hoic
ffo; _hid_, ha i ndd o sink h individual in h social
whol and h univsal od; _fouh_, ha is aim was, on h whol,
a saic pfcion. Th fis wo w mis; h scond wo,
dmis. Th fis mi pvnd h Gks fom pusuing on-sidd
sysms of ducaion; h scond, fom ying o un ducaion ino a
mans of amusmn. Aisol says disincly, "Educaion ough
cainly no o b und ino a mans of amusmn; fo young popl
a no playing whn hy a laning, sinc all laning is
accompanid wih pain." Th fis dmi was pjudicial o individual
liby, and hfo obsuciv of h highs human dvlopmn; h
scond ncouagd Uopian dams, which, bing always of saic

condiions, undisubd by h oils and hos ssnial o pogss,

nd o poduc impainc of ha slow advanc whby alon man
aivs a nduing suls. To his ndncy w ow such woks as
Plao's _Rpublic_ and Xnophon's _Educaion of Cyus_.

CHAPTER II
BRANCHES OF GREEK EDUCATION
Wih h h agd ca-bon Plus sn m on h day whon fom
Phhia o Agammnon h sn h, a m boy, no y acquaind
wih muual wa o councils, in which mn is o disincion--fo
his nd h sn m foh o ach h all hs hings, o b a
spak of wods and a do of dds.--(_Phnix in_) Hom.
Abov all and by vy mans w povid ha ou ciizns shall hav
good souls and song bodis.--Lucian.
Lif is h oiginal school--lif, domsic and social. All oh
schools mly xcis funcions dlgad by h family and by
sociy, and i is no unil h la has achd such a sa of
complicaion as o ncssia a division of labo ha spcial schools
xis. Among h Homic Gks w find no mnion of schools, and h
only pson codd as having had a uo is Achills, who was sn
away fom hom so aly in lif as o b dpivd of ha ducaion
which h would naually hav civd fom his fah. In wha ha
ducaion consisd, w lan fom h fis quoaion a h had of
his chap. I consisd in such aining as would mak h pupil "a
spak of wods and a do of dds"--a man loqun and psuasiv in
council, and bav and solu on h fild of bal. Fo hs nds
h quid, as Lucian says, a good soul and a song body.
Ths xpssions mak h wo ga divisions ino which Gk
ducaion a all piods fll--MENTAL EDUCATION and PHYSICAL
EDUCATION--as wll as hi oiginal aims, viz. goodnss (ha is,
bavy) of soul and sngh of body. As im wn on, hs aims
undwn considabl changs, and consqunly h mans fo aaining
hm considabl modificaions and xnsions. Physical ducaion aimd
mo and mo a bauy and gac, insad of sngh, whil mnal
ducaion, in is ffo o xnd islf o all h pows of h mind,
dividd islf ino liay and musical ducaion.
As w hav sn, h Gks aimd a dvloping all h pows of h
human bing in du popoion and hamony. Bu, in cous of im, hy
discovd ha h human cau coms ino h wold wih his pows,
no only undvlopd, bu alady disodd and inhamonious; ha no
only do h gms of manhood qui o b cafully wachd and ndd,
bu also ha h gound in which hy a o gow mus b clad fom
an ovgowh of choking wds, bfo ducaion can b undakn wih
any hop of succss. This claing pocss was calld by h la
Gks _Kahasis_, o Pugaion, and playd an v-incasing pa in
hi pdagogical sysms. I was supposd o do fo man's moional
nau wha Mdicin undook o do fo his body. Th mans mployd
w mainly music and h kindd as, which h ancins blivd o
x wha w should now call a dmonic ffc upon h soul, dawing
off h xciing causs of disubing passion, and laving i in

compl possssion of islf. I would hadly b oo much o say ha

h pow o x his pugaiv influnc on h soul was gadd by
h ancins as h chif funcion and nd of h Fin As. Such was
cainly Aisol's opinion.
Whn pugaion and h wofold ducaion of body and mind had poducd
hi pfc wok, h sul was wha h Gks calld _Kalokagahia_
() th t is, F ir- nd-Gdness. Either h f f this ide  w s
n med (_a_), Woh o Excllnc. W a xpssly old by
Aisol (_Cagois_, chap. viii.) ha h adjciv o is
(_
i_), wr
which we  lly ren
er int Englih by
"e rnet." An
we
  with re n; fr t the Greek, Excellence r
Wrth me nt, bve ll, e rnetne, gen inene, tr thf lne,
thr ghne, bence f frivlity.

CHAPTER III
CONDITIONS OF EDUCATION
Sme hl
th t men becme g
by n t re, ther by tr ining, ther
by intr ctin. The  rt th t i
e t n t re bvi ly
e nt

een
n , b t i im rte
thr gh cert in
ivine c e t the
tr ly frt n te.--Arittle.
It i nt merely begetting th t m ke the f ther, b t l the
im rting f nble e
c tin.--Jhn Chrytm.
There re tw rt f e
c tin, the ne
ivine, the ther h m n.
The
ivine i gre t n
trng n
e y; the h m n m ll n
we k
n
beet with m ny
nger n

el in. Neverthele, the l tter
m t be

e
t the frmer, if
right re lt i t be
re che
.--Din Chrytm.
The  me thing th t we re wnt t ert reg r
ing the rt n

cience, m y be erte
reg r
ing mr l wrth, viz. th t the
r
ctin f cmletely j t ch r cter
em n
 three
cn
itin--n t re, re n, n
h bit. By "re n" I me n
intr ctin, by "h bit," tr ining.... N t re with t intr ctin i
blin
; intr ctin with t n t re, helle; exercie (tr ining)
with t bth, imle.--Pl t rch.
T the re liz tin f their i
e l in ny in
ivi
l the Greek cnceive

three cn
itin t be nece ry, (1) nble n t re, (2) eritent
exercie r tr ining in right ctin, (3) c ref l intr ctin. If ny
ne f thee w  l cking, the highet re lt c l
nt be tt ine
.
(1) T be well r nbly brn w  reg r
e
by the Greek  ne f the
bet gift f the g
. Arittle
efine nble birth  " ncient we lth
n
wrth," n
thi f irly en gh exree the Greek view gener lly.
N t r lly en gh, therefre, the Greek in m rrying lke
bve ll
thing t the ch nce f wrthy ffring. In
ee
, it m y be f irly
 i
th t the  re f the Greek in m rri ge w , nt  m ch t
wrthy mther fr hi
ec re helmeet fr himelf  t fin

chil
ren. In Greece,  everywhere ele in the ncient wrl
, m rri ge
w  lke
n lely  n rr ngement fr the rcre tin n
re ring
f ffring. The rm ntic,  thlgic l lve-element, which l y 

imrt nt  rt in m
ern m tch-m king, w  lmt entirely bent
mng the Greek. Wh t lve there w ,  me
either the nble frm f
enth i tic frien
hi r the b e ne f free l t. In ite f thi,
n
f the f ct th t wm n w  reg r
e

me n n
nt  n en
,
the rel tin between Greek h b n
 n
wive were very ften  ch 
t ren
er the f mily chl f virt e fr the chil
ren. They were
nble, weet, n
trng,-- ll the mre , it h l
eem, th t they
were b e
, nt n
el ive entiment lity, b t n re n n

ene f recirc l
ty.
(2) The v l e f exercie, r ctice, h bit tin, eem t h ve been f r
better n
ert
by the ncient th n by the m
ern. Wh tever m n
h  t
, be it e king, wimming, l ying, r fighting, he c n le rn
nly by
ing it; thi w 
niver lly ccete
m xim. The m
ern
h bit f trying t te ch l ng ge n
virt e by r le, nt rece
e
by
extenive r ctice, w l
h ve eeme
t the ncient  b r
 the
ntin th t m n c l
le rn t wim befre ging int the w ter.
Pr ctice firt; thery fterw r
:
 the
ee
, n
ye h ll knw f
the
ctrine--  i
ncient Wi
m, t which the ntin th t chil
ren
h l
nt be c lle
n t erfrm ny ct, r  bmit t ny
retrictin, with t h ving the gr n
 theref exl ine
t them, w l

h ve eeme
the cmlete inverin f ll cientific meth
. It w  by
initing n cert in r ctice in chil
ren, n the gr n
f imle
thrity, th t the ncient  ght t inc lc te the virt e f
reverence fr exerience n
wrth, n
reect fr l w.
(3) The wrk beg n by n t re, n
cntin e
by h bit r exercie, w 
cmlete
n
crwne
by intr ctin. Thi h
, ccr
ing t the Greek,
tw f nctin, (_ _) t m ke ctin free, by m king it r tin l, (_b_)
t m ke ible n
v nce t rigin l ctin. N t re n
h bit left
men thr ll, gverne
by intinct n
recritin; intr ctin,
revel tin f the gr n
 f ctin, et them free. S ch free
m, b e

n inight, w  t the thinker f Greece the re liz tin f m nh

, r
r ther, f the
ivine in m n. "The tr th h ll m ke y free"--n ne
n
ert
thi better th n they. Hence, with ll their te
y
initence n r ctice in e
c tin, they never reg r
e
it  the
ltim te en
, r  ny en
t ll, excet when g i
e
by inight, the
fr it f intr ctin. A r ctic lity le
ing t n wi
ening f the
irit l hrizn, t n freeing inight, w  t them illiber l,
l vih,  ltry--"b n ic," they  i
,--
egr
ing bth t b
y n

 l.

CHAPTER I
SUBJECTS FOR EDUCATION
It i right th t Greek h l
r le ver b rb ri n, b t nt
b rb ri n ver Greek; fr the re l ve, b t thee re free
men.--E rii
e.
B rb ri n n
l ve re by n t re the  me.--Arittle.
N t re en
e vr t m ke the b
ie f freemen n
l ve
ifferent;
the l tter trng fr nece ry e, the frmer erect n
ele
fr  ch er tin, b t ef l fr litic l life.... It i
evi
ent, then, th t by n t re me men re free, ther l ve, n

th t, in the c e f the l tter, l very i bth benefici l n

j t.--_I
._
Intr ctin, th gh it l inly h  wer t
irect n
tim l te the
gener  mng the y ng ... i  l inly werle t t rn the
m  f men t nbility n
g
ne (_K lk g thi _). Fr it i nt
in their n t re t be g i
e
by reverence, b t by fe r, nr t
bt in frm lw thing bec e they re
igr cef l, b t (nly)
bec e they ent il  nihment.--_I
._
In thinking f Greek e
c tin  f rnihing ible m
el fr 
m
ern, there i ne int which it i imrt nt t be r in min
: Greek
e
c tin w  inten
e
nly fr the few, fr the we lthy n
well-brn.
Un ll ther, n l ve, b rb ri n, the wrking n
tr
ing
cl e, n
gener lly n ll ern en
ing their live in  r it
f we lth r ny riv te en
 wh tever, it w l
h ve eeme
t be
thrwn w y. Even well-brn wmen were gener lly excl
e
frm mt f
it benefit. The  bject f e
c tin were the n f f ll citizen,
themelve re ring t be f ll citizen, n
t exercie ll the
f nctin f  ch. The
tie f  ch ern were cmletely  mme

n
er tw he
,
tie t the f mily n

tie t the St te, r, 
the Greek  i
, cnmic n
litic l
tie. The free citizen nt
nly cknwle
ge
n ther
tie bei
e thee, b t he lke

wn n
ern wh  ght cc  tin in ny ther here. cnmy n
Plitic,
hwever, were very cmrehenive term. The frmer incl
e
the three
rel tin f h b n
t wife, f ther t chil
ren, n
m ter t l ve
n
rerty; the l tter, three  blic f nctin, legil tive,

minitr tive, n
j
ici ry. All cc  tin nt incl
e
n
er thee
ix he
 the free citizen left t l ve r rei
ent freigner.
Mney-m king, in the m
ern ene, he
eie
, n
, if he
evte

himelf t rt r hilhy, he
i
 nly fr the benefit f the
St te. If he imrve
the  trimny which w  the cn
itin f hi free
citizenhi, he
i
, nt by ch ffering r mney-len
ing, b t by
j
ici  m n gement, n
by kin
ly, b t firm, tre tment f hi l ve.
If he erfrme
ny gre t rtitic ervice t the St te--fr ex mle, if
he wrte tr ge
y fr St te religi  fetiv l ( n
l y were never
written fr ny ther  re)--the nly rew r
he lke
frw r
t w 
crwn f live r l rel n
the reect f hi fellw-citizen.
The Greek
ivi
e
m nkin
, in ll the rel tin f life, int tw
gverne
, n
cni
ere
the frmer

itinct cl e, gverning n

lne  the  bject f e

c tin; the l tter being mere intr ment in
it h n
. The gverning cl  req ire
e
c tin in r
er th t it
might gvern itelf n
the ther cl , in ccr
nce with re n n

j tice; th t ther, receiving it g i

nce frm the gverning cl ,
req ire
n e
c tin, r nly  ch  w l
en ble it t bey. It
fllwe
th t the
ty f the gverning cl  w  t gvern; f the
gverne
, t bey. Only in thi crrel tin f
tie
i
e ch cl 
fin
it ef lne n
 tif ctin. Any ttemt t
it rb r invert
thi crrel tin w 
wilf l r nning in the teeth f the l w f
n t re, rebellin g int the
ivine r
er f thing.
A h b n
, f ther, m ter in the f mily, n
 legil tr, fficer,
j
ge in the St te, e ch member f the gverning cl  f n
hi rer
r nge f ctivitie; n
he
i
wrng,
egr
ing himelf t the level f
the erving cl , if he  ght ny ther. Thi view, in mre r le
cnci  frm, erv
e the whle ncient wrl
, cn
itining ll it
ntin n
therie f e
c tin; n
P l the Atle nly eche
it
when he  i
t wive: "Wive, be in  bjectin t y r wn h b n
 
t the Lr
"; t chil
ren: "Chil
ren, bey y r  rent in the Lr
: fr

thi i right"; n
t l ve: "Sl ve, be be
ient nt them th t
ccr
ing t the fleh re y r m ter with fe r n
trembling, in
inglene f he rt,  nt Chrit."

CHAPTER 
EDUCATION AS INFLUENCED BY TIME, PLACE, AND CIRCUMSTANCES
The ec li r ch
et blihe it
Since the whle
there h l
be

r cter f e ch frm f gvernment i wh t

t the beginning n
wh t  lly reerve it....
St te h  b t ne en
, it i l inly nece ry th t
ne e
c tin fr ll the citizen.--Arittle.

E
c tin mng the Greek,  mng every ther rgreive ele,
v rie
with time n
circ mt nce. The e
c tin f the Hmeric Greek
w  nt th t f the Atheni n in the
y f Arittle, nr the l tter
the  me  the e
c tin f the cntemr ry S rt n r Theb n.
Mrever, the e
c tin ct lly im rte
w  nt the  me  th t

em n
e
r recmmen
e
by hilher n
writer n e
ggic. It i
tr e th t the im w  lw y the  me; Wrth, Excellence,
F ir- n
-G
ne (, ); but this w s differenty
cnceived nd differenty striven fter t different times nd in
different p ces.
Amn
the Hmeric Grees, s we h ve seen, educ tin, bein
purey
pr ctic , imin
ny t m in
its subject " spe er f wrds nd
der f deeds," w s c uired in the ctu  intercurse nd stru

es f
ife. The simpe cnditins f their existence dem nded n ther
educ tin nd, cnse uenty, n speci  educ tin  institutins. These
cnditins, s described by Hmer, thu
h by n me ns b rb rus, re
primitive. Nm dism h s n
been eft behind nd the  ter
vi
e-cmmunities h ve been msty mer
ed in w ed twns,
ener y
situ ted t sme dist nce frm the shre, n r ne r hi, whse
summit frms cit de fr refu
e in c ses f d n
er. Even in the mst
dv nced f these twns, hwever, the type f civiiz tin is sti
 r
ey p tri rch . The
vernment is in the h nds f chiefs r in
s
() camng to b born and brd of Jov, as, ndd, n a sns,
thy wr, snc thy rud qut as much by rght of prsona worth,
whch mor than anythng s du to th grac of God, as by hrdtary
tt. Worth n thos days consstd n physca strngth, courag,
bauty, judgmnt, and powr to addrss an assmby, and any kng provng
dfcnt n ths quats woud soon hav found hs poston
nscur, or bn compd to fortfy t by awss tyranny. Th
functons dvovng upon th kng wr many thr, thos of judg,
mtary commandr, and prst. Th frst rqurd judgmnt and rady
spch; th scond, strngth and ntgnt courag; th thrd,
prsona bauty and dgnty. Though th kngs wr aowd to xrcs
grat powr, ths was not rrsponsb or arbtrary. On th contrary,
t was compatb wth grat pubc frdom n spch and acton.
Savry xstd ony to a mtd xtnt and n a md form. A fr
hads of fams, howvr poor, had a rght to attnd th popuar
assmby, whch th kng consutd on a mportant mattrs, and at
whch th frst dscusson was aowd. Whn th kngs xrcsd
judca powr, thy dd so n accordanc wth crtan _thmsts_ or
aws, hd to hav orgnatd wth Zus, and not accordng to thr own
caprc. As thr was tt commrc n thos days, th nhabtants of

th ancnt cts, whn not ngagd n warfar, dvotd thmsvs

chfy to agrcutur, catt-rasng, and th usfu arts. In ths
vn th kngs thought t no sham to ngag. W fnd Pars hpng to
bud hs own paac, Odyssus constructng hs own bd, Lycaon cuttng
wood to mak charot-ras, and so on. Smary, w fnd Hn and
othr prncsss spnnng and wavng, wh Nauscaa, th daughtr of
th Phacan kng, washs th coths of th famy.
In such a prmtv socty, unacquantd wth ttrs, th hghr
ducaton found but fw asprants. Th ony prsons of scntfc
prtnsons mntond by Homr ar th physcans (who ar kws
surgons) and th soothsayrs. Th formr ar hghy apprcatd, and
ar aways chfs. Th soothsayrs ar th xponnts of dvn omns to
th communty, and occupy a knd of offca poston, k th Hbrw
prophts. No artsts, strcty spakng, ar mntond by Homr, xcpt
th bard, and h s much honord, as hstoran, tachr, and nsprr.
W fnd, ndd, that Achs and Pars ar profcnts n musc; but
such cass sm xcptona. Of artsans, svra ar mntond--th
workr n wood, th workr n horn and vory, th pottr (who uss th
wh), and so on. Th xstnc of othrs s mpd--th wavr, th
mason, th mta-workr, tc.
If thr wr no spca schoos n th hroc ag, f was so vd as
to b an xcnt schoo. Thn, as at a othr tms, t was
xtrmy soca, far mor so than our modrn f. Ths was du chfy
to thr causs, (1) th smanss of th stats, whch mad t possb
for vry ctzn to know, and to f hs sodarty wth, vry othr,
(2) th absnc of tts and formats, whch had not yt bn
ntroducd from th East, (3) th fact that th pop, spcay th
mn, spnt th gratr part of th day n th opn ar,--n th strts
and agora,--and so wr contnuay rubbng aganst ach othr. Ths
socaty had much to do wth th shapng of th Grk charactr, th
sant mnts of whch ar thus numratd by Zr, th hstoran
of Grk phosophy: "A strong sns of frdom, combnd wth a rar
suscptbty to proporton, form, and ordr, a kn rsh for
companonshp n f and acton, a soca tndncy whch compd th
ndvdua to combn wth othrs, to submt to th gnra w, to
foow th tradtons of hs famy and hs communty."
Btwn th smp soca condton dscrbd by Homr and that for
whch Arstot wrot, thr ntrvnd a prod of at ast sx hundrd
yars. Durng that tm many grat changs took pac n th soca and
potca f of th Grks, dmandng corrspondng changs n
ducaton. Ths changs wr du to svra causs, (1) th natura
human tndncy toward frdom, (2) th nfunc of forgn natons, (3)
th dvopmnt of commrc, (4) th ntroducton of ttrs, (5) th
rs of phosophy, (6) th Prsan Wars. Though a ths ar cosy
ntrwovn wth ach othr, thr can b no harm n tratng thm
sparaty.
(1) Th tndncy toward frdom, so ssntay charactrstc of human
natur, was spcay so of th natur of th Grks. Among thm t
rapdy manfstd tsf n an ordrd srs of potca forms,
bgnnng wth patrarchasm, and ndng varousy n th varous
stats and racs. Thr s, ndd, hardy a sng form of potca
f that was not razd among th Grks at som tm or pac. It
was ths that mad t possb for Arstot to wrt a work on Potcs
whch, n th words of a rcnt potca wrtr, "has rmand for two
thousand yars on of th purst sourcs of potca wsdom."

Th vard and changfu potca f of th Grks was n tsf a
grat ducaton. It mad thm awar of th prncps, potca and
thca, upon whch socty rsts, and rndrd ncssary a facuty of
car and rady xprsson, whch ractd most favoraby upon thr
ntctua and sthtc facuts. It was n th schoo of practca
potcs that th Grks acqurd thr rhtorc; and Arstot, n hs
trats on Potry, ts us that, wh "th odr pots mad thr
charactrs tak k statsmn, th atr ons mad thrs tak k
rhtorcans." Not ony, ndd, dd potca f ract upon th
drama, but, n dvopng rhtorc, t drw attnton to anguag and
d to th scncs of grammar and ogc, both of whch wr thus cad
nto xstnc by ra soca nds (s p. 102).
(2) Grc, yng, as t dd, btwn thr contnnts, and n th
thoroughfar of th ancnt natons, coud hardy fa to b vstd by
many dffrnt racs, or, consdrng ts bauty and commrca
advantags, to b covtd by thm. From ths foowd two consquncs,
(_a_) that th Grks wr a vry mxd rac, (_b_) that thy wr, from
th frst and at a tms, n manfod contact wth forgn pops.
That thy wr a mxd rac, s attstd ak by thr anguag, thr
mythoogy, and thr gnds. That thy wr n cos and contnua
communcaton wth forgn pops, s rndrd vdnt by thr
aphabt, thr art, and th drct statmnts of thr hstorans.
Athough t s tru that th Grks, spcay aftr th Prsan Wars,
rgardd thmsvs as a supror and chosn pop, cang a othrs
"barbarans," and consdrng thm as ft ony to b savs, t s not
th ss tru that hardy on of a th arts and scncs whch thy
utmaty carrd to a hgh dgr of prfcton had ts orgn n
Grc propr. A appar frst n th coons sttd among
"barbarans,"--n Egypt, Asa Mnor, Thrac, Crt, Scy, or Itay.
Archtctur, scuptur, pantng, potry--pc, yrc, dramatc--musc,
hstory, potcs, phosophy, wr a borrowd, transformd, and, wth
th xcpton prhaps of tragdy and pantng, carrd to a hgh dgr
of xcnc n th coons, bfor thy wr transpantd to th
mothr-country. It s byond any doubt that vn th Homrc gnds ar
of "barbaran" orgn, though from what pop thy wr borrowd s
uncrtan. It was th pastcty and vrsatty of thr charactr, du
n part to thr mxd bood, that, by nabng thm to approprat and
assmat th arts and scncs of thr nghbors, rasd th Grks
to a nw pan of cvzaton and mad thm th ntators of a nw
poch n hstory, th poch of f accordng to rason. Sr Hnry
Sumnr Man says, "Excpt th bnd forcs of Natur, nothng movs n
ths word whch s not Grk n ts orgn."
(3) It was chfy through commrc that th arts and scncs borrowd
by th coona Grks found thr way nto Grc propr. That forgn
art-objcts wr ntroducd nto t at an ary prod, s rndrd
crtan by th rcnt dscovrs at Mycn, Sparta, and othr pacs,
as w as by statmnts n th Homrc poms. That ths wr foowd
atr by artsts, brngng wth thm forgn art-procsss and
appancs, s quay crtan. Th arst scuptors whos nams ar
known to us, Dpns and Scys, wr natvs of Crt, sttd n
Scyon; and th arst potc gud of whch w hav any mnton s
that of th Homrd n th sand of Chos. But, bsds ntroducng
art and artsts nto Grc, commrc tndd to ducat th Grks n
othr ways. It mad thm acquantd wth forgn mannrs and uxurs,
and forcd thm to arn th arts of navgaton, shp-budng and
xchang, whch agan rndrd ncssary an acquantanc wth arthmtc
and th art of wrtng. And ths ads us to

(4) Th Introducton of Lttrs. Ths vnt, th dat of whch s

uncrtan, not ony xrcsd a most furthrng nfunc on th arts
and scncs, but gav rs to a nw branch of ducaton. Lttrs wr
probaby frst usd for dpomatc and trad purposs, thn for
nscrptons, and ast of a for th prptuaton of trary
productons. So much of a chang dd thy ffct n Grk ducaton that
vn n th bst tms th who of th trary and scntfc
ducaton was cad smpy "ttrs" (). A l te  the time f
Pl t letter eem t h ve been cni
ere

 rt f M ic, n
t h ve
been t ght by the  me te cher  the l tter; b t Arittle lre
y

iting ihe the tw. It i extremely rb ble th t the intr

ctin f
letter w  the imme
i te c e f the et blihment f chl fr
y th; fr we fin
n mentin f them rir t th t event.
(5) The intr
ctin f letter w  clely fllwe
by the rie f
Philhy, r the reflective irit. U t b t the ye r 600 B.C., the
Greek, like the ret f the wrl
, live
by h bit, tr
itin, n

recritin, h n
e
n, with little r n criticim, frm gener tin t
gener tin. Their i
e l wrl
w  h e
by the wrk f Hmer n

Hei
. "Hei
i the te cher f mt,"  y Her clit . Ab t the
te
n me
, hwever, ciety h ving
v nce
t
cn
itin f rg niz tin
which m
e ible
lei re cl , there begin t e r new
irit,
etine
t revl tinize, nt nly Greece, b t the whle wrl
.
Arme
with _wh t?_ _which?_
_why?_ n

_wherefre_? it n lnger
blin
ly ccet the wrl
f n t re n
m n, b t c ll n it t give
n cc nt f itelf. Science, hilhy, n
rt re the re lt.
At firt the new irit t rn t n t re with _wh t?_; b t, gr
lly

icvering th t the nwer t thi bring n cmlete exl n tin f

the wrl
, it r n
 it ther q etin. It th  rrive t
cnci ne f f r
iting ih ble element in the cntit tin f
thing,--f r c e (, ), as thy wr trmd,--(1) mattr,
(2) form, (3) ffcncy, (4) nd or am. At th sam tm, and by th
sam procss, t s forcd to a rcognton of th prsnc of rason
() nd intei
ence () i the wrld, sice frm, efficiecy,
ad aim all presuppse bth. It is thus cmpelled t tur frm ature t
ma, ad ma's mid, as the highest kw expressi f reas ad
itelligece, ad t devte itself t the csiderati f spirit, as
ale prmisig ay true explaati f the wrld. The prcess is a slw
ad difficult e, ad the histry f it is the histry f Greek
sciece, philsphy, ad art.
Befre the rise f philsphy, the teacher f the peple had bee the
rhapsde, r public reciter; after that evet he gradually gives place
t the sphist (, e wh makes wise), r, as he later with mre
mdesty calls himself, the philspher (, lver f wisdm). The
histry f Greece fr ceturies is,  its ier side, a histry f the
struggle betwee what the rhapsde represets ad what the philspher
represets, betwee ppular traditi ad cmm sese  the e had,
ad idividual pii ad philsphy  the ther. The trasiti frm
the first t the secd f these metal cditis was accmplished fr
the wrld, ce fr all, by the Greeks, ad the turig-pit i the
prcess is marked by
(6) The Persia Wars (B.C. 490-479). The victries gaied i these at
Marath, Salamis, ad Plat, victries the mst brilliat that histry
recrds, exerted a mst pwerful ifluece up the thught ad life f
the Greeks. The csciusess f havig, with their small umbers, ver
ad ver agai, bth by lad ad by sea, discmfited ad crushed the
cutless hsts f a empire which fr geeratis had threateed their

peace ad liberty, made them at ce feel the superirity f their w
characters ad civil istitutis t thse f the Persias, ad draw a
clear lie f demarcati betwee Greek ad barbaria. Frm this pit
, they felt themselves t be a chse peple, a ati destied by the
gds t rule all thers. "The sul f Greece had cquered the bulk f
Persia." Persia was bulk ad bdy; Greece was sul ad spirit. This
cvicti appears at ce i all the departmets f Greek life. I the
sphere f art we may istace the _Prmetheia_ f schylus ad the
Parthe. I the frmer, what des the cflict betwee Zeus ad
Prmetheus mea but the cflict betwee Greek spirituality, itellect,
ad freedm,  the e had, ad barbaria materiality, istict, ad
thraldm r ecessity,  the ther? Ad what is the latter but a
matchless pa i ste t Divie Wisdm, as the cquerr f brute
frce? I the sphere f thught, we fid Parmeides, Aaxagras ad,
abve all, Scrates (br te years after the secd Persia War),
turig csciusly t the study f spirit. "T be ad t thik are the
same thig," says the first f these: "All thigs were cfused; the
Mid came ad reduced them t rder," says the secd; "Kw thyself" is
the chse mtt f the third. I the plitical sphere we fid the
Atheias tryig t make the State a istrumet f itelligece ad
virtue, ad isistig up educati as a meas theret. Other ad less
desirable results fllwed frm the Persia Wars; but these ca be
better stated ad estimated i ather cecti.
Such were the chief causes that ctributed t trasfrm the simple
patriarchal State f the Hmeric Greeks, with its purely practical
educati at hme ad i the field, it the free plity f the Greeks
f the days f Miltiades, Themistcles, ad schylus, with its
cmplicated istitutis ad maifld educati. It has seemed better t
eumerate these causes tha t try t trace the steps f the
trasfrmati itself. Ideed this wuld have bee a hpeless task,
wig t the lack f histrical data.

CHAPTER I
EPOCHS IN GREEK EDUCATION
Whe they (ur acestrs) bega t ejy leisure fr thught, as the
result f easy circumstaces, ad t cherish mre exalted ideas with
respect t wrth, ad especially whe, i the perid befre ad
after the Persia Wars, they came t etertai a high pii f
themselves,  accut f their achievemets, they pursued all kids
f educati, makig  disticti, but beatig abut
geerally.--Aristtle.
I treatig f Greek educati subsequet t the itrducti f letters
ad the establishmet f schls, we shall be bliged, i the iterest
f clearess, t make three distictis:-(1) Betwee the educatial systems f differet perids.
(2) Betwee the educatial systems f differet peples ad states.
(3) Betwee the educati actually imparted i the varius states, ad
that recmmeded by therists r philsphers.

I pursuace f the first, it will be cveiet first t distiguish

tw mai perids, the Helleic, ad the Helleistic, ad the t
subdivide these it mir perids.
I. _The Helleic Perid_ (776-338 B.C.). This icludes, rughly
speakig, the whle histric life f free Greece, frm the date f the
first Olympiad t that f the absrpti f Greece it the Macedia
Empire. It aturally subdivides itself it tw perids, (_a_) 776-450;
(_b_) 450-338.
(_a_) That f the "Old Educati," authritative ad puritaical, whse
aim was the traiig f gd citizes, gd-fearig, law-abidig,
patritic, ad brave.
(_b_) That f the "New Educati," ratialistic ad "liberal," whse
aim was the traiig f frmidable idividuals, self-cetred,
law-despisig, time-servig, ad cuig.
It is i the struggle betwee the tw systems, ad i the practical
triumph f the latter, that Greece lses her mral fibre; s that her
citizes, weakeed thrugh suderig selfishess, fall a easy prey t
the freig ivader.
II. _The Helleistic Perid_ (338 B.C.-313 A.D.). This exteds frm the
Battle f Chrea, i which Greece lst her idepedece, t the
defiitive triumph f Christiaity, which brught a ew ideal ad a ew
spirit it life ad educati. It aturally subdivides itself it tw
perids, (_a_) B.C. 338-146; (_b_) B.C. 146-A.D. 313.
(_a_) The Macedia Perid, durig which Macedia ifluece
prevailed, ad Greek thught ad educati, absrbig freig, chiefly
Orietal, elemets, teded tward a ecyclpdic csmplitaism.
Durig this perid, Alexadria is the cetre f Greek ifluece.
(_b_) The Rma Perid, durig which, as Hrace says, "Captive Greece
tk captive her rude cquerr," ad Rme became, algside Alexadria,
a diffusive cetre f Greek thught, art, ad educati.
Betwee the tw great perids, the Helleic ad the Helleistic, stads
the ma wh draws up the testamet f the frmer ad utlies the
prgramme f the latter, the Macedia Greek, Aristtle.
Our secd disticti will lead us t treat separately, i the Helleic
perid, the educatial system f the three Greek races, (1) the lic,
(2) the Dric, (3) the Iic, the first havig its chief cetre at
Thebes, the secd at Sparta, the third at Athes. Fr a accut f the
educati f the first ur data are but meagre; with the mai features
f Sparta ad Atheia educati we are well acquaited. I educati,
as i everythig, Sparta was cservative, scialistic, ad
aristcratic, while Athes teded t liberalism, idividualism, ad
demcracy. Hece Sparta clug desperately t the "Old Educati," ad
almst clsed her drs agaist art, letters, ad philsphy, while
Athes, dragged it the "New Educati," became the hme f all these.
It must always be bre i mid that, i favrig idividualism ad the
"New Educati," Athes was abadig the Helleic ideal, ad pavig
the way fr the csmplitaism f the Helleistic perid. I this
latter, we shall have t distiguish betwee the educatial systems f
Athes, Alexadria, ad Rme.
Our third disticti is that betwee idividual thery ad ppular

practice. I all epchs f their histry the Greek states prduced me
wh strve t realize i thught ad imagiati the ideal f their
peple, ad t exhibit it as a aim, a ecuragemet, ad a
ispirati, i ctrast with the imperfect actual. I mre tha e
case this ideal mdified the educati f the fllwig perids. Of
curse, such theries did t arise util practice was cmpelled t
defed itself by prducig sactis, either i religi r i reas,
ad it may perhaps be affirmed that the aim f them all was t discver
such sactis fr the Greek ideal. Amg the may educatial therists
f Greece, there are six wh especially deserve t be csidered: (1)
Pythagras, wh i Suther Italy sught t graft  the Dric ideal a
half-mystical, half-ethical thelgy, ad a mathematical thery f the
physical wrld; (2) Xeph, wh sught t secure the same ideal by
cectig it with a marchical frm f gvermet; (3) Plat, wh
sught t elevate it, ad fid a sacti fr it i his thery f
super-sesuus ideas; (4) ARISTOTLE, wh preseted i all its fuless
the Helleic ideal, ad sught t fid sactis fr it i histry,
scial well-beig, ad the prmise f a higher life; (5) Quitilia,
wh, i Rme, embdies the rhetrical r wrldly educati f the
Helleistic perid; ad (6) Pltius, wh presets a ideal f
philsphical r ther-wrldly educati, ad paves the way fr the
triumph f Christia dgma.

BOOK II
THE HELLENIC PERIOD (B.C. 776-338)

PART I
THE "OLD EDUCATION" (B.C. 776-480)

CHAPTER I
EDUCATION FOR WORK AND FOR LEISURE
Whe we csider the differet arts that have bee discvered, ad
distiguish betwee thse which relate t the ecessary cditis
f life ad thse which ctribute t the free ejymet f it
(), w always consid h man who is acquaind wih h
la wis han him who is acquaind wih h fom, fo h
ason ha h scincs of h la hav no fnc o us.
Hnc i was only whn all h ncssay condiions of lif had bn
aaind ha hos as w discovd which hav no fnc
ih o plasu o o h common nds of lif; and his ook
plac fis in hos counis wh mn njoyd
lisu.--Aisol.
Th f lif of God is such as a ou bif bs momns.--_Id._
I is no fiing ha h f njoymn of lif should b
pmid o boys o o young psons; fo h cown of pfcion

blongs no o h impfc.--_Id._

Obviously, h f njoymn of lif dmands no only h nobl bu
also h plasan; fo happinss consiss of hs oo.--_Id._
Among h Homic Gks, whos lif was almos nily dvod o
pacical pusuis, ducaion was mainly pacical, aiming o poduc "a
spak of wods and a do of dds." As civilizaion advancd, and
high poliical foms w volvd, cain classs of mn found
hmslvs blssd wih lisu which hy w no inclind o dvo
o m play. In od o mak a wohy us of his lisu, hy
quid a cain aining in hos as which w gadd as
bfiing a f man. Educaion, accodingly, in som sas, widnd
is scop, o includ hos accomplishmns, which nabl mn o fill
hi hous of fdom wih find and gacious njoymn--music and
ls. Music, indd, had bn culivad long bfo, no only by
pofssional bads, bu vn by pincs, lik Achills and Pais; his,
howv, was fo h sak of amusmn and caion ah han of h
f njoymn of lif. I had bn gadd as a mans, no as an nd.
W mus b caful, in ou sudy of Gk lif and ducaion, no o
confound play and caion, which a fo h sak of wok, wih h
f njoymn of lif, which is an nd in islf, and o which all wok
is bu a mans. "Enjoymn is h nd." W shall s, as w pocd, o
wha momnous suls his disincion lads, how i govns no only
all ducaion bu all h insiuions of lif, and how i finally
conibus o bak up h whol civilizaion which i dmins. I
may faily b said ha Gc pishd bcaus sh placd h nd of
lif in individual shic njoymn, possibl only fo a fw and
gading only h fw.
In hisoic Gc, music cam o b an ssnial pa of h ducaion
of vy f man. Evn f womn lan i. Along wih music wn
poy, and whn his cam o b win down, i was md "ls."
As vy f man cam o b his own minsl and his own hapsod, h
pofssional minsl and hapsod disappad, and h Homic poms
vn, in od o b psvd fom oblivion, w commid o wiing
by an nlighnd yan--Pisisaus.
Th fis poion of h Gk popl ha aaind a dg of
civilizaion dmanding an ducaion fo hous of lisu, was h olian
ac, and paiculaly h Asiaic poion of i. Accodingly w find
ha all h alis musicians and pos, didacic and lyic, a
olians--Hsiod, Tpand, Aion, Alcus, Sappho, Piacus, c. Lsbos
sms o hav akn h lad in his "high ducaion." Th las fiv
nams all blong o ha island, which poducd also h alis Gk
hisoian and pos-wi--Hllanicus. Bu h olians, hough alis
in h fild, w soon ousippd by h oh wo acs, h Doic
and h Ionic. olian ducaion and culu nv advancd byond music
and lyic poy. I knw no dama, scinc, o philosophy.
Th olians w followd, almos simulanously, by h Doians and
Ionians, who pusud wo widly divgn dicions. Th fom
boowd h lyic ducaion and culu of h olians, and poducd
sval lyic pos of disinguishd mi--Tyus, Alcman, Ibycus,
Ssichous: nay, hy vn advancd fa nough o ak h fis sps
in scinc, philosophy, and damaic poy. Pyhagoas, Epichamus,
Sophon, Xnachus, and Susaion w all Doians. Bu h pogss of
h ac was add and finally chckd by igid poliical
insiuions of a socialisic chaac, which, by suppssing

individual iniiaiv, ducd h whol o immobiliy.

Th Ionians, on h conay, boowing fly fom boh olians and
Doians, and volving v f and f insiuions, caid
ducaion and culu o a poin which has nv bn passd, and
aly, if v, achd, in h hisoy of ou ac. And whn hy
casd o gow, and dcay s in, his was du o xacly h opposi
caus o ha which sund hm among h Doians; namly, o xcssiv
individualism, misnamd liby. Individualism uind Ahns.
Alhough ducaion assumd diffn foms among diffn poions of
h Gk ac, h a cain faus ha sm o hav bn common
o all hs foms duing h poch of h "Old Educaion." Two of hs
dsv anion.
_Fis._ Educaion was vywh a banch of sacaf, and h Sa
islf was only h highs ducaional insiuion. This was qually
u whh h schools w public, as a Spaa, o piva, as a
Ahns. Evywh ciiznship was a dg, confd only upon sons of
f ciizns, af a saisfacoy xaminaion ().
_Secnd._ The st
es r
r des f educ tin were everywhere the s me,
thu
h their imits were nt everywhere m red by the s me number f
ye rs. The first, extendin
usu y frm birth t the end f the seventh
ye r, w s th t f hme educ tin; the secnd, extendin
frm the
be
innin
f the ei
hth ye r t the end f the sixteenth r, perh ps
ftener, the ei
hteenth ye r, w s th t f sch educ tin; the third,
extendin
frm the be
innin
f the seventeenth r nineteenth ye r t
the end f the twentieth (in Sp rt f the thirtieth), w s th t f
ce
e educ tin, r educ tin fr the duties f citizenship; the
furth, incudin
the rem inder f ife, w s th t f university
educ tin, r educ tin thru
h the St te, which then w s the ny
university. At the be
innin
f the third perid, the yun
men t
their first St te ex min tin, nd if they p ssed it successfuy, they
received the de
ree f C det r Citizen-nvice (); but it was ly
at the begiig f the furth perid, ad after they had passed a
secd examiati ( ), th t they receive
the
egree
f M n n
Citizen n
were ermitte
t exercie ll the f nctin f
freemen. The St te then bec me, in
very re l ene, their _Alm
M ter_.
In mt t te, thi gr
e
e
c tin fell nly t the lt f m le, the
e
c tin f fem le ting hrt with the firt gr
e, the f mily,
which w  reg r
e
 their nly here. It w  therwie t S rt ,
Te, n
 rently mng the li n gener lly. A
cneq ence it i
nly mng the li n n
Dri n th t ny etee f nte
e r--S h, Crinn , Teleill , etc. Alth gh, hwever, wm n'
here w  the f mily, n
he w  cni
ere
t h ve
ne her
ty when
he wrthily fille
the l ce f wife, mther, n
mitre, there w 
nthing t revent her frm cq iring the higher e
c tin, if he che
t
 . Th t he
i
nt ften  che, eem tr e; till there re
ex mle f le rne
wmen even mng the Atheni n. The
ghter f
Th cy
i
e i  i
t h ve cntin e
hi hitry fter hi
e th, n
,
whether the t tement be tr e r nt, the f ct th t it w  m
e hw
th t the bility t write hitry w  nt reg r
e
 imible r
 rriing in wm n.

CHAPTER II
OLIAN OR THEBAN EDUCATION
Hei
i the te cher f mt.--Her clit .
When th rt
e
, th h lt lie in
Nt even the memry f thee h ll be
Thencefrw r
nr frever; fr th h
N h re in the Pieri n re; b t
Ev'n in the h ll f H
e th h lt
A frightene
h
w, with the h
wy
--S h (_t n ne
c te
wm n_).

the e rth.

t
flit,

e
.

Wh t r tic hy
en ever ch rm the  l,
Th t r n
her nkle c nnt kilt her c t?--_I
._
The li n e r t h ve been the e rliet f the Greek r ce t m ke
ny cni
er ble
v nce in c lt re. Their cl im t Hmer c n h r
ly be
 t ine
; b t they cert inly r
ce
Hei
, mt f the gre ter lyric
et n
etee, n
the firt hitri n. Fr time they b
e f ir
t le
the c lt re f Greece. B t the rmie w  nt f lfille
. D ring
the  lmy eri
f Greek hitry, they were nt nly the mt
nc lt re
n
nc th f the Greek, b t they even ri
e
themelve
n their brihne f eech n
m nner, n

eri
e
c lt re. In the
glri  tr ggle in which Greece m int ine
the c e f c lt re n

free
m g int Peri , Thebe, then the chief centre f li nim,
i
e
with the b rb ri n, , in
ee
, w  n t r l.
Theb n e
c tin w , f c re, reflex f the ch r cter f the Theb n
n
, in
ee
, f the Bti n, ele. It m in
iviin were the f
Greek e
c tin gener lly,--Gymn tic n
M ic; b t the frmer w 
le rnt lely fr thletic  re, n
the l tter m inly fr e t
b nq et n

rinking-b t, in which the Bti n f n
their chief

elight. Letter were t

ie
 little  t S rt (ee . 47), n

the l ng ge f the ele rem ine

h rh n
nm ic l. Of higher
e
c tin there w  h r
ly tr ce. The hit  e
Bti by. Even
Pin
r, wh w  by birth Theb n, n
incerely  tritic ne,  ght
n
f n
recgnitin nywhere r ther th n mng hi wn ele. He
i

nt even write in their

i lect.
The re n fr thi b ckw r
ne n the  rt f the Bti n li n l y
in the f ct th t they live
, 
cnq ering r ce, in the mi
t f
ele  erir t them in every reect  ve trength, n
c l

m int in their cen

ency nly by br te frce. When thi f ile
, n
the
cnq ere
r ce, which h
never frgtten C
m  n
it ncient
tr
itin, c me t the frnt, e
c tin n
c lt re f n
their w y
even t Thebe. It w 
e t thi ch nge in litic l cn
itin th t
Pin
r c l
rie, n
it w 
 btle the
em n
fr c lt re
cneq ent there n th t in
ce
cert in member f the c ttere

Pyth gre n chl (ee . 54) t eek ref ge in Thebe n

there
evte
themelve t te ching. Amng thee were Phill [1] n
Lyi, the
l tter f whm w  rb bly the thr f the f m  "Gl
en Wr
"
(ee . 57). B t he h 
better cl im t f me th n thi; fr he w  the
te cher f the br vet n
mt lv ble m n th t Greece ever
r
ce
--E minn
.
If ny enth i tic believer in the wer f e
c tin
eire t frtify
hi c e by me n f brilli nt ex mle, he will fin
nne  erir t

E minn
; fr there c n h r
ly be ny q etin th t it w  the
e rnet, ytem tic, religi , n
mr l Pyth gre n tr ining which he
receive
frm the ge
Lyi, whm he tre te

f ther, th t m
e him
wh t he w , n
en ble
him t
 wh t he
i
,--which w  nthing le
th n t l ce Thebe t the he
f Greece. Thebe re n
fell with
E minn
. B t th t w  nt ll. It w  the ex mle f E minn

th t kin
le
the mbitin f Phili f M ce
n, wh w  e
c te
n
er
hi eye, n
f hi f r mre f m  n, Alex n
er, wh m
e ll Greece
rvince f hi emire. Pyth gr , Lyi, E minn
, Phili,
Alex n
er--in five brief gener tin n e rnet te cher cnq er
wrl
!
Frm the time f E minn
 n, Thebe fllwe
the r
in ry c re f
Greek e
c tin.

CHAPTER III
DORIAN OR SPARTAN EDUCATION
G, tell t S rt , th th t  et by,
Th t here, be
ient t her l w, we lie.
--Simni
e (_Eit h n the Three H n
re
wh fell t Thermyl_).
Thi i
m tter fr which the L ce
mni n
eerve rb tin:
they re extremely licit  b t the e
c tin f their y th n

m ke it  blic f nctin.--Arittle.
The L ce
mni n im rt t their chil
ren the lk f wil
be t,
thr gh the everity f the exercie t which they  bject them,
their ntin being th t  ch tr ining i eeci lly c lc l te
t
heighten c r ge.--_I
._
Thee re  f r behin
in e
c tin n
hilhy th t they
 nt
le rn even letter.--Icr te.
OLD MEN. We _were_ nce trng men (y th).
MEN. An
we _ re_; if y will, behl
.
BOYS. An
we _h ll be_ f r  erir.--_S rt n Chric Anthem._
They ke
n cl rin' vice t fire
Their  l with n im le high:
B t the Dri n ree
n
the S rt n lyre
Fr the n f liberty!
S mve
they c lmly t their fiel
,
Thence never t ret rn,
S ve be ring b ck the S rt n hiel
,
Or n it r
ly brne!--Hem n.
There w 
l w th t the c
et h l
reent themelve n ke
in
 blic befre the ehr every ten
y; n
, if they were well knit
n
trng, n
lke
 if they h
been c rve
n
h mmere
int
h e by gymn tic, they were r ie
; b t if their limb hwe

ny fl bbine r ftne, ny little welling r  icin f

ie m tter
e t l zine, they were flgge
n
j tice
there
n
then. The ehr, mrever,  bjecte
their clthing every
y

t trict ex min tin, t ee th t everything w   t the m rk.

N ck were ermitte
in L ce
mn b t fleh-ck. A ck wh
knew nything ele w 
riven  t f S rt ,  hyic fr
inv li
.--li n.
Every r tin l ytem f e
c tin i
etermine
by me im r i
e l
mre r le cnci ly et . Th t f the Dri n, n
 rtic l rly
f the S rt n, m y be exree
in ne wr
--STRENGTH, which, in the
in
ivi
l, tk the frm f hyic l en
r nce, in the St te, th t f
elf- fficiency (). A elf- fficient St te, f rnihing
fiel
fr ll the ctivitie n
ir tin f ll it citizen, n

em n
ing their trnget n
mt
evte
exertin-- ch i the Dri n
i
e l. It i e y t ee wh t virt e Dri n e
c tin w l
eek t

evel--hyic l trength, br very, n

be
ience t the l w f the
St te. Amng the Dri n the h m n being i entirely brbe
in the
citizen. The St te i ll in ll.
The Dri n i
e l re lize
itelf chiefly in tw l ce, Crete n

S rt . Bth thee were ree te

ly hel
 in ncient time  m
el f
well-gverne
t te, n
even Pl t  t the  bt nce f hi _L w_
int the m th f
Cret n.
Ab t the
et il f Cret n e
c tin we re b t rly infrme
. Tw
thing, hwever, we knw: (1) th t Lyc rg , the re te
f n
er f
S rt n e
c tin, w  hel
t h ve
r wn m ny f hi i
e  frm Crete,
n
(2) th t the fin l re lt f Cret n e
c tin-- n
the  me i tr e
f ll e
c tin th t merge the m n in the citizen--w , in ite f
it trictne,
emr lizing. The ch r cter f the ele w   mme

by their et Eimeni
e, cntemr ry f Sln', in
f m  line
q te
by St. P l, "The Cret n re lw y li r, evil be t, l zy
bellie."
With reg r
t S rt n e
c tin  r infrm tin i m ch gre ter, n
we
m y therefre elect it  the tye f Dri n e
c tin gener lly.
The Pelnnei n Dri n h ving, thr gh cnt ct with the mre
civilize
ele whm they cnq ere
, lt m ch f th t rigr 

iciline n
nq etining ly lty which m
e them frmi
ble, were,
in the ninth cent ry B.C., becming
irg nize
,  th t in tw f the
Dri n t te they were imil te
by the n tive  l tin, the
Argive n
the Meeni n. The  me rce w  r i
ly ging n in the
thir
t te, L ce
mn, when Lyc rg , fire
with  tritic ze l,
relve
t  t n en
t it, by retring mng hi ele the l

Dri n milit ry
iciline. T re re himelf fr thi t k, he viite

Crete n
t
ie
it intit tin. On hi ret rn he er
e
hi
c ntrymen t  bmit t
"Cntit tin," which ever fterw r
 went by
hi n me. Thi cntit tin incl
e

cheme f e
c tin, whe im
w 
thr gh tr ining f the whle f the free citizen, bth m le n

fem le, (1) in hyic l en

r nce, n
(2) in cmlete  br
in tin t
the St te. The frmer w   ght t be im rte
by me n f rigr 
n
ften cr el, ytem f gymn tic; the l tter, thr gh chric m ic
n

ncing, incl
ing milit ry
rill. S rt n e
c tin, therefre, w 
cnfine
t tw br nche, Gymn tic n
M ic. Intr ctin in letter
w  cnfine
t the meret element. S rt ccr
ingly never r
ce

et, n hitri n, n rtit, r hilher f ny nte. Even the

rr nger f her chr e were freigner--Tyrt , Ter n
er, Arin,
Alcm n, Th let , Steichr .
A S rt n e
c tin w  nthing mre r le th n

tr ining fr

S rt n citizenhi, we m t ref ce  r cc nt f it by

the S rt n St te.

few wr
 n

The gvernment f S rt w  in the h n

 f cle
ritcr cy, whe
le im w  the m inten nce f it wn  rem cy,  g int (1)
freign enemie, (2) _Periiki_, r
ifr nchie
n tive citizen, (3)
Helt, r n tive erf. T ec re thi, it frme
itelf int
t n
ing rmy, with trict milit ry rg niz tin. S rt , it ne
b
e, w 
c m; ll free inh bit nt were l
ier. Th gh they were
cmelle
t m rry, the city cnt ine
n hme. The men n
, frm the
cle f their eventh ye r, the by, live
in b rr ck n
te t
 blic t ble (_Phi
iti _). The wmen h
b t ne recgnize
f nctin,
th t f f rnihing the St te with citizen, n
were e
c te
lely
with view t thi. N ther virt e w  execte
f them. Arittle
tell  th t "they live
in every kin
f rflig cy n
in l x ry."
Ply n
ry w  cmmn, n
, when
wm n lt ll her h b n
, he w 
ften cmelle
t enter int rel tin with l ve, in r
er th t he
might nt f il in her litic l
ty.
Amng ele rg nize
n the b i f br te frce, it were v in t
lk fr ny f the finer tr it f h m n n t re--gentlene,
ten
erne, ym thy, ity, mercy. The mercilene n
cr elty f the
S rt n were rverbi l. Periiki n
Helt inc rring the
ile  re
r  icin f the thritie were ecretly  t t
e th, with t even
the frm f tri l. A triking int nce f  ch cr elty i recr
e
by
Th cy
i
e. The f ct re th  t te
by Grte (_Hitry f Greece_,
vl. ii, . 376-7): "It w  in the eighth ye r f the Pelnnei n
W r, fter the Helt h
been c lle
n fr ign l milit ry effrt
in v ri  w y, ... th t the ehr felt eeci lly rehenive f n
 tbre k. Anxi  t ingle  t the mt frw r
n

ring Helt, 
men frm whm they h
mt t
re
, they i e
rcl m tin th t
every member f th t cl  wh h
ren
ere

iting ihe
ervice
h l
m ke hi cl im knwn t S rt , rmiing liberty t the mt

eerving. A l rge n mber f Helt c me frw r

t cl im the bn: nt
le th n tw th  n
f them were rve
, frm lly m n mitte
, n

le
in lemn rcein r n
the temle, with g rl n
 n their
he
,  n in g r tin t their cming life f free
m. B t the
tre cher  g rl n
nly m rke
them  t  victim fr  crifice: every
m n f them frthwith
i e re
; the m nner f their
e th w  n
ntl
mytery."
S rt n e
c tin w  entirely cn
cte
by the St te, t the exene f
the St te, n
fr the en
 f the St te. It
iffere
in thi reect
frm ne rly every ther ytem f Greek e
c tin. It w 
ivi
e
int
f r eri
, crren
ing reectively t chil
h
, byh
, y th,
n
m nh
.
(_ _) CHILDHOOD.--A n  the S rt n chil
c me int the wrl
, the
St te, thr gh fficer inte
fr th t  re, ent t ex mine it.
If it eeme
vigr , n
hwe
n b
ily
efect, it w  ermitte
t
live, n
frthwith
te
by the St te; therwie it w  c rrie
t
the m nt in n
thrwn ver reciice. The chil
ren ccete
by the
St te were fr the next even ye r left in ch rge f their mther,
b t,
 btle, till n
er St te  rveill nce. J t hw they were
tr ine

ring thee ye r, we
 nt knw. We c n nly g e th t they
n
erwent very m ch the  me rce  ther Greek chil
ren, ny

ifference being in the

irectin f rigr. A the
et il f Greek
e
c tin gener lly will be
e lt with n
er the he
f Athen, they
m y be mitte
here.

(_b_) BOYHOOD.--On cmleting hi eventh ye r, the S rt n by w 

tr nferre
frm hi mther' h e n
c re t  blic b rr ck n

the
irect t itin f the St te. Alth gh the by were in ch rge f
eci l fficer (), wh divided them it squads ad
cmpaies, ad arraged their exercises fr them, they were evertheless
taught t regard every grw ma as a teacher, ad every such ma was
expected t crrect them prmptly ad rigrusly, wheever he saw them
dig wrg. At the same time, every by was expected t frm a
itimate cecti with sme e ma, wh the, t a large extet,
became respsible fr his cduct; ad, thugh the chice i this
matter rested with the parties ccered, it was csidered a disgrace
i a ma,  less tha i a by, t be withut such cecti. Thugh
this arragemet, it is said, fte led t lametable abuses, there ca
be  dubt that it admirably served the purpses f Sparta. It
furished every by with a tutr, wh, uder the circumstaces, culd
hardly fail t treat him kidly, ad wh was iterested i makig him
surpass all ther bys i curage ad edurace. This friedly ifluece
f teacher  pupil was smethig i which the Greeks at all times
strgly believed, ad which frmed a imprtat frce i all their
educati. I Sparta, as i Crete ad Thebes, it was legally recgized.
Oe f the duties f Sparta "ispirer" ( r ), as he
was called, was t teach his yug fried () t
eme n himelf
rerly n ll cc in, n
t hl
hi tng e excet when he h

mething very imrt nt t  y. In thi w y it w  th t the y ng

S rt n receive
their mr l e
c tin, n
cq ire
th t effective
brevity f eech which t thi
y we c ll "l cnic."
The frm l e
c tin f S rt n by cnite
m inly f gymn tic,
m ic, chric
ncing, n
l rceny. Their liter ry e
c tin w 
cnfine
t little re
ing, writing, n
finger- rithmetic; everything
beyn
thi w  rcribe
. An
the re n fr thi rcritin re
nt
iffic lt t
icver. S rt t ke
everything n her litic l
trength, n
thi invlve
tw thing, (1) eq lity mng her free
citizen, n
(2) bl te
evtin n their  rt t her interet, bth
f which the higher e
c tin w l
h ve ren
ere
imible. E
c tin
et blihe mng men
itinctin f wrth q ite ther th n milit ry,
n
give them in
ivi
l interet
itinct frm the f the St te. It
w  the  me re n th t in
ce
Rme,
ring the bet eri
f her
hitry, t excl
e her citizen frm ll higher e
c tin, which i
eenti lly in
ivi
l n
cmlit n.
The e
c tin f the S rt n by w  cn
cte
mtly in the en ir
n
in  blic,  th t they were cntin lly exe
t the cheer r
cff f critic l ect tr, t whm their erfrm nce were
cntin l m ement f the n t re f cck-fight. Whether the
ifferent
"inirer" bette
n their wn by m y be
 btf l; b t they cert inly
e
every effrt t m ke them win in ny n
every cntet, n
the
"inirer" f "winning" by w  n envie
m n. The re lt w  th t
m ny by lt their live mi
cheer, r ther th n inc r the
igr ce
f being be ten. In m ch  the le  re f gymn tic w  trength
n
en
r nce; f
ncing, r
er; n
f m ic, m rti l inir tin, it
i e y t ee wh t frm thee t
ie nece rily  me
; n
we nee

nly t t rem rk th t Dri n m ic receive

the nq lifie

rb tin f ll the gre t e

c tin l writer f ntiq ity,--even f
Arittle, wh h
nly wr
 f cn
emn tin fr S rt n gymn tic.
There w  nly ne br nch f S rt n chl-e
c tin th t w  nt
cn
cte
in  blic, n
th t w  l rceny. The  re f thi c ri 

iciline w  t en ble it  bject t ct, n cc in, 

etective
n
 in mng the ever
icntente
n
rebelli  Helt. Hw

 ccef l it w , m y be j
ge
frm the inci
ent recr
e
n  ge 45.
L rceny, when  ccef lly c rrie
 t n
er
iffic lt circ mt nce,
w  l
e
; when
icvere
, it w  everely  nihe
. A try i
tl
f by wh, r ther th n betr y himelf, llwe
tlen fx,
cnce le
n
er hi clthe, t e t  t hi entr il.
In ne reect S rt n e
c tin m y cl im  eririty ver th t f mt
ther Greek t te: it w  nt cnfine
t ne ex. S rt n girl,
th gh  rently ermitte
t live t hme, were  bjecte
t c re
f tr ining
iffering frm th t f their brther nly in being le
evere. They h
their wn exercie-gr n
, n which they le rnt t
le , r n, c t the j velin, thrw the
ic , l y b ll, wretle,

nce, n
ing; n
there i g
evi
ence t hw th t their exercie
h
n
mir ble effect n their hyic l cntit tin. Th t the
breezy
ghter f S rt were h n
mer n
mre ttr ctive th n the
ht-h e m i
en f Athen, i
well- ttete
f ct. M ny S rt n wmen
cntin e
their thletic n
m ic l exercie int rie wm nh
,
le rning even t ri
e irite
hre n

rive ch rit. If we m y
believe Arittle, hwever, the effect f ll thi tr ining n their
mr l n t re w  nything b t
eir ble. They were neither virt   nr
br ve.
(_c_) YOUTH.--Ab t the ge f eighteen, S rt n by  e
int the
cl  f _ehebi_, r c
et, n
beg n their rfein l tr ining fr
w r. Thi w  their b ine fr the next twelve ye r, n
n light
b ine it w . Fr the firt tw ye r they were c lle
_melleirene_,
n

evte
themelve t le rning the e f rm, n
t light
kirmihing. They were n
er the ch rge f eci l fficer c lle

_bi
ei_, b t h
t n
erg
rigi
ex min tin befre the ehr every
ten
y (ee . 41). Their en
r nce w   t t evere tet. Se king
f the lt r f Artemi Orthi , P  ni   y: "An r cle cmm n
e
the
ele t imbr e the lt r with h m n bl
, n
hence re the c tm
f  crificing n it m n chen by lt. Lyc rg 
i
w y with thi
r ctice, n
r
ine
th t, inte
, the c
et h l
be c rge

befre the lt r, n
th  the lt r i cvere
with bl
. While thi
i ging n, riete t n
 by, hl
ing, in her rm the w
en
im ge (f Artemi). Thi im ge, being m ll, i, n
er r
in ry
circ mt nce, light; b t, if t ny time the c rger
e l t lightly
with ny y th, n cc nt f hi be ty r hi r nk, then the im ge
becme  he vy th t the riete c nnt  rt it; where n he
rerve the c rger, n

ecl re th t he i b r
ene
n their
cc nt. Th  the im ge th t c me frm the  crifice in the Crime h 
lw y cntin e
t enjy h m n bl
." Thi Artemi e r, with
b n
le f twig in her rm, next t Are, mng the S rt n
ivinitie,
n the frieze f the P rthenn. At twenty ye r f ge, the y ng men
bec me _eirene_, n
entere
n c re f t
y clely reembling
ct l w rf re. They live
n the c ret f
, let n ree
, n

r rely b the
r w lke
. They exercie
themelve in he vy rm, in
hting, ri
ing, wimming, b ll-l ying, n
in cnflict f the mt
br t l kin
. They tk  rt in cmlic te
n
exh ting
nce, the
mt f m  f which w  the Pyrrhic,
nce
n
er rm. They m nne

frtree,  in te
Helt, n
, in c e f nee
, even tk the
fiel
g int n enemy.
(_
_) MANHOOD.--At the ge f thirty, being  e
t h ve re che

their m jrity, they fell int the r nk f f ll citizen, n

tk
their h re in ll litic l f nctin. They were cmelle
t m rry,
b t were llwe
t viit their wive nly r rely n
by te lth. They
metime h
tw r three chil
ren befre they h
ever een their
wive by
ylight. When nt eng ge
in ct l w r, they ent m ch f

their time in w tching the exercie f their j nir, n

the ret in
h nting wil
b r n
imil r g me in the m nt in. Like Xenhn,
they th ght h nting the ne ret r ch t w r.
S ch w  the e
c tin th t S rt g ve her n. Th t it r
ce

trng w rrir n
 tritic citizen, there c n be n
 bt. B t th t
i ll: it r
ce
n men. It w  gre tly
mire
by men like Xenhn
n
Pl t, wh were ick f Atheni n
emcr cy; b t Arittle etim te

it t it tr e wrth. He  y: "A lng  the L cni n were the nly
ele wh
evte
themelve t vilent exercie, they were  erir
t ll ther; b t nw they re inferir even in gymn tic cntet n

in w r. Their frmer  eririty, in

ee
, w  nt
e t their tr ining
their y ng men in thi w y, b t t the f ct th t they lne
i
."
An
even Xenhn, t the en
f lng  negyric n the S rt n
cntit tin, i blige
t
mit th t lre
y in hi time it h  f llen
frm it l
wrth int feeblene n
crr tin, n
thi in ite f
the f ct th t he h
hi wn n e
c te
t S rt . When S rt fell
befre the heric n
c lt re
E minn
, he fell nitie
, le ving
t the wrl
little r nthing b t w rning ex mle.

CHAPTER I
PYTHAGORAS

irt e n
he lth n

ll g

One i the rincile f

n
G

re

h rmny.--Pyth gr .

ll.--Phill  the Pyth gre n.

All thing th t re knwn h ve n mber.--_I

._
The rincile f ll virt e re three, knwle
ge, wer, n

chice. Knwle
ge i like ight, whereby we cnteml te n
j
ge
thing; wer i like b
ily trength, whereby we en
re n

here
t thing; chice i like h n
 t the  l, whereby we tretch  t
n
l y hl
f thing.--The ge the Pyth gre n.
The Dric
iciline, even in S rt , where it c l
exhibit it
ch r cter mt freely, r
ce
merely l
ier n
nt free citizen r
c ltiv te
men. It w , neverthele, in it eenti l fe t re, the
Hellenic i
e l, n
n mer  ttemt were m
e t reme
y it
efect
n
t give it erm nence, by cnnecting it with higher th n mere lc l
n
ritcr tic interet. One f the e rliet n
mt ntewrthy f
thee w  m
e by Pyth gr .
Thi extr r
in ry ern ge e r t h ve been brn in the il n
f
S m in the firt q rter f the ixth cent ry B.C. Th gh he w  brn
mng Ini n, hi f mily e r t h ve been Ach i n n
, t me
extent, Pel gi n (Tyrrheni n), h ving emigr te
frm Phli  in the
Argli
. After
iting ihing himelf in Ini , he emigr te
in mi

le
life t M gn Grci , n
tk  hi b
e in the Ach i n clny f
Crtn, then rich n
fl rihing city. The c e f hi emigr tin
eem t h ve been the tyr nny f Plycr te, which  rently im rte

t him rej
ice g int Inic ten
encie in gener l. Whether he

erive
ny  rt f hi f m  le rning frm viit t Egyt, Phnici ,
B bylni , etc.,  w  erte
in l ter time, i nt cle r. It i nt
imrb ble th t he viite
Egyt, n
there i g
re n fr believing

th t he bec me cq inte
with Phnici n thelgy thr gh Pherecy
e f
Syr. Th t he w  n mnivr  t
ent i ttete
by hi
cntemr ry, Her clit . He w  n
 bte
ly ffecte
by the hyic l
therie c rrent in hi time in Ini , while he l inly
rew hi
litic l n
ethic l i
e  frm S rt r Crete.
Of hi ctivity in Ini we knw little; b t we m y erh  cncl
e
th t it w  f the  me n t re  th t which he fterw r

il ye
in
It ly. Here he e re
in the trile c  city f thelgi n, ethic l
te cher, n
cientit. Hi chief interet fr  lie in the f ct th t
he w   rently the firt m n in Greece, n
, in
ee
, in the wetern
wrl
, wh  ght t et blih n ethic l intit tin  rt frm the
St te. In thi reect he be r
trng reembl nce t the rhet
I i h, wh m y be  i
t h ve rigin te
the i
e f Ch rch (ee .
133). Pyth gr ' im eem t h ve been t g ther r n
him b
y f

icile wh h l

en
e vr t le

erfect life, b e
n cert in
thelgic l r met hyic l ntin, n
g i
e
by r le f lmt
mn tic trictne. Like ther men wh h ve f n
themelve in the
mi
t f irreverence, elfihne, n

emcr tic v lg rity n
n rchy,
he believe
th t hi time
em n
e
mr l
iciline, b e
n reect
fr thrity n
ch r cter, with
firm belief in f t re retrib tin,
n
inc lc te
by c ref l t
y f the r
er n
h rmny f n t re;
n
 ch
iciline he trve, with ll hi might, t im rt. H ving n
f ith in the c  city f the St te t be n intr ment fr hi  re,
he et t wrk in
een
ently f it, n
eem t h ve met with very
m rke
 cce,
r wing t him m ny f the bet men n
wmen f
S thern It ly. S n mer  n
werf l, in
ee
,
i
hi fllwer
becme th t they hel
the b l nce f wer in ever l citie, n
were
ble t e it fr the enfrcement f their wn rincile. A thee
were excee
ingly n
emcr tic, n
e
t the ten
encie f the
time, they fin lly r e
bitter itin,  th t the Pyth gre n
were erec te
n
ttemt m
e t extermin te them with fire n

wr
. In thi w y their litic l infl ence w  brken, n
their
emblie  ree
; b t the effect f Pyth gr ' te ching w  nt
lt. Hi fllwer, c ttere
br
thr gh t the Hellenic wrl
,
c rrie
hi recet n
hi life-i
e l with them. In the fllwing
cent rie they f n
m ny nble ym thizer--Pin
r, Scr te, Pl t,
Eich rm , etc.-- n
n
erwent m ny m
ific tin, ntil they fin lly
witnee

re rrectin, in the frm f Ne-Pyth gre nim n

Ne-Pl tnim, fter the Chriti n er . In thee l ter g ie,

Pyth gre nim lt itelf in myticim n
cnteml tin, t rning it
fllwer int in ctive cetic; b t in it rigin l frm it eem t
h ve been eeci lly
te
t r
ce men f vigr  ctin n

f r-ighte
r ctic lity. Mil f Crtn, the inimit ble wretler;
Archyt  f T rent m, hilher, m them tici n, m ici n, inventr,
engineer, gener l, t tem n; n
E minn
, the gre tet n
nblet
f Theb n gener l, were rfee
Pyth gre n.
We might erh  exre the im f Pyth gr ' e
ggic l effrt by
the ne wr
HARMONY. J t  he f n
h rmny everywhere in the
hyic l wrl
,  he trve t intr
ce the  me int the cntit tin
f the h m n in
ivi
l, n
int the rel tin f in
ivi
l with e ch
ther. He m y erh  be reg r
e
 the rigin tr f th t view f the
wrl
, f men, n
f ciety which m ke ll g
cnit in r
er n

rrtin, view which recmmen

 itelf trngly t i
e lit, n

h  given birth t ll the ci l Uti , whe t tic erfectin

eem t relieve the in
ivi
l frm the b r
en f renibility, n

which h ve been
ngle
befre the eye f tr ggling h m nity frm hi

y t  r. Accr
ing t thi view, which h
it rt in Greek
th ght gener lly, the im f e
c tin i t fin
fr e ch in
ivi
l

hi tr e l ce n
t m ke him efficient therein. M n i m
e fr r
er,
n
nt r
er fr m n. He i brn int wrl
f r
er,  i hwn by
the f ct th t n mber n
rrtin re f n
in everything th t i
knwn. Pyth gr , in hi enth i m fr hi rincile, c rrie
hi

ctrine f n mber t b r
length, i
entifying them with re l
thing; b t thi enth i m w  nt with t it v l ble re lt, ince
it i t Pyth gr  n
hi chl th t we we the cience f gemetry
n
m ic. Mrever, exerience m t h ve t ght him th t it i ne
thing t r n

thery, nther t m ke it effective in reg l ting

h m n rel tin. In r
er t ccmlih the l tter bject, he invke

the i
f
ivine thrity n
f the
ctrine f metemychi n

f t re retrib tin. Hence hi e

c tin l ytem h

trng religi 
c t, which hwe
itelf even  tw r
ly in the
ignifie

eme nr n

q iet elf-ein f hi fllwer.

H rmny, then, t be tt ine
by
iciline, n
er religi   nctin,
w  the im f Pyth gr ' te ching. Believing, hwever, th t nly
limite
n mber f ern were c  ble f  ch h rmny, he electe
hi
lng nviti te, in which
 il with gre t c re, n
 bjecte
them t
ilence, elf-ex min tin, n
bl te be
ience l ye
rminent
 rt. The im f thi w  t en ble them t vercme im le,
cncentr te ttentin, n

evel reverence, reflectin, n

th ghtf lne, the firt cn

itin f ll mr l n
intellect l
excellence. While the firt c re w 
irecte
t their irit l  rt,
their b
ie were by n me n frgtten. F
, clthing, n
exercie
were ll c ref lly reg l te
n hygienic n
mr l rincile.
Reg r
ing the
et il f Pyth gr ' e
c tin l ytem we re nt well
infrme
; b t the irit n
ten
ency f it h ve been emb lme
fr  in
the -c lle
_Gl
en Wr
_, which, if nt
e t the en f Pyth gr 
himelf, cert inly re ch b ck t very ne r hi time, n
cnt in nthing
t v ri nce with wh t we therwie knw f hi te ching. We inert
liter l verin.
THE GOLDEN WORDS.
The G
 immrt l,  by l w
ie
,
Firt vener te, n
reverence the  th:
Then t the nble here, n
the wer
Bene th the e rth,
 hm ge with j t rite.
Thy  rent hnr n
thy ne ret kin,
An
frm the ret che frien
 n virt e' c le.
T gentle wr
 n
kin
ly
ee
 give w y,
Nr h te thy frien
fr ny light ffence.
Be r ll th c nt; fr C n
well nigh t M t.
Thee thing th  knw.
Wh t fllw le rn t r le:
The belly firt, then lee n
l t n
wr th.
D nthing b e with ther r lne:
B t mt f ll thyelf in reverence hl
.
Then r ctie j tice bth in
ee
n
wr
,
Nr let thyelf w x th ghtle b t ght:
B t knw th t
e th' the cmmn lt f ll.
Be nt ntimely w tef l f thy we lth,
Like v lg r men, nr yet illiber l.
In ll thing m
er tin nwer bet.

D thing th t rfit thee: think ere th

ct.

Let never lee thy

rwy eyeli
 greet,
Till th h t n
ere
e ch ct f the
y:
"Wherein h ve I tr ngree
? Wh t h ve I
ne?
Wh t
ty h nne
?"--beginning frm the firt,
Unt the l t. Then grieve n
fe r fr wh t
W  b ely
ne; b t in the g
rejice.
Thee thing erfrm; thee me
it te; thee lve.
Thee in the  th f g
like excellence
Will l ce thee, ye , by Him wh g ve  r  l
The n mber F r, erenni l n t re' ring!
B t, ere th ct, cr ve frm the g
  cce.
Thee recet h ving m tere
, th h lt knw
The ytem f the never-
ying g

An

ying men, n
hw frm ll the ret
E ch thing i  n
er'
, n
hw hel
in ne:
An
th h lt knw,  it i right th h l
t,
Th t n t re everywhere i nifrm,
An
 h lt neither he fr thing th t lie
Beyn
ll he, nr f il f ny tr th.
B t frm  ch f
bt in  we h ve n me
,
An
, while th eek't t  rge n
free thy  l,
Ue j
gment, n
reflect n everything,
Setting 'er ll bet Th ght  ch riteer.
Be gl
t g ther g
, nr le t le.
Of h m n ill th t ring frm irit-wer
En
re thy  rt nr eevihly cml in.
C re wh t th c nt: 'ti well, n
then reflect:
"F te never l y t m ch n the g
."
Wr
 m ny, br ve n
b e,  il men' e r.
Let thee nt
icncert r tr mmel thee;
B t when ntr th i ken, meekly yiel
.
Wh t next I  y in every ct berve:
Let nne by wr
r
ee
rev il n thee
T
 r  y wh t were nt bet fr thee.
Think ere th ct, let flih thing be
ne;-Fr th ghtle
ee
 n
wr
 the c itiff m rk;-B t trngly
 wh t will nt bring regret.
D n ght th
t nt knw; b t
ly le rn.
S h ll thy life with h ine 'erflw.
Be nt neglectf l f thy b
y' he lth;
B t me  re e in
rink, f
, exercie-I me n by 'me  re' wh t bring n
itre.
Fllw cle nly, imle m
e f life,
An
g r
g int  ch ct  envy bree
.
Then, if, when th the b
y le v't, th m nt
T the free ether,
e thle h lt th be,
A g
immrt l,--mrt l never mre!

In thi ytem ix thing re ntewrthy: (1) It cmrehenivene, in

th t it t ke cc nt f m n' whle n t re,--b
y,  l, n
irit;
ffectin, intellect, n
will, n
f ll hi rel tin--t g
 n

men, t elf n
n t re: (2) It imf lne, in th t it rmie
h ine here n
blee
ne here fter,  the rew r
f right living:
(3) It iety, in th t it everywhere recgnize the nee
f
ivine
it nce: (4) It reci tin f cience,  inight int the n t re
n
gr n
 f m ltilicity n
nity: (5) It tre l i
n right

ing,  the cn

itin f right knwing: (6) It belief in m n'

ivinity n
erfectibility. It i c ri  th t the em cnt in n
reference t the
ctrine f metemychi, which might  rently h ve
been e le
t  werf l mr l  nctin.
Th t ytem like th t f Pyth gr , cmbining the religi , the
mytic l, the cientific, the ethic l, n
the ci l ten
encie f the
Hellenic min
, h l
h ve exerte

ee n
bi
ing infl ence, nee

nt  rrie . We fin

rf n
tr ce f it, nt nly in ll
 beq ent Greek th ght, b t even in freign ytem,  ch  Eenim,
whe element were Hebrew N z renim n
Greek Pyth gre nim. The
rel tin between Eenim n
Chriti nity h ve nt yet been

etermine
. Of the effect f Pyth gr ' te ching n E minn
 I h ve
lre
y ken.

CHAPTER 
IONIAN OR ATHENIAN EDUCATION
Let me nw give n cc nt f the Ol
E
c tin, when I, ttering
wr
 f j tice, w  in my rime, n
elf-cntrl w  hel
in
reect. In the firt l ce, chil
w  nt llwe
t be he r

ttering gr mble. Then ll the by f the q rter were blige

t
m rch in b
y, in n r
erly w y n
with the c ntet f
clthing, lng the treet t the m ic m ter', n
thi they
i

even if it nwe
like b rley-gr t. Then they were et t rehe re
ng, with t cmreing their thigh,--either "P ll , mighty
city-trmer," r "A h t  n
ing f r,"  tting energy int the
mel
y which their f ther h n
e

wn. An
, if ny ne ttemte

ny fling, r ny f the trill like the

iffic lt inflexin _
l _ Phryni nw in vg e, he receive

g
threhing fr hi
 in,  h ving in lte
the M e. Ag in, t the hyic l
tr iner', the by, while itting, were blige
t kee their leg
in frnt f them.... An
t
inner they were nt llwe
t ick  t
the bet r
ih-he
, r t n tch w y nie r celery frm their
el
er, r t g rm n
ize n fih n
fiel
-f re, r t it with
their leg cre
.... T ke c r ge, y ng m n, n
che me, the
Better Re n, n
y h ll knw hw t h te the  blic q re, t
vi
the b th-h e, t be h me
f wh t i h mef l, t hw
temer when ny ne

ree y in rib l
l ng ge, t rie frm
y r e t when y r el
er r ch, n
nt t be l bber t y r
wn  rent, r t
 ny ther neemly thing t m r the im ge f
M
ety, r t r h t the h e f the
ncing-girl, n
, while y
re g ing t her erfrm nce, get tr ck with n le by wench
n
f ll frm y r f ir f me, r t t lk b ck t y r f ther, r,

reing him  J het, t revile the l

ge which m
e the net
fr y .... Then, freh n
blming, y will en
y r time in
the gymn i , n
nt g b t the  blic q re, m thing mntr 

jke, like the y ng men f t-

y, r getting
r gge
int
liery, g mhn-b mbzling
i te, b t, ging
wn t the
Ac
emy, with me wrthy cm nin f y r wn ge, y will t rt
r nning-m tch, crwne
with white ree
, melling f mil x,
lei re n

eci
  white l r, rejicing in the ring, when
the l ne-tree whier t the m le. If y
 the thing which I
enjin, n
give y r min
t them, y will lw y h ve
well-
evele
chet, cle r cmlexin, br
h l
er, n

hrt tng e.--Arith ne, _Cl

_ (_Seech f Right Re n_).
In their ytem f e
c tin, me t te trive t im rt
c r ge  h bit t their ele frm their very chil
h
by
 inf l n
l bri  tr ining, where  we, th gh living in free
n
n t r l w y, re re
y t meet them in f ir fiel
with n
f vr.--Pericle' _F ner l Or tin_ (_Th cy
i
e_).
I will never
igr ce thee  cre
rm, nr
eert my cm nin in
the r nk. I will fight fr temle n
 blic rerty, bth lne
n
with m ny. I will tr nmit my f therl n
, nt nly nt le, b t
gre ter n
better, th n it w  tr nmitte
t me. I will bey the
m gitr te wh m y t ny time be in wer. I will berve bth the
exiting l w n
the which the ele m y n nim ly here fter
m ke, n
, if ny ern eek t nn l the l w r t et them t
n ght, I will
 my bet t revent him, n
will
efen
them bth
lne n
with m ny ( ll?). I will hnr the religin f my f ther.
An
I c ll t witne Agl r, Eny li, Are, Ze , Th ll, A x,
n
Hegemne.--_O th f the Atheni n Ehebi._
Cni
er, Men f Athen, wh t c ref l rviin w  m
e by Sln,
the ncient l wgiver, by Dr c, n
ther l wgiver f th t eri
,
fr the c ltiv tin f g
mr l. In the firt l ce, they m
e
l w t ec re
mr l e
c tin fr  r chil
ren, n
l i

wn, in
l in term, j t wh t the free-brn by h l
t
y n
hw he
h l
be n rt re
; ecn
ly, they m
e reg l tin reg r
ing y ng
men; n
, thir
ly, with reg r
t the ther eri
 f life in their
r
er, incl
ing bth riv te ern n
 blic e ker; n
,
h ving recr
e
thee l w, they left them in y r keeing,
inting y their g r
i n.--chine (_ g int Tim rch _).
If ytem f e
c tin re t be cl ifie
ccr
ing t their
re lt-- n
thee re erh  the f iret tet--then the "Ol

E
c tin" f Athen m t be igne

very high l ce. The ch r cter

which he
il ye
, n
the exlit which he erfrme
, in the e rly

ec
e f the fifth cent ry B.C., be r neq ivc l tetimny t the
v l e f the tr ining t which her citizen h
revi ly been
 bjecte
. Thi tr ining c l
erh  h r
ly be better ch r cterize

th n by the wr
" rit nic l." The men wh f ght t M r thn, S l mi,
n
Pl t were  rit n, tr ine
, in
h r
chl, t fe r the g
,
t reect the l w, their neighbr, n
themelve, t reverence the
wi
m f exerience, t
eie cmfrt n
vice, n
t
 hnet
wrk. They were nt enfeeble
by thetic c lt re,  r lyze
by btr ct
thinking, r h r
ene
by rfein l tr ining. They were e
c te
t be
men, frien
, n
citizen, nt t be mere thinker, critic, l
ier,
r mney-m ker. It w  g int m ll b n
f  ch men th t the ht
f Peri f ght in v in.
It i n t r l th t thi "Ol
E
c tin" f Athen h l
h ve eci l
interet fr , in m ch  it eem, in gre t me  re, t h ve lve

the rblem th t m t be ermt with every tr e e

c tr n
frien

f e
c tin, viz. Hw c n trng, wie, n
g
men be r
ce
? Fr
thi re n,  l bec e we re the better infrme
reg r
ing the
e
c tin l ytem f Athen th n th t f ny ther Greek t te, it
eem rer t
evte eci l ttentin t it, tre ting it 
reminently Greek e
c tin. In
ee
, wh tever i erm nently v l ble
in Greek e
c tin i t be f n
in th t f Athen, ther ytem
h ving m inly b t n hitric l interet fr .
In cm ring the e
c tin f Athen with th t f S rt , we re t nce
tr ck with tw gre t
itinctin: (1) While S rt n e
c tin i
 blic, Atheni n e
c tin i m inly riv te; (2) While S rt e
c te
fr w r, Athen e
c te fr e ce. A t the frmer f thee, it i nt
little rem rk ble th t, while m ny f the firt thinker f Greece,
incl
ing Pl t n
Arittle,
vc te
n entirely  blic e
c tin,
Athen never
te
it, r even tk ny te in th t
irectin. It
eem  if the Atheni n felt intinctively th t ci litic e
c tin,
by relieving  rent f the renibility f rvi
ing fr the
e
c tin f their wn chil
ren, w  remving trng mr l infl ence,
n
ermining the f mily, n
je r
izing liberty. Perh  the ex mle f
S rt w  nt with t it infl ence. N liberty-lving ele,  ch 
the Atheni n were, w l
cnent t merge the f mily in the St te, r
t  crifice riv te life t  blic r
er. A t the ecn

itinctin,
which w  ll-erv ive, it
ivi
e the tw ele by n im  ble
g lf n
ign them t tw
ifferent gr
e f civiliz tin. An
it
w  ne f which bth ele were entirely cnci . While S rt
rereente
her i
e l by
ch ine
Are, Athen f n
her in Wingle
ictry, frm f Athen , the
ivinity f litic l n
in
tri l
wi
m. A the im f S rt w  trength,  th t f Athen w 
WISDOM--the wie m n in the wie t te. By the "wie m n," w  me nt he
whe entire f c ltie f b
y,  l, n
min
were rrtin tely n

cr
in tely
evele
; by the "wie t te," th t in which e ch cl  f
the  l tin erfrme
it rer f nctin, n
cc ie
it rer
rel tin tw r
the ret, n
thi with t ny exceive exercie f
thrity. If the S rt n, like the rtifici lly t me
b rb ri n,
 bmitte
t living by r le n
cmm n
, the Atheni n, like the
n t r lly civilize
m n,
elighte
t live in
free n
n t r l w y
( ) govrnd from wthn, and not from wthout. To
mak possb such f was th am of Athnan ducaton, whch,
nstad of skng to mrg th man n th Stat, or to rnd th two
asundr, tratd thm as ncssary corrats and strov to baanc
thr cams.
Th ndavor on th part of Athns to str a mdd cours btwn
socasm and ndvduasm, s manfst n th fact that, though sh
had no pubc systm of ducaton, sh took grat car to s that hr
ctzns wr thoroughy ducatd n th sprt of hr nsttutons,
and, ndd, mad such ducaton a condton of ctznshp, whch was
thus an acadmc dgr, confrrd ony aftr carfu xamnaton. By a
aw of Soon's, parnts who had fad to gv thr sons a propr
ducaton ost a cam upon thm for support n thr od ag.
Furthrmor, Athns subjctd a hr ma ctzns to a systmatc
prparaton for cv and mtary functons, bfor sh aowd thm to
xrcs ths.
Athnan ducaton comprsd four grads corrspondng to four
nsttutons, (1) th famy, (2) th schoo, (3) th gymnasum or
cog, (4) th Stat. W may consdr ths n thr ordr.
(1) FAMILY EDUCATION.

Th brth of a chd was rgardd by th Athnans as a joyfu vnt, as

somthng cang for grattud to th gods. Ths xprssd tsf n a
famy fstva, cad th Amphdroma, cbratd usuay on th
svnth day aftr th brth. On ths occason, th chd was carrd
rapdy round th famy atar and rcvd ts nam. A sacrfc was
thn offrd to th gods, th mothr was purfd, and chrstnng
prsnts wr dspayd. Th chd was now a mmbr of th famy and
undr th protcton of ts gods. For th nxt svn yars, t was
whoy n th hands of parnts and nurss, th attr bng usuay
savs. Durng ths tm ts body was th chf objct of car, and
vrythng sms to hav bn don to rndr t hathy and hardy.
Crads do not sm to hav bn n us, and th chd was sung to sp
on th nurs's kn. Wh t was bng wand, t was fd on mk and
soft food swtnd wth hony. As soon as t was ab to mov about and
drct attnton to xtrna objcts, t rcvd paythngs, such as
ratts, dos of cay or wax, hobby-horss, tc., and was aowd to
ro and dg n th sand. Such wr th smp gymnastcs of ths ary
prod. As to th othr branch of ducaton, t consstd mosty n
bng sung to and n stnng to stors about gods and hros,
monstrs and robbrs, of whch Grk mythoogy was fu. By mans of
ths th chd's magnaton was rousd and dvopd, and crtan
sthtc, thca, and natona prpossssons awaknd. Though chdrn
wr oftn frghtnd from crtan acts and habts by thrats of bogs
comng to carry thm off, yt th chf thca agncy mpoyd was
vdnty strct dscpn. To scur good bhavor n hs chdrn was
th frst car of th Athnan parnt. Though dsncnd to harshnss,
h nvr doubtd that "h who sparth th rod hatth th chd."
Chdrn wr nvr pacd upon xhbton or appaudd for thr
prcocous or rrvrnt sayngs. Thy wr kpt as much as possb out
of th way of odr pop, and, whn ncssty brought thm nto th
prsnc of ths, thy wr taught to bhav thmsvs quty and
modsty. No Grk author has prsrvd for us a cocton of th smart
sayngs or rogush dongs of Athnan chdrn.
Though th Kndrgartn dd not xst n thos od days, yt ts pac
was, n grat masur, fd by th numrous gams n whch th
chdrn ngagd, n part at ast undr thr nurss' suprntndnc.
Gams payd so mportant a part n th who f of th Grk pop,
and spcay of th Athnans, that thr mportanc n th ducaton
of chdrn was fuy rcognzd and much attnton dvotd to thm.
Durng pay, charactr both dspays tsf mor fuy, and s mor
asy and dpy affctd, than at any othr tm; and, snc th who
of th wakng f of th chd n ts arst yars s dvotd to
pay, ths s th tm whn charactr s formd, and thrfor th tm
whch cas for most sduous car. In payng gams, chdrn not ony
xrcs thr bods and thr wts; thy aso arn to act wth
farnss, and com to f somthng of th joy that arss from
companonshp and frndy rvary n a common occupaton. Morovr, as
gams hav no nd byond thmsvs, thy ar admrab xrcss n
fr, dsntrstd actvty and a protcton aganst sfsh and sordd
habts. Of a ths th Athnans wr fuy awar.
Thr ar probaby fw gams payd by chdrn n our day that wr not
known n ancnt Athns. It sms, howvr, that gams wr thr
conductd wth mor systm, and a dpr sns of thr pdagogca
vau, than thy ar wth us. W har of runnng, apng, hoppng,
catchng, httng, and throwng gams, gymnastc gams, and gams of
chanc. Th ba, th top, th hoop, th swng, th s-saw, th
skppng rop, th knuck-bons wr as much n us n ancnt, as n

modrn, tms. Cards, of cours, thr wr not; and, ndd, gams of
chanc, though w known, sm rary to hav bn ndugd n by
chdrn. It hardy sms ncssary to rmark that thr wr som gams
pcuar to boys and othrs to grs, and that th attr wr ss rud
than th formr. Doubtss, too, th gams payd n th cty, whr th
chdrn woud hav fw chancs of gong byond thr homs, wr
dffrnt from thos payd n th country, whr amost compt
frdom to roam n th opn ar was njoyd. W must aways bar n mnd
that w-to-do Athnan fams spnt th gratr part of th yar at
thr country-houss, whch, wth fw xcptons, wr so nar th cty
that thy coud b rachd vn on foot n a sng day. Ths country
f had a markd ffct upon th ducaton of Athnan chdrn.
(2) SCHOOL EDUCATION.
About th ag of svn, th Athnan boy, aftr bng ntrd on th
ro of prospctv ctzns n th tmp of Apoo Patros, and mad a
mmbr of a phratra, wnt to schoo, or, rathr, h wnt to two
schoos, that of th musc-mastr, and that of th physca tranr. H
was aways accompand ththr and back by a _pdagogu_, who was
usuay a sav, who carrd hs wrtng-matras, hs yr, tc.
(thr bng no schoo-books to carry), and whom h was xpctd
mpcty to oby. Th boys of ach quartr of th cty coctd vry
mornng at som appontd pac and wakd to schoo, k tt
sodrs, n rank and f. Thy wor nxt to no cothng, vn n th
codst wathr, and wr obgd to conduct thmsvs vry dmury n
th strts. Th schoo hours wr vry ong, bgnnng ary n th
mornng and contnung t at n th vnng. Soon found t
ncssary to ntroduc a aw forbddng schoomastrs to hav thr
schoos opn bfor sunrs or aftr sunst. It thus appars that boys,
aftr th ag of svn, spnt thr who day at schoo, and wr thus
ary wthdrawn from th nfunc of thr mothrs and sstrs, a fact
whch was not wthout ts barng upon moras.
Thr ar svra ntrstng ponts n conncton wth Athnan schoo
f about whch our nformaton s so scanty that w ar ft n som
doubt rspctng thm. For xamp, though t s qut pan that Athns
had no systm of pubc nstructon, t s not so car that sh dd not
own th schoo budngs. Agan, t s not crtan whthr musc
(ncudng ttrs) and gymnastcs wr, or wr not, taught n th sam
ocaty. Thrdy, thr s som doubt about th numbr and ordr of th
hours dvotd to ach of th two branchs of study. In rgard to ths
ponts I can stat ony what sms to m most probab.
As to schoo budngs, w ar xprssy tod by th author of th
fragmntary tract on _Th Athnan Stat_, currnty attrbutd to
Xnophon, but probaby wrttn as ary as B.C. 424, that "th pop
() builds itself may palstras, dressig-rms, baths, ad the
masses have mre ejymet f these tha the few that are well-t-d."
If we assume that sme f these palstras were fr bys, as we
apparetly have a right t d, we must cclude that sme, at least, if
t all, f the schls fr bdily traiig were public edifices, let
ut by the State t teachers. Like all the great gymasia, sme, ad
pssibly all, f them were situated utside the city walls ad had
gardes attached t them. Whether the music-schls were s likewise, is
dubtful, ad this brigs us t ur secd questi--whether the tw
braches f educati were taught i the same place. That they were t
taught i the same rm, r by the same pers, is clear eugh; but it
des t fllw frm this that they were t taught i the same

buildig, r at ay rate i the same eclsed space. Thugh there seems
t be  explicit statemet i ay aciet authr  this pit, I thik
there are sufficiet reass fr ccludig that, geerally at least,
they were s taught. If we fid that Atisthees, Plat, ad Aristtle,
wh may be said t have itrduced a systematic "higher educati" it
Athes, peed their schls i the great public gymasia, frequeted by
yuths ad me, we may surely cclude that the lwer metal educati
was t separated frm the physical. I the _Lysis_ f Plat, we fid
sme yug me cmig ut f a palstra utside the city walls, ad
ivitig Scrates t eter, tellig him that their ccupati ()
consiss _mosly_ in discussions ( ), and that thr
tachr s a crtan Mccus, an admrr of hs. Socrats rcognzs th
man as a capab "sophst," a trm nvr usd of physca tranrs. On
ntrng, Socrats fnds a numbr of boys and youths () payng
togthr, th formr havng just fnshd a sacrfc. It sms to
foow drcty from ths that ntctua ducaton was mpartd n
th pastras. If ths b tru, w may, I thnk, concud that n Athns
th schoos gnray wr outsd th cty was, though th cas was
crtany dffrnt n som othr cts.
In rgard to our thrd quston, t s car that, f boys spnt thr
who day n on pac, t woud b mor asy to dvd t proftaby
btwn musca nstructon and gymnastcs than f thy spnt on part
of t n on pac, and anothr n anothr. Just how t was dvdd, w
do not know, and I hav tt doubt that much dpndd upon th notons
of parnts and th tndncs of dffrnt prods. It s qut car,
from crtan compants of Arstot's, that n Athns parnts njoyd
grat brty n ths mattr. In any cas, snc, as w know, th
nsttutons of ducaton wr opn a day, t sms mor than probab
that on cass of boys took thr gymnastc sson at on hour, anothr
at anothr, and so wth othr branchs of study. It cannot b that th
physca tranng-schoos wr dsrtd whn th musc-schoos wr n
ssson. I thnk thr s suffcnt rason for bvng that,
gnray, th youngr boys took thr physca xrcss n th
mornng, and thr ntctua nstructon n th aftrnoon, th ordr
bng rvrsd n th cas of th odr boys. How much of th tm spnt
at schoo was gvn up to ssons and how much to pay, s not at a
car; but I am ncnd to thnk that th paytm was at ast as ong
as th worktm. Th schoos wr for boys what th agora and th
gymnasum wr for grown mn--th pac whr thr vs wr spnt.
Bfor w consdr sparaty th two dvsons of Athnan ducaton, a
fw facts common to thm may b mntond. In th frst pac, thy had
a common nd, whch was, to produc mn ndpndnt but rspctfu,
frdom-ovng but aw-abdng, hathy n mnd and body, car n
thought, rady n acton, and dvotd to thr fams, thr
fathrand, and thr gods. Contrary to th practc of th Romans, th
Athnans sought to prpar thr sons for ndpndnt ctznshp at as
ary an ag as possb. In th scond pac, th motvs mpoyd n
both dvsons wr th sam, vz. far of punshmnt and hop of
rward. As w hav sn, th Athnan boy, f h bhavd bady, was not
spard th rod. As an offst aganst ths, whn h dd w, h rcvd
unstntd pras, not to spak of mor substanta thngs. Educaton,
k vrythng s n Grc, took th form of comptton. Th
Homrc n (_I._, v, 208; x, 784),
"S that thou vr b bst, and abov a othrs dstngushd,"
was th motto of th Athnan n vrythng. In th thrd pac, n both
dvsons th chf am was th razaton of capacty, not th

furthrng of acquston. Mr arnng and xcuton wr amost

unvrsay dspsd n th od tm, wh ntgnc and capacty
wr unvrsay admrd. In th fourth pac, n both dvsons th
utmost car was drctd to th conduct of th pups, so that t mght
b gnt, dgnfd, and ratona. In th ffth pac, ducaton n
both ts branchs was ntndd to nab mn to occupy worthy and
socaby thr sur tm, qut as much as to prpar thm for what
mght b cad thr practca duts n famy, socty, and Stat.
Th fn arts, accordng to th Grks, furnshd th propr amusmnts
for ducatd mn ().
() _M ic l ( n
Liter ry) Intr ctin_.
Th gh the Greek wr
_m ic_ () cam in la ims o hav an
xndd maning, in h poch of which w a aing, i includd
only music in ou sns, and poy, wo hings which w no hn
spaad. Aisophans, as la as B.C. 422, can sill coun upon an
audinc ady o laugh a h ida of giving insucion in asonomy
and gomy, as hings oo mo fom human inss (_Clouds_, vv
220 sqq.). Th poy consisd chifly of h pics of Hom and
Hsiod, h lgiacs of Tyus, Solon, Thognis, c., h iambics of
Achilochus, Simonids, c., and h songs of h numous lyiss,
Tpand, Aion, Alcus, Alcman, Sappho, Simonids, c. Th music was
simpl, man o "swn" () the wrds ad brig ut their
meaig. I fact, the music ad the petry were always cmpsed
tgether, s that the pet was ecessarily als a musicia. What we call
"harmy" was ukw i Greek music at all times, ad istrumetal
music was almst etirely cfied t sl-playig.
I treatig f Atheia, ad, ideed, f all Greek, educati, it is f
the utmst imprtace t realize that the itellectual ad mral part f
it has music ad petry fr its startig-pit. This is the cre rud
which everythig else gathers; this is what determies its character,
ifluece, ad ideal. Culture, as distiguished frm ature, is the
material f Atheia itellectual ad mral educati; ad by this is
meat, t the histry r thery f culture, as it might be set frth i
prse, but culture itself, as embdied i the ideals ad frms f
music-wedded petry, appealig t the emtis that stir the will, as
well as t the itelligece that guides it.
By makig the wrks f the great pets f the Greek peple the material
f their educati, the Atheias attaied a variety f bjects
difficult f attaimet by ay ther e meas. The fact is, the aciet
petry f Greece, with its fiished frm, its heric tales ad
characters, its accuts f peples far remved i time ad space, its
maliess ad paths, its directess ad simplicity, its piety ad
wisdm, its respect fr law ad rder, cmbied with its admirati fr
persal iitiative ad wrth, furished, i the hads f a careful ad
geial teacher, a material fr a cmplete educati such as culd t
well be matched eve i ur w day. What istructi i ethics,
plitics, scial life, ad maly bearig culd t fid a fittig
vehicle i the Hmeric pems, t t speak f the gegraphy, the
grammar, the literary criticism, ad the histry which the cmprehesi
f them ivlved? It what a whlesme, usetimetal, free wrld did
these pems itrduce the imagiative Greek by! What spledid ideals f
mahd ad wmahd did they hld up fr his admirati ad imitati!
Frm Hesid he wuld lear all that he eeded t kw abut his gds ad
their relati t him ad his peple. Frm the elegiac pets he wuld
derive a fud f plitical ad scial wisdm, ad a impetus t

patritism, which wuld g far t make him a gd ma ad a gd
citize. Frm the iambic pets he wuld lear t express with eergy his
idigati at meaess, feebleess, wrg, ad tyray, while frm the
lyric pets he wuld lear the laguage suitable t every geial feelig
ad impulse f the huma heart. Ad i recitig r sigig all these,
hw wuld his pwer f terse, idimatic expressi, his sese f petic
beauty ad his ear fr rhythm ad music be develped! With what a
treasure f examples f every virtue ad vice, ad with what a fud f
epigrammatic expressi wuld his memry be furished! Hw familiar he
wuld be with the character ad ideals f his ati, hw deeply i
sympathy with them! Ad all this was pssible eve befre the
itrducti f letters. With this evet a ew era i educati begis.
The by w t ly lears ad declaims his Hmer, ad sigs his
Simides r Sapph, he lears als t write dw their verses frm
dictati, ad s at ce t read ad t write. This, ideed, was the
way i which these tw (t us) fudametal arts were acquired. As s
as the by culd trace with his figer i sad, r scratch with a stylus
 wax, the frms f the letters, ad cmbie them it syllables ad
wrds, he bega t write petry frm his master's dictati. The
writig-less f t-day was the readig, recitati, r sigig-less
f t-mrrw. Every by made his w readig-bk, ad, if he fud it
illegible, ad stumbled i readig, he had ly himself t blame. The
Greeks, ad especially the Atheias, laid the greatest stress up
readig well, recitig well, ad sigig well, ad the yuth wh culd
t d all the three was lked up as ucultured. Nr culd he hide
his wat f culture, sice yug me were ctiually called up, bth
at hme ad at mre r less public gatherigs, t perfrm their part i
the scial etertaimet.
The strictly musical istructi f this perid was almst etirely
cfied t simple, strg Dric airs, sug t a accmpaimet which
was played  a istrumet clsely resemblig the mder guitar (,
). Compcatd and wnd nstrumnts wr unpopuar, and th
softr or mor thrng knds of musc, Lydan, Phrygan, tc., had not
yt bn ntroducd, at ast nto schoos. Anythng k th sk and
xcuton dmandd of profssona payrs, who wr usuay savs or
forgnrs, was consdrd atogthr unworthy of a fr man and a
ctzn, and was thrfor not amd at. Fond as th Athnans wr of
th fn arts, thy aways hd profssona sk n any of thm,
xcpt potry and musca composton, to b ncompatb wth that
dgnty and vrtu whch thy dmandd of th fr ctzn. A
rspctab Athnan woud no mor hav aowd hs son to b a
profssona muscan than h woud hav aowd hm to b a
profssona acrobat.
It s dffcut for us to undrstand th way n whch th Grks
rgardd musc. Infror as thr musc was to ours n a tchnca
ways, t xrtd an nfunc upon thr vs of whch w can form but
a fant concpton. To thm t was a dmonc powr, capab of rousng
or assuagng th passons, and hnc of bng usd for nfnt good or
v. No wondr, thn, that n thr ducaton thy sought to mpoy
thos knds whch tndd to "purgaton" (), and to avod thos
that wr xctng, sntmnta, or ffmnat! No wondr that thy
dsapprovd of dvorcng musc from th ntctua mnt contand
n th words, and aowng t to dgnrat nto a mr motona or
snsua uxury! Musc th Grks rgardd, not ndd as a mora forc
(a phras that to thm, who rgardd moraty as a mattr of th w,
woud hav convyd no manng), but as a forc whos offc t was, by
purgng and harmonzng th human bng, to mak hm a ft subjct for
mora nstructon. Musc, thy hd, brought harmony, frst nto th

human bng hmsf, by puttng an nd to th confct btwn hs

passons and hs ntgnt w, and thn, as a consqunc, nto hs
ratons wth hs fows. Harmony wthn was hd to b th condton
of harmony wthout.
In th prod of whch I am spakng, no dstncton was yt mad
btwn musc and tratur (), bth being t ght by the
_cith rit_ (). Ideed, the term fr teacher f literature
() was t the iveted. But the citharist t ly taught
literature: he als taught the elemets f arithmetic, a matter f 
small difficulty, csiderig the clumsy tati the i use. This was
de by meas f pebbles, a bx f sad, r a abacus similar i
priciple t that w used by billiard players t keep cut f their
strkes.
As t the schlrms i aciet Athes, they were apparetly simple i
the extreme; ideed, rather prches pe t su ad wid tha rms i
the mder sese. They ctaied little r  furiture. The bys sat
up the grud r up lw beches, like steps (), while the
te cher cc ie

high ch ir (). The beches were washed,

apparetly every day, with spges. The ly decratis permitted i
the schlrms, it seems, were statues r statuettes f the Muses ad
Apll, ad the schl festivals r exhibitis were regarded as
festivals i hr f these. Ideed, i Greece every srt f festival
was regarded as a act f wrship t sme diviity. The chief schl
festival seems t have bee the _Musa_ (), t which the by
recite
n
 ng.
() _Gymn stics or Bodily Tr ining_.
Under te term _Gymn stics_ (), h Gks gnally includd
vyhing laing o h culu of h body. Th nds which h
Ahnians sough o ach hough his banch of ducaion w halh,
sngh, adoinss, as, slf-possssion, and fim, dignifid
baing. A cain numb of boys, innding o ak pa in h Olympic
and oh ga gams, w allowd o ain as ahls und a gymnas
(, ) in te pulic gymn si , nd under te direction o
te St te; ut tese ere exceptions. Te tlete  s not n ide l
person t Atens, s e  s t Tees nd Sp rt .
Gymn stic exercises ere conducted p rtly in te p lstr s, or restling
scools, p rtly on te r ce-courses, ot o ic ere under te
direction o proession l tr iners (). In ary tms, th
pastra and rac-cours wr smpy an opn spac covrd wth sand and
probaby connctd wth th schoo (), thus crrespdig t
ur playgrud. Later, this space was partly cvered ver ad furished
with dressig-rms, a bath, seats fr spectatrs, a altar fr
sacrifices, statues, etc. Of the five gymastic exercises i which bys
were traied, all except wrestlig seem t have bee cducted  the
race-curse, s that the palstra was reserved fr what its ame
implied. It is by  meas certai that every palstra had a race-curse
cected with it, at least i the time f which we are speakig, ad
pssibly i may cases the bys tk part f their exercises i the
public race-curse ruig frm the agra t beyd the walls. Just as
the schlrm was decrated with images f Apll ad the Muses, s the
palstra was decrated with images f Hermes, Heracles, ad Ers,
symblizig, respectively, adritess, huma stregth, ad yuthful
friedship. The special patr f the palstra was Hermes, ad the
gymastic exhibiti tk the frm f a festival t him, the Herma, at

which a sacrifice was ffered ad the bys were allwed the use f the
buildig t play games i, the victrs wearig crws.
It wuld be impssible, i a wrk f this cmpass, t eter it a
miute descripti f all the exercises f the Atheia palstra. We
must be ctet with a geeral statemet, which may be prefaced with the
remark that these exercises were at first light, icreasig gradually i
rigr ad difficulty as the stregth ad skill f the grwig child
permitted.
The chief gymastic exercises were five, amed i this rder i a famus
lie f Simides: (1) leapig, (2) ruig, (3) discus-thrwig, (4)
javeli-castig, (5) wrestlig (), ic l st g ve te n me to te
p lstr . We s ll not strictly ollo tis order, ut egin it
(1) _Running._--Tis  s te simplest, ligtest, most n tur l, nd,
tereore, te most e sily t ugt o exercises. It  s pro ly lso te
oldest. We ind even Homer m ing is ide l P ci ns egin teir g mes
it it, nd tis pr ctice seems to  ve een gener l trougout
ntiquity. In t ing tis exercise, te oys divested temselves o ll
cloting nd  d teir odies rued it oil. Te running ppe rs to
 ve een o te simplest ind. Hurdle-r ces, s c-r ces, etc., ere
pp rently excluded rom educ tion. At te s me time, te running  s
rendered diicult y te sot s nd it ic te course  s covered to
te dept o sever l inces. Te r ces ere distinguised ccording to
teir lengt in urlongs or st di : (1) te urlong-r ce, (2) te
doule-urlong r ce, (3) te orse (our-urlong) r ce, (4) te long
r ce, ose lengt seems to  ve een tenty-our urlongs, or out
tree miles. Te st dion  s = 202 y rds Englis. Te sorter r ces
c lled or rie concentr tion o energy, te longer or persistence nd
endur nce; ll ere exercises in gility; ll tended to develop
lung-poer.
(2) _Le ping or Jumping._--Tis exercise seems, in te m in, to  ve
conined itsel to te long le p. Toug te ig le p nd te pole-jump
c n  rdly  ve een unnon, e  ve no evidence t t tey ere ever
employed in te gymn stic tr ining o oys. Tere m y  ve een ygienic
re sons ic or de teir use. On te oter  nd, oys ere t ugt to
lengten teir le p y me ns o eigts, some t simil r to our
dum-ells, c rried in teir  nds, nd sung or rd in te ct o
le ping. Suc le ping ould e n exercise or te rms, s ell s or
te legs nd te rest o te ody. But, just s tere ere to exercises
intended ciely or te legs, so tere ere to intended ciely or
te rms--discus-troing nd j velin-c sting.
(3) _Discus-troing._--Te modern orld  s een rendered very  mili r
it te metod o tis exercise y te copies o te _discoolus_ o
Myron, preserved in Rome nd extensively engr ved nd potogr ped, nd
t t o te _discoolus_ o Alc menes ic no st nds in te  tic n
(see Overec, _Griec. Pl sti_ vol. i, p. 276). Te discus  s
gener lly l t, round piece o stone or met l, sort o l rge quoit
it no ole in te middle, ic te user sougt to tro s  r s e
could. Te discoolus o Alc menes sos us
yout  l ncing te discus
in is let  nd, nd t ing te me sure o is tro it is eye; t t
o Myron sos us noter in te ct o troing. He sings te discus
 c rd in is rigt  nd, nd ends is ody or rd to  l nce it.
His rigt oot, te toes contr cted it eort, rests irmly on te
ground; te let is sligtly lited; te ole ody is lie ent o.
In te next inst nt te let oot ill dv nce, te let  nd, no
resting on te rigt nee, ill sing  c rds, te ody ill resume

its erect position, nd te discus ill e sot or rd rom te rigt
 nd lie n rro. Noting could so more cle rly t n does tis
st tue te perect org niz tion, symmetry, nd  l nce ic ere te
im o Gree gymn stics. Not one lim could e moved itout ecting
ll te rest,--ic sos t t te exercise extended to te ole ody.
(4) _J velin-c sting._--Te im o tis exercise  s to develop sill
nd precision o eye nd  nd, r ter t n strengt o muscle. Te
instrument employed  s sort d gger or l nce, ic  s imed t
m r. He o could it te m r rom te gre test dist nce  s te most
proicient scol r. Te spe r, eore eing tron,  s  l nced in te
rigt  nd t te eigt o te e r.
(5) _Wrestling._--Tis very complic ted exercise  s evidently te
princip l one in te gymn stic course, te one to ic te oters ere
oy could not pr ctice
merely prep r tory. It  s te only one ic
y imsel. It exercised not only te ole ody, ut te p tience nd
temper s ell. Te im o te restler  s to tro () his
atagist. Thse wh tk part i this exercise had their bdies rubbed
with il ad strew with fie sad. It seems that the wrestler was
allwed t d aythig he chse t his atagist except t bite,
strike, r kick him. Befre he culd claim the victry he had t thrw
him three times. After the ctest the wrestlers scraped frm their
bdies, with a strigil, the il ad dust,[2] bathed, were agai rubbed
with il, expsed their bdies t the su, i rder t dry ad ta them,
ad dressed. The bathig was de i cld water, ad bth the bathig
ad the suig were i part iteded t iure the bdy t sudde cld
ad heat, which iuremet was csidered a very essetial part f
physical traiig.
Such were the chief exercises emplyed i the gymastic traiig f the
Atheias. Thus far, we have csidered the tw braches f educati as
cducted separately, ad as t cmig at ay pit i ctact with
each ther. But it wuld have bee very ulike the Greek, ad especially
the Atheia, t leave the tw divisis f educati urelated ad
uharmized. Ad, ideed, he did t s leave them, but brught them
tgether i the mst admirable way i what he called _rchesis_, a wrd
fr which we have  better equivalet tha
() _D ncin
_ (, ).
"Dancrs," says Arstot, "by mans of pastc rhythms (rhythms
rproducd n pastc forms) mtat charactrs, fngs, and
actons." Xnophon, n hs _Anabass_, dscrbng a banqut that took
pac n th wds of Paphagona, says: "Aftr th traty was ratfd
and th pan sung, thr frst ros up two Thracans and dancd n armor
to th fut, apng hgh and ghty, and usng thr swords. Fnay
on of thm struck th othr, so that vrybody thought h had woundd
hm; but h f n an artfca way. Thn th Paphagonans rasd a
shout; but th assaant, havng dspod th fan man of hs armor,
wnt out sngng th Stacas. Thn othrs of th Thracans carrd out
th othr as f h had bn dad; but h was non th wors. Nxt, som
nans and Magnsans stood up and dancd th so-cad Carpa n
armor. Th mannr of th danc was ths: on man, puttng hs arms
wthn rach, sows and drvs a tam, frqunty turnng round as f
afrad. Thn a robbr maks hs apparanc. As soon as th othr sps
hm, h szs hs arms, advancs to hm, and fghts n front of th
tam. And th two dd ths kpng tm to th fut. Fnay th
robbr, havng bound th othr, carrs off both hm and th tam;
somtms, on th contrary, th poughman bnds th robbr, n whch

cas h yoks hm, wth hs hands bound bhnd hs back, to hs oxn and
drvs off." Svra othr dancs, prformd by prsons of dffrnt
natonats, foow; but nough has bn quotd to show that th Grk
wa metng vey dffeent fm u danng. It wa, ndeed, a
pantmm ballet, ntepeed wt _tableaux vvan_.
In te dane ee mentned, te flute  te ntument emplyed, and
t te playe uld nt ampany wt  ve. But n te Atenan
l, n te ld tme, te flute, and all mu wtut wd, wee
tabed. Tee an be n dubt, teefe, tat n tee te et
pefmane wee ampaned by te lye, te playe n w ang n
wd wat te dane daned. It  bvu tat n u pefmane
te mual (lteay) and gymnat bane f eduatn ame n f
abut equal ae. Danng exeed te wle uman beng, bdy and
ul, and exeed tem n a mpletely amnu way. It  t
amny, t ytm mvement f te bdy n nnane wt te
emtn f te ul and te pupe f te ntellgene, tat 
_gae_ (). Hene, wle te Geek eled upn gymnat t
mpat tengt and fmne t te bdy, tey lked t danng f
utlne and gae. Plat plae te tw n te ame ftng, a
pat f a ngle dplne.
Te fat tat te tw dvn f eduatn met n danng eem t
pve wat I umed abve, vz. tat tey wee nduted wtn te
ame pent; n w ae we may uppe tat, wle te danng
exee tk plae n te palta, te mu wa uppled by te
mu mate. We knw tat te u-leade wa a publ ffe,
appnted by te dem, and ad t be ve fty yea ld. In any ae,
t  uu enug t tnk tat Atenan, and, geneally, Geek,
eduatn ulmnated n danng. But t wa a pefetly lgal
eult; f te u  te type f Geek al lfe, a we ee mt
lealy n te _Republ_ f Plat. It adly need t be pnted ut
tat te upeme fm f Geek at, te dama, wa but a develpment f
te Ba  Dnya u. T develpment nted n te
epaatn f te mu fm te pantmme, and te agnment f te
fme t te u, w n lnge daned, but walked, and f te
latte t te at, w added te dalgue t t. Geek lfe wa
dvded nt tee pat--vl, mltay, elgu. Mu and lette
wee a pepaatn f te ft, gymnat f te end, and danng
f te td. Danng fmed a pmnent pat n Geek wp, and t
may be dubted wete fee Atenan eve daned exept "befe te
gd "-- , a Xenpn ay.
Tw tng tll eman t be ndeed wt egad t Atenan
l, (1) gadng, (2) lday. Wt epet t te fme, te
pate pbably dffeed at dffeent tme; but we eem t be
jutfed n aumng tat, at te tme f w I am peakng, tee
wee but tw gade, by () and youths (). Tee ae
mentned by Plat, n te _Ly_, a elebatng te Hema tgete
n a palta. Te ft gade wuld nlude te by fm even t
eleven yea f age; te end, te fm eleven t ffteen. A t
lday, tey eem t ave been mply te feat-day f te geate
gd, wen bune f evey t wa upended. Su day amunted t
abut nnety annually.
(3) COLLEGE EDUCATION.
Abut te tme wen e wa blmng nt mand, tat , me tme
between  futeent and  xteent yea, te Atenan by f te

lden tme wa tanfeed fm te pvate l and palta, w
belnged t te famly de f lfe, t te gymnaum, w belnged t
te State, and n w e eeved te eduatn alulated t ft m
f te dute f a tzen. Havng, n te famly and te l, been
taned t be a gentleman (), h must now b trand to b a
ctzn, capab of xrcsng gsatv, judca, and mtary
functons. Th Stat saw to t that h rcvd ths tranng, f hs
parnts chos and coud afford t.
In th tm of Soon, about B.C. 590, two grat gymnasa, th Acadmy
and Cynosargs, wr rctd n th mdst of xtnsv grovs outsd
th cty was. Ths grovs wr aftrwards surroundd wth hgh was,
furnshd wth sats and othr convnncs, and turnd nto cty parks.
Th Acadmy, whch ay to th northwst of th cty, n th vay of
th Cphsus, and was undr th patronag of Athna, was th rsort of
th fu-boodd ctzns, wh Cynosargs, stuatd to th ast of th
cty, nar th foot of Lycabttus, was assgnd to thos who had forgn
bood n thr vns, that s, who had ony on parnt of pur Athnan
stock. Ths gymnasum was undr th patronag of Hracs, whos worshp
aways mps th prsnc of a forgn and vanqushd mnt. Ths
wr th ony two gymnasa bongng to Athns bfor th tm of
Prcs. Thy wr, probaby, dstroyd by th Prsans n 480, and had
aftrwards to b rbut, and th grovs rpantd.
Wh th chdrn of nary a th fr ctzns of Athns attndd
th schoo and th pastra, t s car that ony th youth of th
wathr casss attndd th gymnasum. On rsut of ths was that
th govrnmnt and offcs of th Stat f xcusvy nto th hands
of thos casss; and t was prhaps just n ordr to mak ths
dvson, wthout ntroducng any cass-aw, that th shrwd Soon
stabshd th gymnasa, whch thus bcam a buwark aganst dmocracy.
As soon as th Athnan youth was transfrrd to th gymnasum, h
passd from undr th charg of th pdagogu, who rprsntd th
famy, and cam undr th drct survanc of th Stat. H was now
fr to go whr h woud, to frqunt th agora and th strt, to
attnd th thatr, n whch h had hs appontd pac, and to mak
hmsf drcty acquantd wth a th dtas of pubc f. In th
gymnasum h passd nto th hands of a gymnast or scntfc tranr,
and for th nxt two or thr yars was subjctd to th svrr
xrcss, wrstng, boxng, tc. No spca provson, byond th fact
that h had to arn th aws, was mad for hs ntctua and mora
nstructon. H was xpctd to acqur ths from contact wth th odr
ctzns whom h mt n th agora, th strt, or th pubc park. Thus,
at what s justy rgardd as th most crtca ag, h was amost
compd to v a fr, brzy, outdoor f, fu of actvty and
strrng ncdnt, hs thoughts and fngs drctd outwards nto acts
of w, and not turnd back upon hmsf or hs own stats. At th sam
tm h was acqurng just that practca knowdg of thca aws and
of ra f whch coud bst ft hm for actv ctznshp. H now
arnt to rd, to drv, to row, to swm, to attnd banquts, to
sustan a convrsaton, to dscuss th wghtst qustons of
statsmanshp, to sng and danc n pubc choruss, and to rd or wak
n pubc procssons. If h abusd hs brty and bhavd n a awss
or unsmy way, h was cad to account by th svr Court of th
Aropagus, whch attndd to pubc moras. H saw tt of grs of
hs own ag, xcpt hs sstrs, unss t was at pubc fstvas, whn
thr was tt opportunty of bcomng acquantd wth thm. Hs
affctonat natur thrfor xprssd tsf mosty n th form of
dvotd frndshps to othr youths of hs own, or nary hs own, ag,

a fact whch nabs us to undrstand why frndshp fs so arg a

spac, not ony n th f, but aso n th thca tratss of th
Grks,--Pato, Arstot, tc.,--and why ov, n th modrn sns,
pays so nsgnfcant a part. Th truth s that, vn n Athns, th
Stat ncroachd upon th famy. Pato's _Rpubc_ was ony th
ogca carryng out of prncps that wr atnt ong bfor n th
soca f of th Athnan pop.
It woud b mpossb to trat n dta th xrcss to whch th
Athnan youth was subjctd durng th yars n whch h attndd th
pubc gymnasum as a pup. Th od xrcss of th pastra wr
contnud, runnng and wrstng spcay; but th formr was now don
n armor, and th attr bcam mor vont, and was suppmntd by
boxng. In fact, th physca xrcss wr now systmatzd nto th
_pntathon_--runnng, apng, dscus-throwng, wrstng,
boxng--whch formd th programm of nary a gymnastc xhbtons.
Durng ths yars, th youth was st rgardd as a mnor, and hs
fathr or guardan was rsponsb for hs good bhavor. But whn h
rachd th ag of ghtn, a chang took pac, and h passd undr
th drct contro of th Stat. Hs fathr now brought hm bfor th
rv of hs _dmos_ (ward or vag), as a canddat for ndpndnt
ctznshp. If h provd to b th awfu chd of fr ctzns, and
cam up to th mora and physca rqurmnts of th aw, hs nam was
ntrd upon th rgstr of th dmos, and h bcam a mmbr of t. H
was now prpard to b prsntd to th who pop, and to pass th
Stat xamnaton. H shor hs ong har for th frst tm, and donnd
th back garmnt of th ctzn. In ths gus h prsntd hmsf to
th kng-archon of th Stat, who, at a pubc assmby, ntroducd hm,
aong wth othrs, to th who pop. H was thn and thr armd wth
spar and shd (suppd by th Stat f hs fathr had fan n
war), and thnc procdd to th shrn of Agauros, whr, ookng
down on th agora, th cty, and th Attc pan, h took th Soonan
oath of ctznshp (s p. 61). H was now tchncay an _phbs_,
cadet, r citize-vice, ready t uderg thse tw years f severe
disciplie which at ce frmed his itrducti t practical affairs,
ad cstituted the State examiati. Durig the first year he remaied
i the eighbrhd f Athes, drillig i arms, ad acquirig a
kwledge f military tactics. His life was w the hard life f a
sldier. He slept i the pe air, r i the guard-huses ()
th t  rr n
e
the city, n
w  li ble t be c lle
n t ny time
by the gvernment t give i
in n emergency. He l tk  rt in the
 blic fetiv l. At the en
f the ye r, ll the _ehbi_ f e
year's stadig passed a examiati i military drill befre the
assembled peple ( [3]), f whch
hy w mly
s ml  m  h f gu 
-huss, 
s
u l _g
m_ (), scug h cuy  ll
cs.
Thy w lv
lk sl
s  w -m, 
l  w m 
hgs, (1) h g hy f Ac , s 
s,  sss, bks,
sgs, c., (2) h  f fcg l w 

. Th lf,


, clsly smbl
h  f h Al cs (_Al_) f h
I l  my  h s
y. Ths s
h summ  m kg
hmslvs cqu 
wh vy hgh, v lly,  ss, s m, 

cv  h I l  Als, f bvu ckg f

ys gh  g 
hghs. Th 
ug hs m h _hbi_ shuld have take ay part
i the legislative r judicial duties f citizes, seems i the highest
degree imprbable. At the ed f their secd year, hwever, they passed
a secd examiati, called the citizeship r mahd examiati
( ), f whch hy w full mmbs f h S .

(4) UNIERSITY EDUCATION.

Th Gk uvsy w s h S , 
h Gk S  w s
uvsy-- _Culu-S _, s h Gm s s y. Th  h S  s
schl f vu, w s vw g lly  
 h c wl
,
whch, ul  bg  
c y, cmlly 
f
h m  wh h
cz. Th fluc f hs vw u h u
 f h 
v
u l
 h S , 
f h S   h 
v
u l, c  h 
ly b
vsm 
. Th S  cl m
, 
h 
v
u l cc

 ,

scl y gh whch 


 vy sh 
c f lf.
Thus h sh f m ly cc

 cly wh h sh f
lg ly, ,  u  h h w y, h sh f lg ly 


 h whl sh f m ly, 

hs w s cs

u, wh v
fm h S   gvm mgh ssum--m chy, sc cy,

mc cy, c.

T gv
full ccu f h uvsy 
uc  f l
Ahs wul

b  w h sc l 

lc l hsy u  h m f h
Ps  W s. Ths s, f cus, u f h qus. All I c 
 s
  u hs lms  h S  whch  bl
  
uc
h  sl

 y f bl m, 
ccmlsh hs g 

s 

wks, whch m k h bf c  sm h bghs s  h
wl
's hsy.
Th chf f hs lms, 
h  whch clu

ll h s,
w s h Gk 
 l f h my. Ahs w s g  s S  
s
schl s lg s sh mb

h  
 l, s lg s sh
sbu

w 
h  cc
c wh wh () inllcual, moal,
pacical; in a wod, so long as h Sa was govnd by h bs
ciizns (), 
h s ckwl
g
h gh 
 s.
Nwhs 
g h c f G 
hs,  s scly u
h  Ahs w s g  bc us, 
s lg s, sh w s sc c (
h c ss), 
sh
wh sh b 

h fu
m l

 l by bcmg
mc c. Ths ss mus  b csu
s
y slu u
mc cy s such,  s
yg h  Ahs  shg
 v
h w y f hgh 
 l h  h w. I smly s s f c,
whch m y b  sly g lz
whu lsg s uh: A su
shs wh  b 
s h cl  whch  w s fu



bul u. Ulss w b  hs  m

, w sh ll uly f l 
u
s 
h lss f Ah  hsy. If  b m  
h  sm
f Ahs' bls wk w s
 u
 h
mc cy, h suffc
sw s, h   w s  ly ll
 by m wh  
h s f
h l
sc cy, 
bly s
h
mc cy. W 
 m
ly schylus, Shcls, Ash s, Pl , Asl, Dmshs.

PART II
THE "NEW EDUCATION" (B.C. 480-338)

CHAPTER I
INDIIDUALISM AND PHILOSOPHY
Hm ugh  b
v fm h lss


wh,


Achlchus

lkws.--H clus.
Thu 
s mus h v kwl
g f ll hgs,
Fs f h s
f s c f h Tuh h  fch cvc,
Th f h s f m ls, wh u cvc b
s .
--P m
s.
All hgs w u
sgush
: h Illc c m 
bugh
hm  
.--A  g s.
M  s h m su f ll hgs.
I g 
 h G
s, I
.--P g s.

m u bl  kw whh hy

  

STREPSIADES. D' yu s wh  g

hg  s  h v l g?
Th s' y Zus, Ph

s!
PHIDIPPIDES. Wh s h h?
STREPS.  uls, h vg
h
Zus.
PHID. Psh w! wh  ss!
STREPS. Yu m y cu  u, ll h s m.
PHID. Wh s ys s?
STREPS. Sc s h Ml , 
Chh, wh kws h fs
f fl s.--Ash s, _Clu
s_.
Th s  l
-f sh
s w, cu f y mg m ls, h 
m 's h ss, wh full-gw, gvs bh 

s 
chl
lss, 
h  fm Fu h sgs s   w f ll
hs  c. Bu I,
ssg fm ll hs, m l f
ff
m
. I s h Iv D
h  bgs f  m f s
k
. F  ghus hms blgs
f -chl

l fv;
bu l
Ivc s su  bg Ivc, sgg u fsh
mg vl m, wh h umb
hu vs. A
h w
Ivc bgs Suf f W lh, 

w by
ll b l,
by
ll w , uhly D g, w cuss, bl ck  hms, lk 
h  s. Bu Jusc shs  smky hms, 
hs h
ghus lf, 
, l vg, wh v
ys, fu
s gl


wh muy f h 
s, sh
 ws gh  hly hgs, hg 
h w f w lh, wh s cuf s m f  s. A
h
wll s
.--schylus
Fm h m hy  chl
  h
y f h
 h, w  ch
hm 

msh hm. As s s h chl
u
s 
s wh  s
s 
 hm, hs us 
hs mh 
hs 
ggu 
v hs
f h v wh  ch h  yg  m k h bs f hm h 
c  b m
,  vy w



sucg hm 
w g hm,
"Ths s gh," "Ths s wg," "Ths s b uful," "Ths s
ugly," "Ths s ghus," "Ths s sful," "D hs," "D'

h ." A
f h chl

ly bys, wll 
g
; f h
s
, h hy   hm lk b 
ws
sck,
s ghg hm u wh h s 
blws. L  , hy s

hm  schl, 
h hy l y h jucs u h m ss
  y much m   h g
bh v f h ss h 
 h ls 
musc (); and te teae at upn

tee njuntn. Late yet, wen tey ave leant t ead, and ae
peedng t undetand te meanng f wat  wtten, jut a
fmely tey undetd wat wa ad t tem, tey put befe tem
n te bene t ead te wk f gd pet, and nt upn
te leanng tem by eat--wk w ntan many admntn,
and many naatve, nble deed, and eulge f te wty men f
ld--te pupe beng t awaken te by' ambtn,  tat e
may mtate tee men and tve t be wty lkewe. Te
mu-teae al, puung te ame lne, ty t nulate
elf-ntl () and t pevent te by fm fallng nt
mef. In addtn t t, wen tey ave leant t play n te
lye, te mate tea tem te pem, wtten by geat ly
pet, makng tem ng tem and play te ampanment t tem,
and mpellng tem t wk nt te ul te ytm and
melde f tem,  tat tey may gw n gentlene, and, avng
te natue tmed and tuned, may be ftted t peak and at. Te
tut , te wle lfe f man need tmng and tunng.
Futeme, n addtn t all t, paent end te n t te
pyal tane, n de tat te bde may be mpved and
endeed apable f endng a nble ntent, and tey temelve
nt be fed, fm pyal deteatn, t play te wad n
wa  te (eu) matte. And te w an bet affd t
gve t eduatn, gve mt f t, and tee ae te et
peple. Te n g ealet t l and leave t latet. And
wen te by leave l, te State nt tat tey all lean
te law and lve adng t tem, and nt adng t te wn
ape ... And f any ne tangee tee law, te State
pune m ... Seeng tat  mu attentn  devted t vtue,
bt n te famly and n te State, d yu wnde, Sate, and
quetn wete vtue be metng tat an be taugt? Suely yu
ugt nt t wnde at t, but ate t wnde f t uld _nt_
be taugt.--Plat, _Ptaga_ (_wd f Ptaga_).
"In't t tue, Ly," ad I, "tat yu paent lve yu vey
mu?"--"T be ue," ad e.--"Ten tey wuld w yu t be a
appy a pble?"--"Of ue," ad e.--"And d yu tnk a
pen  appy w  a lave, and  nt allwed t d anytng e
dee?"--"I dn't, ndeed," ad e.--"Ten, f yu fate and
mte lve yu and w yu t be appy, tey endeav by evey
mean n te pwe t make yu appy."--"T be ue tey d," ad
e.--"Ten tey allw yu t d anytng yu pleae, and neve de
yu,  pevent yu fm dng wat yu dee."--"By Jve! tey d,
Sate: tey pevent me fm dng a geat many tng."--"Wat d
yu mean," ad I; "tey w yu t be appy, and yet pevent yu
fm dng wat yu w? Let u take an example: If yu want t
de n ne f yu fate' at, and t ld te en, wen
t  mpetng n a ae, wn't tey allw yu,  wll tey
pevent yu?"--"By Jve! n: tey wuld nt allw me," ad e. "But
wy uld tey? Tee  a atee, w  ed by my
fate."--"Wat d yu mean? Tey allw a ed man, ate tan
yu, t d wat e lke wt te e, and pay m a alay
bede?"--"And wy nt?" ad e.--"Well ten, I uppe tey allw
yu t manage te mule-team, and f yu wanted t take te wp and
wp t, tey wuld pemt yu."--"Hw uld tey?" ad
e.--"Wat?" ad I: " nbdy allwed t wp t?"--"Of ue,"
e ad; "te muletee."--"A lave  a fee man?"--"A lave," ad
e.--"And  t eem tey tnk me f a lave tan f te n,
and entut te ppety t m ate tan t yu, and allw m
t d wat e pleae, weea tey pevent yu. But, fate, tell
me t. D tey allw yu t manage yuelf,  d tey nt even

tut yu t tat extent?"--"Hw tut me?" ad e.--"Ten de

me ne manage yu?"--"Ye, my pedaggue ee," ad e.--"But e
 uely nt a lave?"--"Of ue e , u lave," ad e.--"I
t nt tange," ad I, "tat a feeman uld be gvened by a
lave? But, t ntnue, wat  t pedaggue dng wen e
gven yu?"--"Takng me t a teae,  metng f te knd,"
e ad.--"And tee teae, t annt be tat tey t gven
yu?"--"T any extent."--"S ten yu fate lke t et ve yu
a t f mate and manage; but, f ue, wen yu g me t
yu mte, e let yu d wat yu lke, n de t make yu
appy, ete wt te tead  te lm, wen e 
weavng--de e nt? Se uely den't n te leat pevent yu
fm andlng te batten,  te mb,  any f te ntument
ued n pnnng."--And e, laugng, ad: "By Jve, Sate; e
nt nly pevent me, but I uld be beaten f I tued
tem."--"By Heule," ad I, "n't t tue tat yu ave dne
me wng t yu fate and mte?"--"By Jve, nt I," e
ad.--"But f wat ean, ten, d tey  anxuly pevent yu
fm beng appy, and dng wat yu pleae, and mantan yu te
wle day n evtude t me ne  ante, and wtut pwe t
d almt anytng yu lke. It eem, ndeed, tat yu deve n
advantage fm all t wealt, but anybdy manage t ate tan
yu, n fm yu bdy, nbly bn a t , but me ne ele
eped t and take ae f t. But yu gven ntng, Ly,
and d ntng tat yu dee."--"Te ean, Sate," e ad,
", tat I am nt f age."--Plat, _Ly_.
Te peent tate f te nttutn  a fllw: Ctzenp 
a gt f lden we paent ae bt f tem tzen.
Regtatn a membe f a deme  twnp take plae wen
egteen yea f age ae mpleted. Befe t take plae te
twnmen f te deme fnd a vedt n at, ftly, wete tey
beleve te yut t be a ld a te law eque, and f te
vedt  n te negatve e etun t te ank f te by.
Sendly, te juy fnd wete e  feebn and legtmate. If
te vedt  agant m e appeal t te Hela, and te
munpalty delegate fve f te bdy t aue m f
llegtmay. If e  fund by te ju t ave been llegally
pped f te egte, te State ell m f a lave; f te
judgment  gven n  fav, e mut be egteed a ne f te
munpalty. Te n te egte ae aftewad examned by te
enate, and f anyne  fund nt t be egteen yea ld, a fne
 mped n te munpalty by w e wa egteed. Afte
appbatn, tey ae alled _epeb_,  adet, and te paent
f all w belng t a ngle tbe ld a meetng and, afte beng
wn, e tee men f te tbe abve fty yea f age, wm
tey beleve t be f tanle aate and fttet f te
upentendene f yut, and ut f tee te mmn n elea
elet ne upentendent f all f ea tbe, and a gven f
te wle bdy f yut fm te geneal bdy f te Atenan.
Tee take tem n age, and afte vtng wt tem all te
temple, ma dwn t Pu, wee tey gan te nt and
ut ab, Munya and Ate. Te mmn al elet tw
gymnat tane f tem, and pen w tea tem t fgt n
eavy am, t daw te bw, t tw te javeln, and t andle
atlley. Ea f te ten mmande eeve a pay a dama
[abut 20 t.] pe dem, and ea f te adet fu bl [abut
13 t.]. Ea mmande daw te pay f te adet f  wn
tbe, buy wt t te neeae f lfe f te wle band (f
tey me tgete by tbe), and puvey f all te want. Te

ft yea  pent n mltay exee. Te end yea te

mmn meet n te teate and te adet, afte dplayng befe
tem te matey n walke evlutn, ae ea peented wt a
eld and pea, and beme munted patl f te fnte and
gan te ftee. Tey pefm t eve f tw yea,
weang te equetan lak and enjyng mmunty fm v
funtn. Dung t ped, t guad te mltay dute fm
nteuptn, tey an be pate t n atn ete a defendant
 plantff, exept n ut epetng netane,  eee,
 uen t eedtay petd. Wen te tee yea ae
mpleted tey fall nt te dnay bdy f tzen.--Attle,
_Cnttutn f Aten_ (_Pte' en, wt lgt
alteatn_).
Tat pefet amny between pwe and wt at w te Atenan State
amed, wa metng nt ealy attaned  peeved. A fa bak a
t eded ty eae, we fnd a tuggle f pwe gng n
between a paty w peed me pwe tan t wt jutfed, and
a paty w peed le; tat , between a paty w, avng
ne been wty, tve t ld pwe n vtue f t pat ty,
and ne tat lamed pwe n vtue f te wt nt w t wa
gwng: n a wd, a tuggle between delnng atay and gwng
demay. T te paty n pwe, f ue, t eemed a ebelln
agant lawful autty and pvlege, and t dd t bet t uppe
t. Hene ame te gu leglatn f Da; late te me
nlaty, le ut-pken, but equally atat leglatn f
Sln; ten te tyanny f Ptatu, latng a lng a e uld ld
te balane f pwe between te ntendng pate; ten te
nttutn f Cltene, wt te beakng up f te ld Atenan
atat ytem, te emdellng f te tbe, te degadatn f
te Aepagu, and te defnte tump f demay. T mplete te
mvement and, a t wee, t neate t, ame te Pean Wa, w
mak te tunng-pnt, te _pepetea_, n Atenan ty and
eduatn. Wateve efft atay make t mantan telf afte
t, ae made n te name f, and unde ve f a zeal f, demay.
Te atat Atenan State wa baed upn land-wnep, lavey,
and te ente feedm f te land-wnng la fm all but famly and
State dute, fm all need f engagng n pdutve nduty. S lng
a te ef wealt f te State nted n land and t pdue, 
lng te ppulatn wa dvded nt tw lae, te  and te p,
and  lng te fme ad lttle dffulty n keepng all pwe n
t wn and. But n ne dd te gwt f mmee tw wealt
nt te and f a la tat wned n land, and wa nt abve engagng
n nduty, tan t la began t lam a ae n pltal pwe.
Tee wee nw tw wealty lae, tandng pped t ea te, a
pud, nevatve ne, wt "ld wealt and wt," and a van,
adal ne, wt new wealt and want, bt bddng f te fav f
te la tat ad lttle wealt, lttle wt, and many want, and tu
makng t feel t mptane. Su  te gn f Atenan demay.
It  te ld f tade and pdutve nduty. It wed t fnal
neatn t te Pean Wa, and epeally t te battle f
Salam, n w Aten wa aved by e fleet, manned efly by
mane () fm h lw cl sss, h u cl sss, s w h v
s, bg  
ly f l 
-svc. Thus h b l f S l ms
w s  ly vcy f Gc v Ps , bu f fg 
 v
hm gculu, f
mc cy v sc cy.
Th f c h  h Ah 
mc cy w
s g  



m
,  g  m su, s hsy 

cs. O f s
m y suls w s h   
Ahs  h flu f fg m,
fg 
 s, 
fg h bs,   s k f fg g
s, ll f
whch 

 b k u h l
slf-c 
, c fully g z

lf f h l. I 

 m w h ffcs s  m
cl ly fl h   h  f 
uc . Fm bu h
 f h
b l f S l ms, wh h yuhful I , A  g s, c m  Ahs,
succss f m f "
v c
" 
 s   
scc sugh
fl
f c wh h b
s. Such fl
, 

, sm

usly  h v b lf  f hm by h S , whch h

v

 m s f llcu l  m l 
uc  f s yug
czs, f hy  ss
u
 s c  (s . 87). Nhg w s
 s  m f bl h  f hs ws fgs  csu
hmslvs ublc  chs, 
fll h l c whch h S  h
lf
v c . Th S  mgh cc s lly bjc, 
sk  ush  
h f hm f cug f h yuh by h mulg  f
mus  hws
gus 
 s, s 

 h c s f
A  g s; bu h cvy w s  much  h my wh 
cy
f h m,-- 
c l 

v
u lsc 
cy s  bl fm

mc cy,-- b
ss
wh lgh. Hc  w s h , wh
fw y s f h b l f S l ms, h flush
 Ahs
cl ss f m ukw bf wh h bu
s,
cl ss f v 
fsss,  "shss," s hy c ll
hmslvs, wh u
k 
 ch hc lly wh  h S  h
ssum
cul
b  ugh ly
 cc lly 
by hslf, vz., vu 
ws
m. Th 
 s w
vl, skg, 

c l, hc cg l  wly m c 

ul c, v  f s c chvms, 

cmuus f ll h 
s v
f h  w, us u sm f h l
m; h mss
w m gfc, 
h fs hgh ugh  ms u cl ss h 
lw ys m sus h v lu f
hg by wh   s sk
  y f ;
h mh
f  chg w s such s  fl  h v y, 
scu
h f v, f bh uls 
 s. N w
 h  h succss w s
mm
  
h fluc mus.
Fm h
ys f Sc s  u w, 'shs' h s b m f
 ch, 
 lgh ujusly s. Hgl, G, 
Zll h v,


, shw h  h shss


sv ll h blquy whch
h s  ch
slf  h  m,  smuch s hy w h much
b  much ws h  y cl ss f m wh s u   ch w

cs f my, 

, s ws cmss, su suly 
m 
;
vhlss,  m y b f ly ugh s 
h  hy l gly cbu


m lz Ahs, by cu gg vc f h vy
ccs u whch h ly w s bul, 
by  
g  sm f
h ms slfsh 

v
u lsc 
cs f
mc cy. If  b
s 
h  hy h v h l c  h hsy f hum  vlu, s
h h l
s f h  hgh vw f lf whch llws h 
v
u l
sh f cvs 
ss us
 f h  ccu
by h
S , hs m y  c 
whu
ffculy b
m
, whu u
bg hby fc
 g 
hm s bl m. Th uh s, hy
s
,   cc 
 hy, h s f 
v
u lsm,
whch w s h vywh ssg slf g s h s f
  lsm  ly, 
whch h s h
 ss slf  
 gg 


sucv w y, bf h ghful cl ms f h w
cul
b m fs

h mz
. I s h c  f hs
s f 
v
u lsm  
uc  h  csus h "Nw
E
uc ."
Ths s, s m fs
 h shss 
h  chg,
c

slf g s h l

lc l s  ll h
 ms f
lf-- lg,  lcs,  
uc . I
sc

h l

ul  g
s, u ly ly  whm h sc f h S  h
b
sus


, subsug f hm sm cu
 f cy lk ,
 sm b l
bs c lk Illc. I cu g
h 
v
u l 
sk hs 
 hs w l su, 
 g 
h S  s bu
m s
 h  
. I ch m
 
uc   whch hs 
 s ccu

m l c. Wh  h shss cu lly  ugh h mbus yug
m wh sugh h suc, w s slf- ss, uscuulusss,
shwy hc,  whs umh l css f cs, f cs, 

f lsh
s m ch
gh  bll   y. I s bu f   hm
 s y h ,  h 
 v  suc yug m  h  f
scus  y, hy l 
h fu
s f h  f hc 

h scc f g mm . S much,  l s, h wl

ws  hm.
Sc  w s  h yug m, wh, f
fm h
scl f hm,

ggu, schl, 
 ls , cul
b m wh ywh,  h
s, h g , h gym sum, h  h shss
c
h chf
,  w s f cus hs wh fs shw
h ffcs f h
 chg. Bu h fluc, f llg , s 

, wh h
uc

c l 
cs f h m, s m
 slf fl  ll
g
s f 
uc , fm h f mly  h uvsy,  h fm f
 v, fl , cc
  lsm, bf whs
slf-c

slf-cu
bu l vy su  h v 

 h w s  b 
. I h schls hs fluc shw
slf 
v us w ys: (1)   c s
  l u, 

sc lly  h fm l s

 f , (2)  h 
cy  subsu
f h wks f h l
c 
lyc s h wks f m c
ws g
wh h w s, (3)  h 
uc f w 

cmlc 
sums 
k
s f musc, (4)   c sg

 u fm h sv hysc l 

m l
scl f h l

ys.
W w, f h fs m, h  f  ch f l u,
sc
fm h musc m s, f  chs wh ssss
 cy f Hm
(Alcb
s s s 
 h v ch ss
such
), f flus, ch  s,

h lk  us  schls, f wl
ss 
lw
ss mg bys f

 g. I h  ls h w s shw
slf  
cy
 subsu shwy 
usysm c css f h vgus 

g

css f h l
 m,  s cfc 
uc   cu.
Bu, s l
y m k
, h w s shw
slf ms cl ly 

hufully  h hgh 

uc . Th yug m, s
f s
g
h m  vgus hysc l cs  h gym s


cuy, bg  w  h g bu h ss 
ublc l cs,
lsg  shsc
scusss, 
 
h schls f h
shss, csg h gus m h  y h   f h
b
s. Th ffc f hs s shw
slf 
cl f hysc l
w, f 
u c, cu g, 
m lss, 
 sg 
cy 
luuy 
h hysc l ss. Thy w bg   m g f hmslvs
v  lf, vy f  fm cc
 wh h 
m 

f
cz, 
 lk u h l
cz-lf, 
s 
 ls,
s cs, 

us, wh cm  y, s smhg whch hy
h
l   s bv. Th gly 
wll-bg f h cuy
w  lg h chf bjc f mb. Th
y  f

v
u lsm, whch lw ys sms  hs ffc
by   v
c f
h lh 
m ly vg, w s cug h m l  u, 
 g
h w y f h
suc f h S . F  w s bu   u l
h  hs yug m, wh hy c m  b mmbs f h S , shul

glc s lsss 

cl ms, 
, fllwg h w  chgs, lv
 hmslvs. Thus, jus s h ch  c f h "Ol
E
uc " f
Ahs shw
slf  h bh v f h ss  h Ps  W s, s
h  f h "Nw E
uc " shw
slf ffy y s l   h
Pls  W , h  lg 

s sus suggl whch wck

Ahs


Gc.

Y Ahs 
h 
uc  w  llw
 g  u whu
suggl. Th sc c  y lg suck  h l
cls 


 gv hm ffc; bu, f lg  u
s 
h w
ccums cs 
  k ccu f hm,  
 h lc 
f hm, by skg smly  s h l
c
s. I
v
u ls
ls 
h bs ffs f h s m 
. schylus, wh h

fugh  M  h, 
wh, m h  y h Gk, w s 
w
wh
h s f lg, 
h l
myhlgy   hc l
ss, 
 hs fm wk
  ss f
 m s, whby h
hsy 
sus f h Gk l w shw  b
u 
gu
g Pv
c f  bl jusc, w 
g  ch m  cc
g
 hs wks, bhg u
hms "gl

wh muy f h 
s," 

wllg wh h u 

ghus, hugh hus
 h m s c.
schylus hus bc m,  ly h f h f Gk  g
y, bu ls h
sublms m l  ch Gc v ssss
. F m l g 
u h
s bu  wk  ll l u h  c  s 
by h s
 f
schylus' _Os _, 
h  s h _Dv Cm
y_. Y schylus w s
ch g f my, 


 l.

v fm Ahs 

Bu  w s  h  gc
 m l h  w s s

m

 ch f ghusss:  h h 
s f Ash s, h cmc
 m

ll s w f h s m 
. F v hy y s hs
m bl hums us
h ublc h   l sh h flls, 

hl
u  cm h wch
l
s, f h Ah  ul c,
g u  hs cuym h byss f
suc h  w s y wg
bf hm. Th wl
h s v s such  s cm
y,  v 
h wks f Ml  B um ch s. Y  w s ll  v . Lg
bf hs
 h, Ash s w s fb

  hl
u  ublc sc
h
g
 f hs l.
Amg h 
v
u l czs wh l b
wh ll h mgh  bg
b ck Ahs  h l
wh w w f vy
ff ch  c,

wms, 
s, h  l bg  h wl
f c, h
h  h wl
f hugh. Th fs w s Pcls, wh, sg h 

mc cy w s h 
 f h
y, cc
, 
, by hs s l
ch  c 
s, sv  gu
   why 
s. I 
 
cu g gym sc css,  cul ly mg h ss f h w
f mls, h bul h Lycum,  gv s c
 All, bw
Cys gs 
h cy w lls, s gym sum f hm. Wh vw 
cu gg mg hm h su
y f musc, h bul  
, 
musc-h ll, u
 h suh s 
f h Acls. Bh w
m gfc sucus. Wh  h

w 
s h cml f h g 
h  f h cu gm f
cg, w
  kw; h  hs

 hs l , h c  h 
ly b y
ub. Bu Pcls w s
 ws m   sus h  h cul

uc hs l su-skg
cuym  subjc hmslvs  h l

scl, whu ffg
hm  bjc c lcul 
 us h mb 
c ll fh h
gy. Ths bjc w s hg lss h  u
Gc, wh Ahs
s s c  l. Hw h 
h 
 m k hs bjc f ml   hm,

 
 Ahs why f h l c h
s
h  ccuy, s
 hc lly s
 hs
y by h Pyl 
h P h. O
h fz f h l  s s
h slm s cfc h  w s 
cm h u f h Hllc l, 
l c   h h
f
cvlz . Wh
g  Gc ss
ll hs ffs  m k
h bcm   c bly, h 
 m k h
 s by fc, 
h
Pls  W , s 

m fvlus , w s h sul.
H

 lv lg ugh  l  h ucm f hs
s 
m  w k hs cuym  w m l 
lc l lf, 


w s wll. If h h
, h mgh h v b fc
 cgz h  h h

b mg  mssbl  sk,--yg  c sg sucu

wh  mb,  m k bl S  u f gbl, slfsh m.
Ufu ly, h  ml f hs w v  lf,  whch h ly

f
 f h l ws f h S , 

 m k ccub g
() epetable, me tan undd all te gd e ugt t
ampl. Te tut , Pele wa melf t deeply mbued wt
te tee ve f  tme--atnalm, elf-ndulgene, and lve f
w--t be able t ee any tue emedy f te evl tat pang fm
tem. Wat wa needed wa nt lette, mu, gymnat, danng, 
deam f empe, but metng entely dffeent--a new mal
npatn and deal.
T, te end f te men t wm efeene a been made, Sate,
ugt t upply. In te mdt f elf-ndulgene, e lved a lfe f
pvety and pvatn; n te mdt f plend and te wp f
utwad beauty, e puued mplty and tk pleaue n  uglne;
n te mdt f elf-aetve atnalm and all-knwng pty, e
pfeed gnane and ubmn t te gd. Te pblem f w t
ete te mal lfe f Aten and Geee peented telf t Sate
n t fm: _Te ld etal al antn, dvne and uman,
avng, unde te nfluene f atnalm and ndvdualm, lt te
pwe, wee and w all we fnd te antn t take te plae?_
T anwe t ne quetn wa te am f Sate' wle lfe. He wa
nt lng n eeng tat any tue anwe mut et upn a mpeenn
f man' ente natue and elatn, and tat te pt wee able t
mpe upn  untymen nly beaue n u mpeenn wa
te. He aw tat te ld mal lfe, baed upn nave tadtn and
peptn, antned by gd f te magnatn, wuld ave t gve
plae t a mal lfe etng upn elf-undetandng and efletn.
He adngly adpted a  mtt te mmand f te Delp ale,
_Knw Tyelf_ ( ), 
s  wk wh ll hs mgh 
by .
H w, hf, w  m h shss  h w gu


wh h w mh

s, 
h

hs s wll s  b cs

by
m y, Ash s mg hm, s h bs ssbl s v f
h cl ss. Wh  s u s, h  h w s h fs Ah  wh u
k

 wh  h shss h
f sm m cs

h sc l
fuc,-- m 
"hgh 
uc "  h yuh 
m f
Ahs. H w bu h ss, shs, w lks, schls, 
gym s
f h cy,
 wg ll ss f ss  cvs , 
yg
 lc uh f hmslf 
hm (f h 

 kw hg).
H w s v s l s
s wh h m  l shs, wh fss

h v kwl
g, 
v s much  hs lm s wh,  h
sc f k f yug m, h cul
, by hs c l, subl
quss, fc s 
shs 
m h  h  kw hg. Th
f c w s, Sc s, su
yg H clus, h
bcm cvc
h  h
 s why m fll   w s bc us hy

 kw hmslvs,
 h w hughs, bc us wh  hy c ll
hughs w m
s, m f gms f hughs. H cclu

h , f m w
v  b 
m
fm , llcu l 
m l, hy mus b
m
  hk whl hughs. Acc
gly, h k h 
 y s
f m 
, by ss f wll-
c
quss, 
 bg u
h mlc s, h  s, h whls f whch hy w  s. Such
s h Sc c 
 lcc (= cvs  l) mh
. I
s 

 m  y w kwl
g, bu mly, s Sc s s 
, 

lv h m

f h hughs wh whch  s g . A
Sc s
 ly hl
h  s vg uh css
f whl hughs; h hl

ls h  ll such hughs w uvs lly 

css ly u; h ,

whl h mgh b m y s bu hg, h cul

b bu 
uh, h s m f ll m, 
hf 

 f y m . Ths
w s h  c s f wh  P g s h shs h
 ugh, h
s f h gsl f 
v
u lsm (s . 93). M  s s f  fm
bg h m su f ll hgs, h  h s  ll hgs
m su
 whch h mus cfm, f h s   sk  . Ths m su,
hs sysm f whl uhs, mlyg   l m
 whch  s
s, 
by whch  s m fs
 h wl
, s jus wh  m 
vs , f h wll bu hk u hs hughs  h cmlss.
I
g s, h  c l s h l ws by whch h uvs s
gv

f
s gu
 
s c f hs w c
uc-- s c
 lg  l 
ms
by h S , bu  l 
ms
by
cml vs l f h l

h m
. A sysm lk hs vlv

vw f h l  bw m  

h S , 
 h s m m
k h f fm u
 
v
u lsm. "I s u," s 
Sc s 
ffc, "h  h 
v
u l, 
 h S , s h suc f ll
uhy, h m su f ll hgs; bu h s s,  s 
v
u l,
bu s 
w
wh h uvs l  s by whch h wl
, clu
g
h S , s gv
." Ths s h sum 
subs c f Sc s'
 chg, hs s wh  h blv
 b u slf-kwl
g. Ths s
h uh whs lc   lf bgs
w ch  hum  hsy,

s  s h m
 fm h c wl
; hs s h uh h ,
 

vvf
by Chs y, fms h vy lf f u lf
-
y.
I
g hs vw, Sc s css ly fm
"  y by hmslf,"
 y whch cul
h f  sym hy fm h f h h w
 whch hs cuym w
v

. Th  y f 
 ch g

hm wh
yg h g
s f hs cuy 
cug h yuh; h

c l  y h 
hm bc us h cvc
s ch ms f v y,
sufc ly, 
g c. Bw hm, hy cm ss
hs
 h,

Ahs l , ly wh  w s  l , h  sh h
sl  h
h. Bu Sc s, hugh sl , w s 

. Hs s lv
,

h wk whch h h
bgu gw 
s
. Y  cul

s v Ahs, c u c
 whch sh h wul
 cul

cc, h  f m
llg h ly 
h lf f h czs 
cc
c wh
v uh 
jusc. I

, hugh h
scv

g  uh, Sc s


 s   fm  whch  cul
b
cc
u
 h gv c
s. H hmslf v

 by y
m s s ll h su
us mlc s f hs w cl, whch,
 f c, w s hg lss h  h gu
f ll u hcs, ll
lby, 
ll scc. I s
ubful whh y  ss hm w,

c  h  hy h v b wh  lz
. Sll hs uh 

hs lf w  whu h mm

  ffc u Ahs 

Ah  
uc . M, wkg  hs s, 
s
wh hs
uh, m  lss cl ly u
s
, lms mm
 ly l c
h
shss  Ahs, 

w h  f h czs, l


yug,  h sus s ch f uh. I f c, fm hs m , h
llcu l 
cy bg   v l v h gym sc 
musc l,

hs cu
ul, f lly,  bsb
h whl lf f h
l, 
Ahs, fm bg uvsy-S , bc m
S -uvsy. Such  w s  h
ys f Cc, P ul, Plu ch,
Luc , 
Pclus. Th  hs -s


cy w s f  l  h
lc l lf f Ahs, 
hf,  sm
g,  s m l
lf, s cl  ugh; 
, hugh w c  hl
Sc s s lly
ssbl f hs sul, w mus sll
m h   w s  whch
flw
fm hs sysm f hugh. Ps lly, 

, Sc s w s
m l h, 
"fv ghus" m lk hm, h
hy  
, wul

h v g f   s v Ahs; bu hs vy hsm, hs b

hus sm f ghusss, bl

hm s f  s  m k hm blv

h  m h
ly  kw h gh  
  b 
y  fllw .
Hc h   gg 
m c  ch
 gh kwg, 
h 
cm  v glc f gh flg 
gh
g, whch  h
squl v
s   lyzg. Hc h f lu f Sc s'  chg 
sm h 
 f cu  Ahs, 
s h l  hsm

wh.
Sc s lf bh
hm m y
scls, sm f whm
sgush

hmslvs   cc l w ys, hs s fu

s f hlshc
schls, mh szg
ff s
s f hs  chg. H w s bu fw
y s  hs g v wh w f hs w  chg gul ly  h w
l
gym s f Ahs. Pl , full-bl

Ah , w s  chg 
h Ac
my h llcu l 
m l hs f hs m s, whl
Ashs,
h lf-b
(hs mh bg Th c ), w s culc g
h lss f hs hc lf  Cys gs. Th fllws w
c ll
, scvly, Ac
mcs 
Cycs. Thus, by hs w m, w s
h hgh 
uc  f h fs m 
uc
 h ublc
sus f Ahs.
Sc s' m, s w h v s, h
b uly
m l , 
hs
f c w s  ls sgh f by hs mm
  fllws. Th chf
qus wh hm ll w s sll: Hw c  h l b bugh b ck 
m l lf? Bu, h ks  ly  h v guss  whch h h
lf h

 ls f hs
c, hy w
v

wh sc  h m s
whby hs w s  b ccmlsh
. O  y, bs s
by
Pl , 
fllwg ms clsly  h fss f h m s, hl

h , m  bg ss lly sc l bg, 

m ly l  
scy,  w s ly  
hugh sc l 
, S , h  vu
cul
b  lz
. Ah  y, s
by Ashs, m  

h  vu w s uly s l m , 

h  h ws m  s

hgh bv y 
ll sc l sus. Ths w vws m  

hmslvs, s
 by s
,   ly ll subsqu Gk hugh, 

l s fu
ss  h S  
Chuch f h Chs  wl
.
Tw f Sc s' fllws, blvs  su l m ly, lf
bh
hm  ss whch h v cm
w  us, gvg h vws s
 h m   whch vu mgh b culv 
. Ths  h
 cc l Xh 
h hc Pl , bh m f u Ah 
sck. Nhg wll b  bl us  cmh
h vls f h "Nw
E
uc " h 
cs
  f h m s by whch hs why m
s
 m
y hm. Bh  
 lss 
U s; bu h fm
s csv v 
 c y, whl h l  s scul v 

gssv. Bh  mg   hg-- vuus 

h y S ,
 l c h vcus 
wch
  whch hy fu
h l
c s; bu hy
ff
 h vws g 
g h  u f such
S , 
h m s f  lzg .

CHAPTER II
XENOPHON
Nv

g
s h ul f h m y; l  b h ul.--Hm

W lh whu Wh s  h mlss husm .--S h

O  m s  hus 
, f h b bs.

All h Ehs s, fm yuh u, ugh  b h g


h S 
lf  h bys, bc us hy c s u Hm
us, h whs
m  mgs hm, s yg: 'N  f us sh ll b whs, ls l
hm b s lswh 
mg hs.'--H clus
Rflcg c h , f h vy sm ll s s, S   

b h ms wful 
h ms w
 Gc, I bg  
w
  wh  w y hs h
cm bu. Bu wh I flc
u
h m s f h S  s, I c s
 w
. As  Lycugus, wh

w u f hm h l ws, by b

c  whch hy h v
s
, I
m hm 
hl
hm  b,  h hghs
g,
ws m . F h, s
f m g h s s,  ch

ccluss s  hs f ms, 

hby 

hs
cuy cscuus f sy.--Xh
Xh w s   ss hlsh   cc l  ch, bu h
w s m  f slg wh, f kghly cu g, f w
 
v 

c, f sg s g cy, 

f g l
ss, k
ch mg w. H w s
bsv, 

u l
Ah  u ,
b


sf
by su
y 
c c wh h wl
. H h 

mc cy s c
 lly h  h wul
 lv  Ahs  wss s
vulg y 

s
; bu h lv
hs cuy, 

s
 s
s l s
 h c wh. H blv
h  hs cul

b
 ly by sm g , y l s ly, lk Lycugus  Cyus,
fcg g

scl, 
c m 
ucg h m   h
cz. Uwllg, b bly,  hl
u h 
S  s m
l  hs
b  
sm g cuym, h l 
h sc f hs 
ggc l
m c  f -ff Ps .
I h _E
uc  f Cyus_ ( ) we h ve Xenphn's scheme
fr perfect educ tin. Despite the scene in which it is  id, it is
purey Heenic, m de up f Atheni n nd Sp rt n eements in but e u 
prprtins. Fr this re sn s it h s speci  interest fr us. As
the prtin f the tre tise de in
directy with pubic educ tin is
brief, we c n h rdy d better th n tr nscribe it in tr ns tin.
"Cyrus is sti ceebr ted in e
end nd sn
by the b rb ri ns s
m n
f extr rdin ry persn  be uty, nd s f mst
ente, studius, nd
hnr-vin
dispsitin, which m de him re dy t under
 ny  br, nd
br ve ny d n
er, fr the s e f pr ise. Such is the ccunt th t h s
been h nded dwn f his ppe r nce nd dispsitin. He w s, f curse,
educ ted in ccrd nce with the  ws f the Persi ns. These  ws seem t
be
in their effrts fr the pubic we  t different pint frm thse
f mst ther st tes; fr mst st tes, fter win
p rents t educ te
their chidren s they pe se, nd the der pepe even t spend their
time ccrdin
t their wn preference,  y dwn such  ws s: Thu
sh t nt ste , Thu sh t nt rb, Thu sh t nt cmmit bur
 ry,
Thu sh t nt cmmit ss ut, Thu sh t nt cmmit dutery, Thu
sh t nt disbey
m
istr te, etc.; nd if ny ne tr ns
resses ny f
these  ws, they infict punishment n him. The Persi n  ws, n the
cntr ry, prvide befreh nd th t the citizens sh  never, frm the
very first, h ve ny dispsitin t cmmit wiced r b se ct. And
they d s in this w y. They h ve wh t they c  Freemen's S u re,
where the ry  p  ce nd the ther pubic buidin
s st nd. Frm this
s u re re remved  w res nd ch fferers, with their cries nd
vu
rities, t nther p ce, s th t their din nd disrder m y nt
interfere with the decrum f the cutiv ted c ss. This s u re in the
nei
hbrhd f the pubic buidin
s is divided int fur p rts, ne fr
bys, ne fr yuths (),  f m u m, 
 f m

by
h ml y g. Th hu wh hs sh ll    h
l cs s sl
by l w. Th bys 
m u m cm 
yb k, h
l
 m wh hy hk f, c  h sc l
ys wh hy 
bu
  . Th yuhs  ss h gh by h ublc bul
gs 
lgh m, ly hs wh  m 
bg cus
. Ths  
hu
u, ulss hy h v b 

bfh 
  ; bu  s
 hugh
c  b f bs. E ch f hs
vss s u

h ch g f wlv gvs,  fm  ch f h wlv bs 
whch h Ps s 
v

. Th gvs f h bys  chs
fm mg h l
ly m, wh sc l vw  h fss f
m kg h ms f bys, whl hs f h yuhs  chs fm mg
h m u m u sml  cl. Ths f h m u m 
slc
wh vw  h bly  hl
hs  h gul 

us, 
 h sc l cmm 
s f h sum uhy. Ev h
l
m h v s
s 
v hm, wh s h  hy fm
h
uy. Wh  h
us f  ch  w sh ll w s ,  
 
shw jus hw vs s m
 f scug h hghs wh  h
  f h czs.
"Fs, h, h bys, wh hy g  schl, s
h m 
l g jusc. Thy s y hy g f h  us, jus s u bys g
 l  ls. Th gvs s
h g    f h
y 
cg s ju
gs mg hm. I s 
lss  s y h  bys, s wll s
m, bg ch gs g s  ch h f hf 
bby 
vlc


c 
sl 
, 
sml  hgs, 
hs whm h ju
gs
f
guly f y f hs hy ush. Bu hy ls ush hs whm
hy f
bgg f ls ch gs. Thy uc ju
gm lkws 
ch g whch, m h  yhg ls, m ks m h   ch h, 

f whch hy  ju

g
lss h  f y h,  mly, g u
.
If h ju
gs f

by  s  u f v 


g
, hy ush hm svly, blvg h  ss wh  ug ful
wll, m h  y hs, b u
uful  h g
s,   s,
cuy, 
f
s. I s g lly hl
h  g u
, m h 
ugh ls, l
s  vc, 
w 


h  __ s h
m mv  vy fm f b sss. Thy  ch h bys ls
slf-
 l, 
hs  g ly 

 l g hs vu fm
sg 
ly  cs
by h l
s. Ah hg hy  ch hm
s b
c  hs l c
 uhy v hm; 
hy 
g ly 

 l g hs, by sg h l
s scly byg
h gvs. Ah hg y whch hy  ch hm s
slf-
scl  m s f  g 

kg; 
hy  g ly


 hs by sg h  h l
s v bs hmslvs f
h us f  g, ul hy  m

 s by h
gvs, s wll s by h f c h  hy (h bys)
    wh
h mhs, bu wh h  chs, 
 sg l fm h
gvs. As f
, hy bg wh hm fm hm b
, s
lsh,
 suum, 
 
 
k, f hy  hsy, hy bg 
 h cu 
 w w  fm h v wh. I

  ll hs
hgs, h bys l   sh wh h bw 
 hw h j vl.
U  h g f s  sv y s, hs  h su
s 
whch h bys g g; f h  hy   sf
 h cl ss f
c
s ().
"Ths c
s s
h m  hs w y: F  y s fm h m
wh hy g
u  fm h bys' cl ss, hy sl, s w h v l
y
s 
,  h ccs f h ublc bul
gs, cg  c s
gu 
 h cy 
 csg slf-
 l. I s g lly g
,


, h  hs s h g whch sc lly qus . Dug
h
y hy   h
ss l f h gvs, 

y 
fm y ublc svc qu
. If  such svc s
m 

,

hy m   h ghbh

f h ublc bul
gs. Wh h kg
gs u  hu, whch h
s m y ms
mh, h  ks wh hm
-h lf f h bs, 
l vs h h bh
. Ths yuhs wh
ccm y hm mus c y wh hm bws 
, 
sh h lgs

lgh shl
, 
w j vls
h quvs, bll  scm ; ls
c,   hw, h h  us, f css y,  cls qu s.
F hs  s hy m k hug m  f ublc cc, 
h
kg, s  w , cs s h l
, hus hmslf, 
ss h  h
hs hu, h Ps s bg f  h  hs s h bs f ll
  s f w . A
, 

,  ccusms hm  s  ly, 

 b  h  
cl
;  ff
s hm cs  m chg 
ug,

cmls hm  us h bws  h j vls u wl
m ls,
whv hy h   cm u hm. Thy  f fc
, mv,
 sh  h cu g, wh hy f
hmslvs f c  f c wh
sm wful m l. Thy mus, f cus, wu
h  h  cms 
cls qu s, 
hl
 b y h  h   cks hm. Hc  s

ffcul  f
 w  yhg h  s bs fm h ch s. Wh
hy g u  hu, h yug m, f cus,  k wh hm l g
luch h  h bys  llw
 h v; bu hs s h ly

ffc bw h w. A

whl hy  hug, hy smms

  luch  ll; bu, f hy h v  m  by

h m 
ccu f sm g m,  hws, f hy wsh  lg h ch s,
hy m k
 f hs luch, 
 h fllwg
y cu h
hu ll
-m, cug h w
ys , bc us hy csum
ly 
y's f
. A
hy
 hs f h s k f  cc, s h ,
f v hy shul
u sh f vss  w , hy m y b bl 

 h s m hg. Ths yuhs h v s

lsh wh  g m hy c u
 h ch s, hws hy h v  suum. A
f y  hks
h  hy   whu l su, wh hy h v ly  suum wh
h f
, 
k whu l su, wh hy
k w , l hm
mmb hw sw b ly-c k 
wh  b
 wh h s hugy,

hw sw w  s wh h s hsy. Th bs h  m 
bh
, wh h kg gs hug, s
h m  h s m su
s
whch hy usu
s bys, clu
g shg 
j vl-c sg, 

 hs cu l css  gg . Th  lkws ublc

hbs  hm,  whch zs  ff
; 
whchv b
c s ms yug m c lly fc, m ly, 
s
y, s
cmm

by h czs, wh lkws h,  ly h s
gv, bu ls h gv wh h
ch g f hm s bys. Th
yug m wh  lf bh
 ls mly
by h uhs, f
y such svc s qu
s m g gu 
-hus,  ckg u
m lf cs, ug
w bbs,  yhg
m 
g sgh 

swfss. Such  h su

s f h yug m. A
wh hy h v
 ss
 y s  hs, hy g
u   h cl ss f m u m.
"Fm h
 f hs g
u , hy s
fv 
wy y s m
 h fllwg m : I h fs l c, lk h yug m, hy
l c hmslvs  h
ss l f h uhs f y ublc
svc qug  c s g cy 
um 
sgh. If hy 
qu
  k h fl
 w , m fc s hy  g m
,
 lg wh bws 
j vls, bu wh wh   c ll
h 
--h 

w s, b s-l s, shl

s  h lf h 
s, such s w s 
sw
 bll  h gh. A
ll
cus f h Ps s, 

h ffc ls 
 w fm hs cl ss, c h bys'  chs. A

wh hy h v  ss

wy-fv y s  hs cl ss, hy 
smhg m h  ffy y s f g. A h  g hy g
u  
h cl ss f l
s, s, 

, hy  c ll
.
"Ths l
s  lg sv  w  us
 h w cuy, bu,
m g  hm, c s ju
gs  ublc 
v  c ss. Thy
 s

v  c  l c ss. Thy lkws chs ll h ffc ls, 

f
y s blgg  h f h cl sss f yug 
m u m
glcs y f hs l wful
us, h gv f hs b,  y 
ls wh l ss, m y  hm  h l
s, 
hs, f hy f

h f c  b s 
, l hm fm hs b, 
h wh s
ll
m s
sh
ll hs lf.
"T gv cl   f h ly f h Ps s s
whl, I
wll  c my ss ll. Af wh  h s b s 
, hs m y b
vy fw w
s: Th Ps s, h,  s 
 umb bu

 
 hu


wy hus 
. Of hs,  s clu

by l w fm
hs  ffcs; bu ll Ps s  llw
 s
h ss 
h ublc schls f jusc. Hwv,  s ly hs wh  bl 
m   h ss whu mlym h  s
hm h: h s

. O h h h 
, hs h   
uc 
by h ublc  chs
 m
 s
h yuh mg h _hbi_, while thse wh
have t cmpleted this educati are t. Agai thse that pass their
yuth amg the _ephbi_, ad cme up t the legal requiremets, are
allwed t graduate it the class f mature me, ad t participate i
hrs ad ffices; whereas thse wh d t pass thrugh the grade f
the _ephbi_ d t rise t the class f mature me. Fially, thse wh
cmplete the curriculum f the mature me withut reprach, pass it
the class f elders. Thus it is that this class f elders is cmpsed f
me wh have passed thrugh all the grades f culture. Such is the
plity f the Persias, ad such is the system f traiig whereby they
edeavr t secure the highest wrth."
This Utpia scheme f educati has a peculiar iterest, because it is
thig mre r less tha the ld ideal f Greek educati becme fully
cscius f itself, uder the ifluece f the ew ideal. Let us call
atteti t the mai pits f it. (1) The educati here set frth is
purely plitical: me are regarded simply ad slely as citizes; all
hrs are civic hrs. (2) N prvisi is made fr the educati f
wme, their rage f activity beig etirely cfied t the family.
(3) Disticti is made t rest up educati ad cduct. (4) The
prer classes f the ppulati, thugh t legally excluded frm
educati, psiti, ad pwer, are virtually excluded by their pverty,
s that the gvermet is altgether i the hads f the rich, ad is,
i fact, a aristcracy, while pretedig t be a demcracy: hece, (5)
Scial distictis are distictis f wrth, which is just the Greek
ideal.
There is, hwever, e pit i the scheme which shws that it is
reactiary, directed agaist prevailig tedecies. Nt e wrd is
said f the itellectual side f educati, f music r letters. It is
evidet that Xeph, himself a ma f  mea literary attaimets,
clearly saw the dagers t Greek life ad liberty ivlved i that
exaggerated devti t literary ad itellectual pursuits which
fllwed the teachig f the sphists ad Scrates, ad that, i rder
t check this perilus tedecy, he drew up a scheme f educati frm
which itellectual ad literary pursuits are altgether excluded, i
which justice takes the place f letters, ad music is t metied.
This suggests a curius iquiry i respect t his _Memirs f Scrates_.
This wrk has geerally bee regarded as givig us a mre crrect ti
f the real, livig Scrates tha the maifestly idealizig wrks f
Plat. But was t Xeph, wh culd t fail t see the future pwer
f Scrates' ifluece, as axius as Plat t claim the prphet as the
champi f his w views, ad des t this fact determie the whle
character f his wrk? Is it t a rmace, i the same sese that the

_Cyrpdia_ is, with ly this differece, that the facts f Scrates'
life, beig fairly well kw t thse fr whm Xeph was writig,
culd t be treated with the same freedm ad disregard as thse f
Cyrus' life?
Befre we part with Xeph, we must call atteti t ather treatise
f his, i which he deals with a subject that was the pressig fr
csiderati--the educati f wme. While, as we have see, the
lia states ad eve Dria Sparta prvided, i sme degree, fr
wme's educati, Athes apparetly, cceivig that wma had 
duties utside f the family, left her educati etirely t the care f
that istituti. The cservative Xeph des t depart frm this
view; but, seeig the mral evils that were sprigig frm the eglect
f wme ad their iability t be, i ay sese, cmpais t their
cultured, r ver-cultured, husbads, he lays dw i his _cmics_ a
scheme fr the educati f the yug wife _by her husbad_. As this
affrds us a admirable isight it the lives f Atheia girls ad
wme, better, ideed, tha ca be fud elsewhere, we cat d better
tha trascribe the first part f it. It takes the frm f a
cversati betwee Scrates ad a yug husbad, amed Ischmachus
(Strg Fighter), ad is reprted by the frmer. Scrates tells hw,
seeig Ischmachus sittig at leisure i a certai prtic, he etered
it cversati with him, paid him a acceptable cmplimet, ad
iquired hw he came t be early always busy ut f drs, seeig that
he evidetly spet little time i the huse. Ischmachus replies:-"'As t yur iquiry, Scrates, it is true that I ever remai idrs.
Nr eed I; fr my wife is fully able by herself t maage everythig i
the huse.' 'This agai, Ischmachus,' said I, 'is smethig that I
shuld like t ask yu abut, whether it was yu wh taught yur wife t
be a gd wife, r whether she kew all her husehld duties whe yu
received her frm her father ad mther.' 'Well, Scrates,' said he,
'what d yu suppse she kew whe I tk her, sice she was hardly
fiftee whe she came t me, ad, durig the whle f her life befre
that, special care had bee take that she shuld see, hear, ad ask as
little as pssible. Ideed, d't yu thik I ught t have bee
satisfied if, whe she came t me, she kew thig but hw t take wl
ad tur it it a garmet, ad had see thig but hw tasks i
spiig are assiged t maids? As regards matters cected with eatig
ad drikig, f curse she was extremely well educated whe she came,
ad this seems t me the chief educati, whether fr a ma r a wma.'
'I all ther matters, Ischmachus,' said I, 'yu yurself istructed
yur wife, s as t make her a excellet husewife.' 'T be sure,' said
he, 'but t util I had first sacrificed, ad prayed that I might
succeed i teachig her, ad she might succeed i learig, what was
best fr bth f us.' 'The,' said I, 'yur wife tk part i yur
sacrifice ad i these prayers, did she t?' 'Certaily she did,' said
Ischmachus, 'ad slemly prmised t the gds that she wuld be what
she ught t be, ad shwed every evidece f a dispsiti t t
eglect what was taught her.' 'But d, I beseech yu, Ischmachus,
explai t me,' said I, 'what was the first thig yu set abut teachig
her? I shall be mre iterested i hearig yu tell that, tha if yu
tld me all abut the fiest gymastic r equestria exhibiti.' Ad
Ischmachus replied: 'What _shuld_ I teach her? As s as she culd be
hadled, ad was tame eugh t cverse, I spke t her i sme such
way as this: Tell me, my dear, have yu ever csidered why I tk _yu_
as my wife, ad why yur parets gave yu t me? That it was t because
I culd t fid ay e else t share my bed, yu kw as well as I.
N, but because I was axius t fid fr myself, ad yur parets were
axius t fid fr yu, the mst suitable parter i hme ad

ffsprig, I selected yu, ad yur parets, it seems, selected me, ut
f all pssible matches. If, the, Gd shall ever bless us with
childre, the we will take the greatest care f them, ad try t give
them the best pssible educati; fr it will prve a blessig t bth
f us t have the very best f helpers ad supprts i ur ld age. But
at preset we have this as ur cmm hme. Ad all that I have, I pass
ver t the cmm stck, ad all that yu have brught with yu, yu
have added t the same. Nr must we begi t cut which f us has
ctributed the larger umber f thigs, but must realize that whichever
f us is the better parter ctributes the mre valuable thigs. The,
Scrates, my wife replied, ad said: I what way ca I cperate with
yu? What pwer have I? Everythig rests with yu. My mther tld me
that my ly duty was t be dutiful. Assuredly, my dear, said I, ad my
father tld me the same thig. But it is surely the duty f a dutiful
husbad ad a dutiful wife t act s that what they have may be imprved
t the utmst, ad by every fair ad lawful meas icreased t the
utmst. Ad what d yu fid, said my wife, that I ca d twards
helpig yu t build up ur huse? Dear me! said I, whatever thigs the
gds have edwed yu with the pwer t d, ad the law permits, try t
d these t the best f yur ability. Ad what _are_ these? said she. It
strikes me, said I, that they are by  meas the least imprtat
thigs, uless it be true that i the hive the quee-bee is etrusted
with the least imprtat fuctis. Ideed, it seems t me, my dear, I
ctiued, that the very gds have yked tgether this cuple called
male ad female with a very defiite purpse, viz. t be the surce f
the greatest mutual gd t the yke-fellws. I the first place, this
ui exists i rder that livig species may t die ut, but be
preserved by prpagati; i the secd, the parters i this ui, at
least i the case f huma beigs, btai thrugh it the supprts f
their ld age. Mrever, huma beigs d t live, like aimals, i the
pe air, but bviusly require rfs. Ad I am sure, peple wh are
gig t have aythig t brig uder a rf must have sme e t d
utdr duties; fr, yu see, plughig, swig, platig, herdig, are
all utdr emplymets, ad it is frm them that we btai all ur
supplies. O the ther had, whe the supplies have all bee brught
uder cver, there is eeded sme e t take care f them, ad t
perfrm thse duties which must be de idrs. Amg these are the
rearig f childre ad the preparati f fd frm the prduce f the
earth; likewise the makig f clth ut f wl. Ad, sice bth these
classes f duties, the utdr ad the idr, require labr ad care,
it seems t me, I said, that Gd has cstructed the ature f wma
with a special view t idr emplymets ad cares, ad that f ma
with a view t utdr emplymets ad cares. Fr he has made bth the
bdy ad the sul f the ma better able tha thse f the wma t bear
cld, heat, travellig, military service, ad s has assiged t him
the utdr emplymets. Ad, sice he has made the bdy f wma less
able t edure these thigs, he seems t me t have assiged t her the
idr emplymets. Csiderig, mrever, that he had made it wma's
ature ad duty t urish yug childre, he imparted t her a greater
lve fr babies tha he did t ma. Ad, iasmuch as he had made it part
f wma's duty t take care f the icme f the family, Gd, kwig
that fr care-takig the sul is e the wrse fr beig ready t fear,
bestwed up wma a greater share f fear tha up a ma. O the
ther had, kwig that he wh atteds t the utdr emplymets will
have t prtect the family frm wrg-ders, he edwed him with a
greater share f curage. Ad, sice bth have t give ad receive, he
divided memry ad carefuless betwee them, s that it wuld be
difficult t determie which f the sexes, the male r the female, is
the better equipped with these. Ad the ecessary self-deial he divided
betwee them, ad made a decree that, whichever f the tw, the husbad

r the wife, was the superir, shuld be rewarded with the larger share
f this blessig. Ad just because the ature f ma ad the ature f
wma are t bth equally fitted fr all tasks, the tw are the mre
depedet up each ther, ad their ui is the mre beeficial t
them, because the e is able t supply what the ther lacks. Ad w,
said I, my dear, that we kw the duties which Gd has assiged t us
respectively, it becmes each f us t d ur best, i rder t perfrm
these duties. Ad the law, I ctiued, cicides with the divie
iteti, ad uites ma ad wma. Ad, just as Gd has made them
parters i ffsprig, s the law makes them parters i the husehld.
Ad the law sets its apprval up that differece f fucti which Gd
has sigified by the differece f ability which marks the sexes. Fr it
is mre respectable fr a wma t remai idrs tha t sped her time
ut f drs, ad less respectable fr a ma t remai idrs tha t
atted t utdr ccers. Ad, if ay e acts i a maer at variace
with this divie rdiati, it may be that his trasgressi des t
escape the tice f the gds, ad that he is puished fr eglectig
his w duties r perfrmig thse f his wife. It appears t me, said
I, that the quee-bee als perfrms duties that are assiged t her by
Gd. Ad what duties, said my wife, des the quee-bee perfrm, that
have ay resemblace t thse icumbet up me? This, said I, that she
remais i the hive ad des t allw the ther bees t be idle, but
seds ut thse that have t wrk t their busiess, ad kws ad
receives what each brigs i, ad takes care f it till it is eeded fr
use. Ad whe the time fr usig cmes, she distributes t each her just
share. Besides this, she atteds t the cstructi f the hey-cmbs
that ges  idrs, ad sees that it is de prperly ad rapidly, ad
carefully sees that the yug swarm is prperly reared. Ad whe it is
ld eugh, ad the yug bees are fit fr wrk, she seds them ut, as
a cly, uder the leadership f e f the ld es. Ad will it be my
duty, said my wife, t d these thigs? Exactly s, said I, it will be
yur duty t remai idrs, t sed ut tgether t their wrk thse
whse duties lie ut f drs, ad t superited thse wh have t wrk
idrs, t receive whatever is brught i, t dispese whatever has t
be paid ut, while the ecessary surplus yu must prvide fr, ad take
care that the year's allwace be t spet i a mth. Whe wl is
brught i t yu, yu must see that it is tured it clth; ad whe
dried grai cmes, that it is prperly prepared fr fd. There is,
hwever, e f yur duties, said I, that will perhaps seem smewhat
disagreeable t yu. Wheever ay e f the slaves is sick, yu will
have t see that he is prperly ursed,  matter wh he is. Ideed,
said my wife, that will be a mst pleasat duty, if thse wh have bee
carefully ursed are gig t be grateful ad kidlier tha they were
befre. Ad I,' said Ischmachus, 'admirig her aswer, ctiued: D't
yu suppse, my dear, that by such examples f care  the part f the
quee f the hive the bees are s dispsed t her that, whe she leaves,
e f them are willig t remai behid, but all fllw her? Ad my
wife replied: I shuld be surprised if the duties f headship did t
fall t yu rather tha t me. Fr my guardiaship ad dispsal f
thigs i the huse wuld be ridiculus, uless yu saw t it that
smethig was brught i frm withut. Ad my brigig-i wuld be
ridiculus, said I, if there were  e t take care f what I brught?
D't yu see, I said, hw thse wh pur water it a leaky barrel, as
the expressi is, are pitied, as wastig their labur? Ad ideed, said
my wife, they are t be pitied, if they d that. There are ther
special duties, said I, that are sure t becme pleasat t yu; fr
example, whe yu take a raw had at weavig ad tur her it a adept,
ad s duble her value t yu, r whe yu take a raw had at maagig
ad waitig ad make her capable, reliable, ad serviceable, s that she
acquires utld value, r whe yu have it i yur pwer t reward thse

male slaves that are dutiful ad useful t yur family, r t puish e
wh prves the ppsite f this. But the pleasatest thig f all will
be, if yu prve superir t me, ad make me yur kight, ad if yu
eed t fear that, as yu advace i years, yu will frfeit respect i
the huse, but are sure that, as yu grw lder, the better a parter
yu are t me, ad the better a mther t the childre, the mre highly
yu will be respected i the huse. Fr all that is fair ad gd, said
I, icreases fr me, as life advaces, t thrugh beauties, but
thrugh virtues. Such, Scrates, t the best f my recllecti, was the
first cversati I had with my wife.'"
Ischmachus ges  ad tells hw, i subsequet cversatis, he
taught his wife the value f rder, "hw t have a place fr everythig,
ad everythig i its place," hw t trai a servat, ad hw t make
herself attractive withut the use f csmetics r fie clthes. But
eugh has bee quted t shw what the ideal family relati amg the
Atheias was, ad what educati was thught fittig fr girls ad
wme. Just as the ma was merged i the citize, s the wma was
merged i the husewife, ad they each received the educati ad
traiig demaded by their respective duties. If Atheia husbads had
all bee like Ischmachus, it is clear that the lives f wives might
have bee very happy ad useful, ad that harmy might have reiged i
the family. But, ufrtuately, that was t very fte the case. Wives,
beig eglected, became lazy, wasteful, self-idulget, shrewish, ad
useless, while their husbads, fidig them s, sught i immral
relatis with brilliat ad cultivated _hetr_, r i wrse relatis
still, a carse substitute fr that satisfacti which they ught t
have sught ad fud i their w hmes. Thus there grew up a cditi
f thigs which culd t fail t sap the mral fudatis f sciety,
ad which made thughtful me tur their atteti t the questi f
wma's educati ad sphere f duty.

CHAPTER III
PLATO
All huma laws are urished by the e divie law; fr it
prevaileth as far as it listeth, ad sufficeth fr all ad surviveth
all.--Heraclitus
Thugh reas is uiversal, the mass f me live as if they had each
a private wisdm f his w.--_Id._
ANTIGONE. ... But him will I iter;
Ad sweet 'twill be t die i such a deed,
Ad sweet will be my rest with him, the sweet,
Whe I have righteusly ffeded here.
Fr lger time, methiks, have I t please
The dwellers i y wrld tha thse i this;
Fr I shall rest frever there. But thu,
Dishr still what's hred f the gds.
--Sphcles, _Atige_.
The circle
evil days,
treasurig
ideed, as

that gathered rud Isaiah ad his husehld i these

hldig themselves apart frm their cutryme,
the wrd f revelati, ad waitig fr Jehvah, were
Isaiah describes them, "sigs ad tkes i Israel frm

Jehvah f hsts that dwelleth i Mut Zi." The frmati f this

little cmmuity was a ew thig i the histry f religi. Till
the  e had dreamed f a fellwship f faith dissciated frm
all atial frms, maitaied withut the exercise f ritual
services, bud tgether by faith i the divie wrd ale. It was
the birth f a ew era i the Old Testamet religi, fr it was the
birth f the ccepti f the _Church_, the first step i the
emacipati f spiritual religi frm the frms f plitical
life,--a step t less sigificat that all its csequeces were
t see till ceturies had passed away.--W. Rberts Smith,
_Prphets f Israel_.
Still at the prphets' feet the atis sit.--Lwell.
That which is t be kw I shall declare, kwig which a ma
attais immrtality--the begiigless Supreme Brahma that is said
t be either Aught r Naught.--_Bhagavad Gt._
The ly Metaphysics which really ad immediately sustais Ethics is
e which is itself primarily ethical, ad made f the staff f
Ethics.--Schpehauer.
I aswer t the burig questi, Hw ca Athes be brught back t
mral life ad stregth? Scrates had aswered, "By fidig a ew mral
sacti." He had eve ge further, ad said: "This sacti is t be
fud i crrect thikig, i thikig whle thughts, which, because
they are whle, are abslutely true, beig the very priciples accrdig
t which Gd gvers the wrld." This is, bviusly, a mere frmal
aswer. If it was t be f ay real service, three further questis had
t be aswered: (1) Hw ca whle thughts be reached? (2) What d they
prve t be whe they are reached? (3) Hw ca they be applied t the
mral rergaizati f huma life? Plat's philsphy is but a attempt
t aswer these questis. It therefre aturally falls it three
divisis, (1) _Dialectics_, icludig Lgic ad Thery f Kwledge,
(2) _Theretics_, icludig Metaphysics ad Physics, (3) _Practics_,
icludig Ethics ad Plitics.
It is bvius that ay attempt t refrm sciety  Scratic priciples
must prceed, t frm sciety itself, but frm sme pers r perss
i whm these priciples are realized, ad wh act up it frm withut.
These perss will be the philsphers r, rather, the sages. Tw
distict questis, therefre, preset themselves at the utset: (1) Hw
des a ma becme a sage? (2) Hw ca the sage rgaize huma life, ad
secure a successi f sages t ctiue his wrk after him? T the
first f these questis, dialectics gives the aswer; t the secd,
practics; while theretics exhibits t us at ce the rigi ad the
ed, that is, the meaig, f all existece, the huma icluded. I the
teachig f Plat we fid, fr the first time recgized ad exhibited,
the extra-civic r super-civic ma, the ma wh is t a mere fragmet
f a scial whle, cmpletely subrdiated t it, but wh, stadig
abve sciety, mulds it i accrdace with ideas derived frm a higher
surce. Frecasts f this ma, ideed, we fid i all Greek literature
frm Hmer dw,--i Heraclitus, Sphcles, etc., ad especially, as we
have see, i Pythagras;--but it is w fr the first time that he
fids full expressi, ad tries t play a cscius part. I him we
have the prmise f the future Church.
But t retur t the first f ur tw questis, Hw des a ma becme a
sage? We fud the aswer t be, By the dialectic methd. Of this,

hwever, t all me have the icliati t avail themselves, but ly
a chse few, t whm the gds have grated the ispirati f Lve
()-- longing in to m dness (), inded by physic  be uty,
but tendin
t the Supreme Gd. This
d, s we sh  see, cnsists in
the visin () f etern  truth, f bein
, s it is. The few men
wh re bessed with this ve re the diviney ppinted refrmers nd

uides f m nind, the we-bein
f which depends upn submissin t
them. The di ectic methd is the prcess by which the inspired mind
rises frm the be uty f physic  thin
s, which re w ys p rticu rs,
t the be uty f spiritu  thin
s, which re w ys univers s, nd
fin y t the be uty f the Supreme Gd, which is _The Univers _. The
m n wh h s re ched this  st, nd wh sees its re tin t  ther
univers s, s th t they frm t
ether crre ted whe, sees 
truth, nd is the s
e. Wh t we c  univers s P t c ed "ide s"
( = fms  scs). Ths 
 s h g 
s s g , s
umbs, s cv ws, 
s subs cs, h hghs f whch s
G
.
Tw hgs  sc lly  bl  cc wh hs hy: (1)
h   vlvs h  O l scc vw f lf whch m ks m u
w y fm h ssbl wl
, 
sk h 

h ss  h
cllss wl
f hugh; (2) h   suggss
vw f h  u f
G
whch cms lusly    O l  hsm. Pl , 

,
wh
s s ly f G
; bu h
s h ffm , 
h
c ly l vs h mss h  h Sum Bg s fc cg
cc
g 
umc l    l w. I wul
b
ffcul 
vsm  h fluc f hs w vws u h subsqu cus
f Gk 
uc  
lf. Th fm suggs
 h su-cvc m 
sh f cvy whch h cul
fl  hmslf w s su  h
cvc, vz.
sh f cml ; whl h sc
, by blug, 
 h gg, h ss l lms f s ly  G
, vz.
cscusss, chc, 
wll, lf  l c f
uly lgus 
m l lf. Ths l s why Pl sm, whl  h s s
 g 
cvc mvm, h s l y
such
mg    ccls scsm,

why, vhlss, h Chuch f gs w s cmll
 fgh h

cs f , whch 

 g  m su u
 h gs f
Pl 's s cc, Asl.
W  w 
y   k u u sc
qus: Hw c  h s g
succss f s gs  cu hs
g z hum  lf, 
scu
wk f hm? Pl  h s gv w w
ly
ff sws  hs
qus,  hs w ms sv wks, (1) h _Rublc_, w
 hs  l lf, wh h w s u
 h fluc f H clus,
P m
s, 
Sc s, 
s
 g v u
 w 
h
 l wl
f hsy, (2) h _L ws_, w w 
h 
f hs
lf, wh h bc m ccl
,     l s,  h  l wl


s 
 l blfs, 
fu
s sf c 
s   h
 chgs f Pyh g s. Hs ch g f llg c s shw by h f c
h   h _L ws_, 
 hm l, Sc s
s    s
ch  c. W sh ll s k fs f h _Rublc_, 
h  u
wh h _L ws_
ffs fm .
Wh Pl  w hs _Rublc_, h w s
ly mss
wh h vls


gs f h sc l 
  whch h lv
. Ths mss,
whch w s h  f vy sus m  f h m, h
 hs c s
b bly b

by h  chg 
h  gc
 h f Sc s.
Th
gs w, bvusly, h
m lz  f Ah  m 

wm, 
h csqu w kg 

sslu f h sc l b
s.
Th vls, s h s w hm, w (1) h
fcv 
uc  f chl
,
(2) h glc f wm, (3) h g l
sg z  f h S 

hugh 
v
u lsm, whch l c
w  h h 
s f g c 

  cy, s
f  hs f ws
m 
wh. Th _Rublc_ s
schm f mvg hs vls 
vg h csqu
gs. I
s h Pl c s g's c f h h lg f scy, 
 s bu
f   s y h , f ll h U  
shc schms v s

f hs 
,  s cm  bly h bs. I ss hg lss h 
h cml  sfm  f scy, whu ffg y h s 
hw slfsh 

g

l s  b 
uc
 subm h. I
h  sfm
scy, h S  s ll  ll; h f mly s
blsh
; wm  m c 

sh   h 
uc  

us
f m; h S  
s  h c  

uc  f chl
;
v  y s fb

. Th S  s bu h 

v
u l w
l g, 
h 
v
u l h s h f culs,  h 
vlm

c
  f whch csss hs wll-bg: h s m, hf,
mus b u f h S . Ths f culs  (1) llc   s,
(, , , etc.), (2) spirit r curage (,
), (3)
s   (, ,
). Th fs s
s  h h
, h sc
 h h ,
h h
 h b
m. Th fs s cul   m , h sc
h
sh s wh h m ls, 
h h
wh bh m ls 
l s. Th
 l  f hs f culs ss wh  s, wh cl 
sgh, uls h whl m  (Pu
c); wh s  ks s

cs fm  s  s u

 w 
l su 
 
(Fu
); wh s 
 gh cm   u
s 
g
wh  s s  wh h , 
wh h h, sh ll c
(Tm c); 
, f lly, wh  ch f h h scly cfs
slf  s  fuc (Jusc). Thus w b  h fu
"c 
 l vus." As sg  h 
v
u l, hy  l s
bw hs w f culs. I s ly  h S  h  hy 
l s bw h 
v
u l 
hs fllws. R h w ugh 
s y, hy  l s bw
ff cl sss f scy; f
scy s
v

 h cl sss, m k
by h 
m c f 
 h f h h f culs f h sul. _Fs_, h s h
llg cl ss,--h hlshs  s gs; _sc
_, h s

cl ss,--h ml y m  sl

s; _h
_, h cvus cl ss,--m

v
 
usy, 
, 
my-m kg. Th wll-bg f h
S , s f h 
v
u l, s scu ly wh h l s bw
hs cl sss  h fu c 
 l vus; wh h s gs ul, 

h sl
s 
my-m ks cc hs ul, 
wh  ch cl ss
scly cfs slf  s w fuc, s, f  ml, h  h
s gs
  m  fgh, h sl
s  m k my,  h
my-m ks  fgh  ul. I h Pl c 
 l S , cc
gly,
h h cl sss
wll   
h v
sc fucs. All h w
s  h h 
s f h hlshs, wh
wll  lfy sl ,

v
 h cml  f
v 
 s, 

sc
g ly
hugh g c  mgl wh hum  ff s, s  chs 
bslu
uls, ulg whu l ws. Th wll s fc
by h ml y
cl ss, cms
f bh ss, whch lvs us
 h cy,
vg
slf  hysc l css 
h
fc f h S . Ths w
cl sss gh csu h gu 
 s () f h S , 

s 
  ch h  h l  f h

h 
. Thy 
uc
hg, w hg, lv s gly, 
, 

, chsh svg
cm f ll 
ucg 
wg, s wll s f hs wh 
uc

w. Thy f
h s sf c  h fm c f h
fucs, 
h m  c f vu  h S . Wh  sm ll mu
f m  l g
hy qu s sul
 hm by h 
us l
cl ss, whch hy c  h jym f h ly g
 svs
f  c  c , h g
f h s. Ths cl ss, f
cus, h s  w, h
cv  cuv, bg c  bl f
y. I s, vhlss, ly h y  s c
 f ul g,


, s f  s vu c  b 
c 
f ssu ly, vuus, h
csss f ssu ly bg ss
by h h w cl sss. I

,
h g  m whch Pl  cl ms f hs schm s, h   scus
h my, 
hf h ss, f ll, by l cg vy 
v
u l
cz  h cl ss  whch by  u h blgs, h  s,  whch
hs  u c  f
h fulls 
fs ss cm bl wh
h wll-bg f h whl. Such s Pl 's lc l schm, m k
by
h w us Gk ch  cscs, lv f h my 
cm
f l b. I s cuus  hk h   fsh
w
h m

sus--h ccls sc l h chy, h s 
g my, 
h

us l cmmuy,  whch, hwv, h l s f w
m 


by Pl   lms vs
, wh ( s ly f   s y) h sul
whch h fs w.
I yg  sw h qus, By wh  m s sh ll hs cl sss b
su

? Pl  c lmly ssums h  hs schm s l
y  full
  mg gw l, s h  h ly
ffculy m g s
wh g 
 h chl
. A
hs s cmlly m by hs schm f

uc . Th S  , l us s y  c, h hlshc cl ss,
h vg blsh
h f mly, 
ssum
s fucs,
ms wh 
umb 
k
f chl
  qus  y gv m, 
v
s
f hm s  wul
f sh  k. I bgs gh  fsv ls
h vgus m ls 
fm ls, 
llws hm  chs h m s
f h cc s. As s s h chl
  b, hy  mv

fm h mhs 

 k ch g f  S  sus, wh h
fbl 

fm
  c
sy
. Ay chl
 bg whu
h uhy f h S  sh  h s m f , h bf  f
bh. Ths whs bh s uhz
, 
wh v vgus, 
 
by h S ,  f hm kwg,  bg kw by, h
 s. Bu hy by  m s suff y
mu f   g  h 
ccu; f vy m u m  g 
s hmslf s h f h, 
vy
m u wm  g 
s hslf s h mh, f ll h chl
 b
wh c  m, s h  vy chl
h s hus 
s f f hs 

mhs, ll s
 hs wlf ; 
h mhs, bg lv

fm  ly ll h

us f m y, sh  qu lly wh h m 
ll h fucs f h S .
Th sysm f 
uc   whch h chl
 f h S   subjc

s,  l g , m

ll
f h  f S  , sc lly 
sc  s g 
s bsluly lc l ch  c. I
c s, hwv, sg Ic  Ah  lm,  bly  h
llcu l 
shc s
. I m y f ly cl m  b sly
Hllc. I ccs h m-h

vs f 
uc   Musc

Gym scs, m kg 
sc l c f Ls, bu clu
g hm
u
 Musc. I
m 
s h  hs w b chs sh ll b usu
s
 s f whl, c lcul 

vl, s f  s m y b, h
h mus hum  bg, 
f hm  bcm   f h h mus
S . I h v s 
" s f  s m y b," bc us Pl  blvs h  ly
sm ll umb f ss  y gv m c  b 
uc
 cml
h my. Ths  h b hlshs, wh, wh h  u s
fully  lz
,  lg qu h S , bu s 
, s g
s, bv
. I uh, h S  s 

jus bc us h m ss f m k

c     h my, bu wul

sh, w   f h u
h my ms
by h hlshs. Ths s s
f c, 
wul
b
lgh
sh g, w   f h blf, whch Pl  sms
 h v
v
fm Pyh g s 
h Egy s, h  hs hum 
bgs wh f l    h my   lf, wll h v us

 s  h lvs, s lg s hy
 , by sm wful 

m lg  cm  cms, shw h  hy  uly c  bl f

h my. Pl 's schm f lc l 
uc , hf, qus, s

s cmlm, h

cs f 
v
u l mm ly, f b 
cu
hugh s m y lvs s m y b css y, 
f h
ssbly f f l 
 l blss
ss  msy. I f c, Pl 
h s fully-
vl
sch lgy, wh  "h wl
," cssg f
h wll-
f
 s,--Elysum, Ach, 

T  us,--cs
g  h P 
s, Pug y, 
Hll f
C hlc Chs y; wh  m 
ffc, hwv,
u 
h
c f mmsychss. Whl h Chs  ug y s l c
 s  f ug  f suls whs b  s v fv, Ach
s mly l c wh mfc suls m  ll h 
f
wl
-
,  , f  hus 
y s, wh hy  g  llw

 u  lf 
w h suggl f h  cml h my
whch s h c
 f
mss  h scy f h g
s.
I s fm hs sch lgy h  Pl 
vs h m l s cs whch
h mlys  hs S . I s u h    h s ss
wh
g  fc h  h u h uh h  vu s,  
f slf,
h hghs hum  g
; h blv
, hwv, h  hs cul
b
c 
ly by h hlsh, wh h
c f , 
h 
f h lw 
s f m m wful, hugh lss bl, s c
w s css y. Acc
gly, h
cs h jys f Elysum  m gs
h  cul
 bu  l  h Hllc m g , 
 s
T  us  gusm cls h  wul

 h 
S. Ig us.
I 
 fully  u
s 
h mh
f Pl 's lc l 
uc ,
w mus v  Ch  III f Bk I. Th w s w h , cc
g 
h Gks, cml 
uc 
m 

h hgs, (1) bl
 u, (2)  g hugh h b, (3) suc. F h fs Pl 
wul

 wh  c  b
 by fc l slc f  s; f h
sc
, h wul


u musc 
gym scs; f h h
, u
hlshy. I hs l s w
vss w h v h  f h m
v l
_vum_ 
_qu
vum_. Th Pl c 
ggc l sysm sks 
s   h gbl fm h bl  us, 
 l c h fm 
h lws cl ss. I h  s h bl  us  musc 

gym scs, 
, whl hs s gg ,  s 
sgush hs
 us whch  c  bl f sg bv m  g  flcv 
hlshc hugh, fm hs whch  . Th l   ssgs 
h ml y cl ss, whch lw ys m s  h s g f  g, whl
h fm  suc
 hlshy, 
, f hy v hmslvs

s,  f lly

m
 h ulg cl ss, s s gs. Ay mmb
f h f h hgh cl sss wh vs hmslf uwhy f h 
cl ss, m y  y m b
g

 h  blw.
As s s h chl
  cc
by h S , h 
uc  u

S  uss bgs. Th chf ffs f hs f sm m 

c
 h b
s f h chl
,  sg h  hy  h lhy

sg. As s s h yug c us c  s 

w lk, hy 
 ugh   hmslvs   
ly w y 
 l y ll g ms;

s s s hy u
s 
wh  s s 
 hm, hy  l

ss 
sug . Such s h fs 
uc  gym scs 

musc. Wh  g ms   b  ugh, wh  ss l

, 
wh  s
sug  h chl
, h S 
ms, 


, sc h
ch  c f hum  bgs

s,  g  m su, u h fs
mss m
 u hm, hs s  f s ms s c

us. Pl 
lgh
s vs f l vg chl
 whu gu
c  sk
cs 
musm  h w w y, 

m 
s h  h g ms
sh ll b such s c ll fh, 
gl 
h mus w y, ll h
l  ws f b
y 
m
, 

vl h ss f 
, b uy,

fss. H s sll m  s  ssg h  h ss l

 chl
 sh ll b mlfc s f h lfs m ly, 
h

s sug  hm such s sl, sgh, 

slmz h sul. H
fllws H clus 
m 
g h  h Hmc ms, s lg h
shus f chl
's ss, sh ll b ly scb
, 
ccu f h f ls 
 ls whch hy hl
u bh f g
s 
hs,

h m
g
scs whch hy gv f h h wl
.
u, h hl
s, c  b fuh
by f , whch s ch  csc
ly f sl vs. H hks h  ll  ly llcu l  g shul
b
s f l y. Th uh s, h f -schl f Pl 's _Rublc_
cms s   s c  wll b m g
 h 
 l f h m

k
g .
Whl hs lm y 
uc  s gg , h ffcs f h S 
h v bu
 uy f bsvg h
ff ch  cs f h
chl
, 

sgushg h bl fm h gbl. As s s
chl
shws l ly h   blgs by  u  h lws cl ss, hy
csg   h  cl ss, 
s 
uc  by h S   cc lly
c ss. Of cus hs ffcs kw fm wh  cl ss  ch chl
c m,

hy m k us f hs kwl
g 
mg s fuu
sy.
A h s m m, hy    b ly gu

by , bu  c
m  lly. Th 
uc  f h lws cl ss f chl
h
h
S  l vs   k c  f slf, su

h   wll lw ys
f
m s f s w s sf c. Th bl  us  cus 

uc , whu y b k, ul hy  ch h g f wy. A
hs

uc  s
scly ml y  g. As m gs , h
gym sc css bcm m vl, m cml, 
m
sus 
, bu lw ys h v f h subjc h sul,  h h  h
b
y, 
v
g   m hlc bu ly. Sc l
 s
c
 h musc l 
l y css, s h
m s whby h sul s
cly  

h mz
. Pl  hl
s
h   ch g c  b m
  h "musc" f S , whu
cs
g ch g  h whl g z ;  h w
s, h  h
sc l 
lc l c
 f l s
m
by h
l u 
musc whch  
ucs 
jys. H vu lly s ys,
L m m k h sgs f l, 
h wh wll m y m k h l ws.
Of h ch  c f h musc whch h cmm
s w h v l
y
sk. Fm l u h wul
clu
 ll h  w   h h b f
c llg by h   m, ll h  s mmc, c,  c v, 

cf h m  wh  s scfc,


cc, 

fyg. H s
s
h s u f h S  wh mck-v lss, s c us

v f hum  us. H s  cul ly sv u h
 m ss,
 s g v h sublm schylus. I f c, h wul
b sh fm hs
S  ll  
cly 
fyg. Th l u whch h cmm
s
s l ly f h  u f s's _F bls_, h Pyh g  _Gl

W
s_, 
h P m
   H cl  wk _O N u_. If w
wsh
 ss hs   scly m
 l gu g, w shul
h v
 s y h  h
s
 l c l y  g by hc l 

scfc, 
h c l m
 f sg 
 ls by h s c.
Th u musc, h hl
, s  h hum  bg. "If w f
," h s ys,
" m  wh fcly cmbs gym scs wh musc, 
  c
 ls hm  h sul, w sh ll b ly jusf

c llg hm h fc musc  
h fc  , f  su
 h m  wh  gs sgs lgs
  ch h."
Th  m y m s f
 l  Pl 's schm f ml y  g
h  wll
sv cs
 , bu c  b v uch
u h.
Bf w l v , hwv, w m y gv h
s  whch h

ff b chs f 
uc    bg. C  f h b
y bgs 
bh, sy-llg wh h h
y , gym scs wh h svh,
wg 

g wh h h, ls 
musc wh h
fuh, m hm cs wh h sh, ml y
ll, whch f

h m sul s ll h  g, wh h ghh. Wh h
yug l  ch h g f wy, hs wh shw  g  c  cy
f scc, bu  m ly 
cu gus,  ssg
 h sl

cl ss, 
s   cus f hgh 
uc   ml y  g,
whl hs wh vc g  llcu l bly bcm vcs  h
cuculum  scc, whch l ss ll h
ulg cl ss, 
bg
cls f h hh y . Ths cus clu
s hmc,
gmy, 
smy, h ly sccs  h  m culv 
, 

ms  mssg u h yuhful m

h uy 
h my f h
hysc l  hm l uvs. A h g f hy, hs su
s
wh
  shw y  cul  u
 f hgh su
s 
 f

ff  h lw ublc ffcs, whl hs wh

,  ss fv y s
 h su
y f
 lccs, whby hy s  u 
 s. Thy 
h, fm h hy-ffh  h ffh y , m
  fll h
hgh ublc ffcs,  whch hy  k h 
s
cly fm h
s gs. Dug hs 
hy u h cqums   cc l
s, 
s cm  lly 
fully  ssss f hm. A h 

f h ffh y , f h lf cuy f cuus 

uc  f
b
y, m
, 
wll, hy  ck
 h v  ch
h vs f
h sum g
, 
hf  b f   h cml v
ulg cl ss. Thy  w f m; hy h v  ch
h g l f
sc; h lf s h

 wh G
; hy  f fm h s
f h b
y, 
ly m    vlu ly, 
u f g u
 
h S  whch h s 
uc 
hm,  
 
c ,  cc
c
wh bslu uh 
gh, w 
h Sum G
.
Such,  s uls, s Pl 's hy f 
uc , s s fh 
h _Rublc_. I s  sy   u s
fcs 
s s,
whch  h sm ll  fw, bu fu
m l 
ll-v sv. Bu
 s qu lly  sy  s hw  c m  h v hs
fcs 
s,
sc hy  smly hs f vy shc sc l schm whch
gs h  u f h m  l wh whch  sums 
 l, 

 ks  ccu f h cu l hsy f sc l sus  f h

fcs by whch hy  vlv
. I s mh c lly h 
uc f
yuhful llc, c 
w y by  sc 
 l. I w s, hwv,
h llc f Pl , wh, wh h bc m m m u, s w, whu
"vc f h
 ms f yuh," h fblss f 
 s f h
cflc wh hum  f ls, 
sv  cc hs  gg 

sm  f h w.

Ths h

 h _L ws_, whs vy l suggss,  w y lms
busv, h ch g f u
 
llg c. Whl  h
_Rublc_ h S  s gv
by s gs, lms ly whu l ws,
 h l  wk, h s gs lms
s   
h l ws ssum 
ll-m  l c. I wg h _L ws_, mv, h ch gs
llg c  Sc s 

 s f llg c  Pyh g s 
h
g
s. I s yg hs, I h v m k
h fu
m l
ffc bw
h _Rublc_ 
h _L ws_. Whl  h fm Pl  f
s h m l
s cs,  h l s s,  h 
 s f h u llc,
 
 m hm cs, smy, 

 lccs,  h l  h

vs hm fm h c f h ul  cscusss, wh s
g
s, s hc l s, s 
s. I hs, s mb


sus, h f
s h ms svc bl, f  h ms  l
,
vl  f
v uh. Tusg  hs, h  lg sks 
blsh h f mly 
v  y, bu mly  h v hm
gul 
; h  lg b shs s gs 
s fm hs S , bu
mly subjcs hm  S  suvs; h  lg
m 
s
hlshc l  g f h uls, bu ly  cc l sgh; h 
lg
v
s hs czs  s gs, sl
s, 
w lh-
ucs,
bu  fm (cs
g  hs vus ml y cl ss) 

sl vs. Hs gvm s  lg  sc cy f llc, bu

cmu
f sc cy, lg chy, 

mc cy, sg,
scvly, wh, w lh, 
wll. Hs l  f 
uc  s m
f

 su hs l

c
s. Th chl
, s  S  ,
 
bg h S  cus f 
uc  ul bu h svh y ,
f whch h  g s vy much h s m s h 
m 

 h
_Rublc_, wh h mss, f cus, f
 lccs. Thugh wm
  lg  b lv
f h hm
us, hy  sll 
sh   h 
uc  
ccu s f m,   gm whch s
f cl 
by h l w 
g h  bh m 
wm sh ll   
ublc  bls. I m kg hs ch gs, Pl  blv
h  h w s
f llg fm lfy, bu u lz bl, 
 l, 
m kg ccsss 
hum  w kss;   ly, h w s  chg uh 
gh.

BOO III
ARISTOTLE (B.C. 384-322)

CHAPTER I
ARISTOTLE--LIFE AND WORS
Asl,  my , s 
s lms l 
hlshy.--Cc.
Asl, N u's v  sc y,
g hs  
llc.--Eusbus.
Whv h
v ws
m f Asl h s 
s muh, h
ws
m f hs,  sms  m, s  b
sg 

.--D .
I cul
s g v Asl's _sg_, f I cul
ly g
v hs  ss.--Lssg.
If, w  my qu
ys, I h
yuhful f culs  my cmm 
, I
shul

v myslf  Gk,  s f ll h
ffculs I
kw. N u 
Asl shul
b my sl su
y. I s by
ll
cc wh  h  m  s
, s w, bhl
, m k
, bsv
. T
b su h w s smms h sy  hs l  s; bu  w 
s, v  h s
y?--Gh (  78).
If h   sss v l
 hlshy, hg wul
b
m why f s blshg h 
fu
 f
sc l
lcush  Asl; f h s, f ll h cs, h ms
why f su
y.--Hgl.
Asl w s  f h chs 
ms cmhsv guss
h  v  
-- m  bs
 whm  g h s  qu l 
l c.--_I
._
Physc l hlshy ccus slf wh h g l qu ls f
m . I s  bs c fm h
y mc m fs s f h

ff k
s f m ; 
v wh s fu
s w fs
l 
,  h gh bks f Asl's _Physc l Lcus_, ll h

hm f  u  s

s h mv v l cvy f
uvs l wl
-fc.--Al 
 v Humbl
.
I w s ch  csc f hs  
 y gus  wk  bh

s f h scfc css. H w s lk
v  f cs 

m s f h hghs bs cs.--Al 

 B .
Asl s h _F h f h I
ucv Mh
_, 
h s s f
w  ss: Fs, h hc lly cgz
s ss l
cls wh cl ss, 
hb
hm wh cvc,
whch sk h m
 m  wh m zm; 
h h m
 h
fs cmhsv m  ly hm  ll h scc f h
Gks.--Wlhlm Ock.
Asl, f whs lc l hlshy u
m  ss, h
m w cs
 h wk f hs succsss, s lss gu

by
m g  h  Pl ,  ms  ly m c fully, 

cgzs m culy, h 

s f m .--Bluschl.
I  s  m h  h c  b  qus, h  Asl
s 
s fh,  ly s h g s fgu  quy, bu s
h g s llc h  h s v  
u h f c f hs
 h.--Gg J. Rm s.
Asl, wh ll h ws
m f Pl  bf hm, whch
wll bl   , cul
f
 b
f
u g
f m  h  h full cs   lz  f
f culs  cc
c wh s  cllc, whch
cllc f hugh, scul v 
 cc l.--Thm s
G.

h w s
 f  h
h sul's
w s
Hll

I s y
fly sl
, mg m cm  fm ju
gm,
h  Asl w s h bs 
uc 
m  h  v w lk
 h suf c
f hs  h. H s sll, s h w s  D 's m, h "m s f
hs h  kw." I s, hf,  whu  s h  w lk 
hm,  ly s h bs  f c 
uc , bu s  f
h whs gu
s 
s mls  
uc  g lly. Th  w m y
 ls h
v  g f hs  ml,  wll b wll, bf w
cs
 hs 
uc  l hs,  c s
gl c  hs lf, h
css f hs
vlm, 
hs wk.
Asl w s b bu B.C. 384,  h Gk cly f S g 
Th c,   h b
s f M c
 . Hs f h, Ncm chus, w s
hysc  f g
s 
g, h uh f sv l m
c l wks, 
h
us
f
f Amy s, h M c
  g. Hs mh, Phss, w s

sc

fm h  ly sls f h l c. I w s
ublss u

hs f h's gu
c h  h by Asl fs bc m s

hs hysc l su
s  whch h w s
s

 such w
ful
wk. Lsg, hwv, bh hs  s    ly g, h c m u

h ch g f Pus, f A us, wh  s  h v
 hs
uy
by hm. A h g f gh h c m  Ahs f hs hgh

uc , 

h schl f Pl   h Ac
my. H h
m 
f  ly wy y s, lsg  Pl , 
cqug
hs v s ss f fm  whch  l  lf h wk
u 
lcus 
scfc  ss. Nhg sc 
hm, h ,
scc, lg, hlshy,  lcs. H sms, bg wll ff,
 h v bgu  ly  cllc lb y, 
 m  cycl
c
kwl
g. Abu hs mh
s f su
y w kw vy ll; bu w h 
h   ms h sss
Pl   hs wk 
w s vy c ful f hs

w . I s cl  h ,  cus f m, h s  hugh

bv h  chgs f hs m s, 
v jc
h ms
fu
m l f hm, h
c f slf-s 
 s. Bu h v
ls sc f h  m s, 
wh h l 

, h 
wh
Xc s, s f h w h
f h Ac
my,  A us, h hm
f hs l
gu 
  Pus, 
f hs fllw-Ac
mc, Hm s, w
kg  y  f h l c. H h m 
f h y s,  h
clss m cy wh hs f
, ul h l  w s  chusly
mu

by h Ps s. H h css
v  Myl,  kg wh
hm Pyh s, Hm s' ss  c, whm h h
m 
, 
 whm
h w s
ly
v
. H c
 Dlh s u  hs

f
,



c 
 hm m, f whch w sh ll h  m  h squl.
Abu B.C. 343, wh h w s v fy y s l
, h w s c ll

M c
 , s u  Al 
, h h-y -l
s f g
Phl, 
g 
s f hs w f h's l
 , Amy s. Ths
ffc h fll
f bu h y s wh
sgush
succss, 

 m y b s fly s 
h  v h
s g 
u s g  ul.
Dug h l    f h m,  l s, Asl 
Al 

sm  h v lv
 S g . Ths w h
b c u


sy

by Phl, 
s h b s sc 
. Wh h mss f h
cqu, Asl  ssmbl
h h b s, bul h w,
w
u s l ws, 
l 
u   ,  Mz ,  m  f h
Ac
my, gym sum 
 k, whch h c ll
h _Nymhum_. Hh h
 s  h v 
wh hs y l ul 
sv l h yuhs
wh w cvg 
uc  lg wh hm, mg hm Thh sus 

h ll-f 
C llshs. I w s b bly h h  Asl


h h b f w lkg whl m g suc, h b whch

fw 
s g v h  m  hs schl. Wh Al 
,  s,

hs f h's my, Asl sll cu
  ch  h
Nymhum, whch s
v  Plu ch's m, m h  fu hu


y s fw 
s. Bu hs l s
ly f bu fv y s; f  335,
wh Al 
, wh  h vus y  h
succ

hs mu


f h, w s  g  v

 Ps , Asl mv
 Ahs.
F
g h  hs l
f
, Xc s, w s
c f h schl 
h Ac
my, h s blsh
hmslf, s ublc  ch  fss,
 h Lycum, h Pcl  gym sum, us
chfly,  shul
sm, by
h lw cl sss 
by fg s
s, f whm h hmslf w s .
As  l, s h f
f h vcus M c
 s, wh h
y s bf h
bk h w f Gc  Ch , 
 k w y
h umy fv, s v l f h Pl ss, 
s w lhy,
wll-
ss
glm , h h
m y ms 

 cs; bu hs
c
uc sms  h v b s ubjc bl h   fm l ch g
cul
b bugh g s hm. Hs vy umus uls w msly
fgs, f c  whu s fluc  h subsqu cus f
hugh. H
v

hs
ys bw wg 
 chg,  kg hs
hysc l cs whl g g
 h l  ccu . I h
mgs h g v lcus 
 w ccl,  scly fm l 

scfc w y, u h hgh b chs f scc; whl  h

fs h c
uc
cvs s u m ul  hms wh
lss slc u
c. Th fm w c ll
hs sc, h l 
hs c,
scuss.
I w s
ug hs sc
s
c  Ahs,  h wlv y s fm
B.C. 335  323, h  Asl cms
ms f hs g  wks 
whch h sugh  sum u,   cycl
c w y, h suls f
lf f ll-mb cg su
y 
hugh. H h
b   h s  u
hmslf  c
, 
 w s  ul h h
 ch

css vw
f h wl
h  h vu
  , 
fv w y, y sc
f . Thus  w s h   ch f hs  ss fm
  f  g 
whl f hugh. H
h succ

 cmlg hs l , h wul
h v

lf  h wl

b
y f scc such s, v  u w
y, wul

lk  v  f  mg h wks f y  m . Ufu ly,

hs l  w s  cml
, 
v f h wks whch h

w
ly  h s cm
w  us. Bu h   s suffc 
l c h uh  h h
f ll scfc m. Sm f hs wks,
f  ml, hs _Lgc_, _M hyscs_, _Ehcs_, 
_Plcs_, sll
ccuy h fs l c  h l u f hs subjcs. Hw sgl
m  cul
h v
 ll h  h

, 
 s m y
ff

 ms, s lms ccv bl. N

ub h h
hls,  h
sh  f sc s, l 
sl vs, 

scls; 
 s c 
h  h cv
fm hs y l ul mufc 
, whch  bl
hm

 much, sc lly  h
cs f hysc l 
lc l
s ch, h  wul
h v b mssbl f  m ; bu, f ll
llw cs h v b m
, hs chvm sll sms lms
m culus.
Dug ll h y s  whch Asl w s hus g g
, hs s
 Ahs w s bcmg m 
m scu. Th -M c
   y
w w g f h fs uy  
h cy f hm, 
w
v
fm  ms  hs ly by

f Al 
's

sl su. Ev wh  w s kw h  Asl h

cu

sf v
wh hs l
ul, hy

 vu   ck hm; bu  323, wh
h ws f Al 
's su


 h m
 ll Gc fl h  w h
m h
cm  g 
fv f h h 
M c
 s, 
cv
s lby, hy  c g v v  h lg-chsh
h 
. Hw
h 
 w s  f
m  f  ccus  g s hm, s shw by
h f c h  hy h
 g b ck  hs l
m  _Wh_, w 
mmy f Hm s (s . 4), 
 b s h ch g f my-ch g lw ys  sly m
, 
lw ys su  us sg ul 
ju
c. Acc
g  Ah  l w, h
f
  y such c s
mgh, f h chs, sc  ushm by l vg h cy y m
bf h  l; 
Asl,  bg, lk Sc s, cz,
cul
h v  gu
f fusg   k
v  g f hs lby.
Acc
gly, wh h m k h  h wul
 vlu ly llw h
Ah s  s sc
m g s hlshy, h wh
w  hs
cuy s
c  Ch lcs  Eub , h l
hm f hs mh's
f mly,  w  ll ff s shul
 k h u, s, 

, hy
s fw 
s

, wh Ahs h
  h g s  A .
Bu,  h  h 
, Asl w s  hs g v, h vg

 322,
shly bf Dmshs, f
s s f h sm ch, fm whch h h

lg suff
. Hs m s  s 
 h v b c 
 S g ,
wh h g ful h b s c
 l  v hm 
 

v hs  hs mmy. Hs lb y 

h m uscs f hs
wks h lf  h h 
s f Thh sus, wh succ

hm  h
Lycum. Hs wll, h  f whch h s cm
w  us, b s
smy, lg wh ll ls h  w kw f hm,  h bly,
k
lss, 
jusc f hs  u.

CHAPTER II
ARISTOTLE'S PHILOSOPHY
Pl  v ; As s .--Alf

 Muss.
A G

N u h  sf
Th  N u l
s such vl
 ms?
--Tys.

Th  h Esscs. Tw f hs  ssbl;  bg

 l, 
h h sh bl. Th l  s
m
by ll, 
h fm, f  ml, f l s 
m ls;  g 
 h
fm,   l , w sh ll h v  cs
 s lms, 

s whh hy b   m y. Th h

s mmu bl [ 
,
hf,  ccssbl  ss], 
hs sm hks hl
 b
 sc
.--Asl.
Th vs f h
v s wh  s sws 
bs; 
f G

lw ys jys h  vs s w smms

,  s w
ful, 

f h
s s  y hgh
g,  s m w
ful sll.
A
s v  s. A
lf blgs  hm; f h
slf-
m  f hugh s lf, 
h s slf-
m .
A
hs bslu slf-
m  s h sum 
 l lf.
A
w c ll G

lvg bg,  l, bs; s h  lf 

u , ufm 
 l, blg  G
; f hs s
G
.--_I
._
W mus cs
  wh  w y h sysm f h uvs c s h
g

h bs, whh s smhg  sc
 

slf-
m
,  s 
. Suly  bh w ys  c, s  y
my, f whch h g
s  
, 
s h g l, 
h
l  m h  h fm. F h g l s 
u  h

, bu h 
  h g l.--_I
._
Th hugh f Asl
ffs fm h  f Pl  bh  s mh


 s suls. Pl ,  
 h schl f Pyh g s,
P m
s, H clus, 
Sc s, h
,  u lly ugh, cm 
lk f uh  h sussu l g f m
, 
hugh h fu

  
 s   bl by css f
 lcc wh h 
v
u l
cscusss. H hus c m  u fw 

c whch,
s s
ssbl us  cm h b
s f scy,   ly 


wh
 w m fm scy lgh 
c s h vy 
v
u lsm
 w s 

 cu. Asl, whl sll  Pl 's schl, h

u
w y fm hs
c, 
 f-lf h v ls 
uy f cmb g . H cul
  Pl 's _Rublc_ s
w g  ml f s lgc l csqucs. Bu, 
g hs, h w s
 
 u h
c  s l c, 
h

s  h
b ss f fu
su
y f h whl cus f Gk hugh,
myhlgc l 
hlshc l.
Is
f  lg, lk Pl ,  h 
v
u l cscusss, 

yg 
scv ulm  uh by bgg s
  h my
mg hmslvs, Asl  ls  h hsc cscusss, 


 vs  f
uh by h mzg 
cmlmg s

hugh fuh  l  h u wl
,  whch hs


 lz
. H m  s h  h uhs  ch
by h
 lcc css
 mly fm l, 
hf my,--uslss   cc, ul hy
h v b fll
by c fm h shus f  u. I
csquc f hs ch g
u
, h ss s
 h
 lcc
css, 
subsus f  h _Mh
f I
uc_, whch h w s
h fs m   h wl
 cmh
, u
, 
ly, bcmg
hus h f h f ll u scc. A
h m ks m sv us
f 
uc h  y h m  sc hs m, lyg   fl

 whch v w  s h 

ly sus
 yl
y suls, h fl

f h cmm cscusss. I


, h vywh bgs hs s ch f
cc uh by  mg h hsc cscusss, 
, h vg, by
css f 
uc,
scv

g lz
s cs, h

us wh hs   u 

, by sc

uc, ccs,
cmls, 
h mzs hm. W mgh ss hs  m

l gu g, by s yg h  hs whl 
 v s  cc 
sulm
h mfc hum  cscusss by cu l  l  h
v
cscusss, _ s m fs
 h wl
_. I s h  f m

vsg s h  hy mly ly -h lf f h 
ucv mh
,
h bjcv, 
h m lgh h subjcv,  ls, lk
Pl , ly  ly  h 
v
u l cscusss. Hc cm h
w
ly
vg suls whch sll m us  s m y f h sccs,
g 
 l f
 Plcs, Psychlgy, c., hc h f c h 
scc, s
f ccg, w
g, 
h mzg h cmm
cscusss, s 
s lgh   fm ,  v 
c
s  . Th m  wh ws
 s  Psychlgy,   h
Sul, whu ublg hmslf 
scv wh  "Sul" m s  h
g l cscusss f m k
, 
h s sg u wh 
lgh 
v
u l  f , c  h 
ly lk f y h
sul. Asl, u  hs mh
f 
uc,
vs  
bk f hs _Psychlgy_  f
g u wh  "Sul" m s  h
hsc cscusss, uflcv s wll s flcv. Th, wh
hs m g, h gs   u, sks by 
uc 
scv wh 
sh h s  s y bu , 
b
s by h ly. Hc  s h  hs
hugh h s l 
hl
u h wl
, 
fluc
   cc l
w ys, s  h m 's hugh h s v
. Hc  s h , f ll
c m, h s h  bf whm h m
 scs bws wh
sc.
If w w sk uslvs wh  w s h u
lyg hugh h  sh 

Asl's hy f 
uc, wh  w s hs _Wl sch uug_, w sh ll
f
  b hs: Th
v llgc v ls slf subjcvly
  hsc css  h hum  cscusss, 
bjcvly[4] 
 u l css  h u wl
. Tuh f m  s h h my f
h w vl s. I fllws
cly fm hs h  h scs
mus  k m  l ccu f bh. S, f  ml, f h f
s g
s
 h hsc l cscusss, 
l ws  fcs   u, h h s 
gh, lk h hlg ,  mg h l   h fm, , lk
h hyscs,  l c h fm by h l . H mus   bh
ll h c  bg hm  h my. Oly h
s h kw h.
Such hlshy s hs, s
f
 wg m w y fm h wl
f
 u 
hsy, 
cfg hm  h  w ccl f h w
cscusss, f cssy s hm b ck  h  wl
, s h ly
m s by whch y hum  wll-bg cul
b  ch
. I s f hs
 s h   h s s wfully ffc
bh sc l lf 
scc.
Nvhlss, w shul
 g ly, f w sus
h , 
Asl's vw, h
v s hg m h   mm  
 ,
wkg s fc-fm   u, 
s hugh-fm  m
. H

s, 

, blv h  h
v s ll hs, bu  h  hs s
ll h
v h s. Ov 
bv h
v whch s
m

  u 
 m , h s h  sc
 M
,  G
,

mg hmslf hugh hmslf, 

b g h s m l  
h
v h  h su b s  lgh, h hum  m
 hum  hugh,
h g l  h 
 f hs my. H w  f  w y fm
P hsm, 
, hugh w h v  y s 
cl  cc f
s ly, w h v  h "hlm f h uvs" cscus bg,
h suc f l w 

. A
m , sg bv h hugh whby
h kws hmslf hugh  u, 
 u hugh hmslf, m y 
 h cscusss f G

bcm   k  h  lf whch
s "sws 
bs." Ths  h f us f Asl's hugh
whch  h hh cuy m
  cc bl  h Chs 
Chuch  h suggl g s P hsm, 
whch  v
h w y f

h  hgh myscsm f whch Thm s Aqu s s h ms

sgush

-- myscsm whch

s , lk h  f h Nl ss 

Bu

hss,
ss wh hugh  ls slf  v c cy, bu whch,
sg u b
b ss f kwl
g, cs h clu
s f ss, 
f
slf  h sc f h ms cc R ly, h
h usbl suc f ll hugh 
ll hgs.

CHAPTER III
ARISTOTLE'S THEORY OF THE STATE
Fs, h, l us y  um  wh v why u cs h v
c

fm m f h  s u y sc f h subjc, 

h, fg  u cllcs f _Csu l Hss_,

l us sk  v 
hy s  wh  ss f hgs
sv 

sy  ch  cul  fm f gvm, 
s f
wh   ss sm  wll, sm ll, m  g
. Succ
g  hs,
w m y, h s, h b l  bh wh  s h bs fm f
gvm, 
wh   gms, l ws, 
cusms  bs su

  ch fm.--Asl.
M  s

lc l m l.--_I

._

Th S  s   h 

v
u l.--_I
._
Whu f
s   wul
chs  lv, lhugh h ssss

ll h blssgs.--_I
._
If h ss b slf-
m   cc
c wh wh, w mus
cclu
 h   wll b  cc
c wh h sum wh, whch
wll b h wh f h bls   f us. Ths  , wh v 
m y b, whh llc () r smethig else, that which by
ature evidetly rules ad guides us ad has isight it thigs
beautiful ad divie, whether it be itself divie, r the diviest
part f us, is that whse self-determiati, i accrdace with its
prper wrth, will be the perfect happiess. That this csists i
the visi f divie thigs has already bee said.... This, ideed,
is the supreme self-determiati, fr the reas that itellect is
the highest part f us, ad that with which it deals is the highest
f the kwable.... But a life f this srt wuld be smethig
higher tha the huma; fr he wh lived it wuld t be livig as
ma, but as the subject f smethig divie.... If, the, itellect
is smethig divie i relati t ma, the life lived accrdig t
it must be divie i relati t huma life. Istead, the, f
fllwig thse wh advise us, as beig huma, t set ur thughts
up huma thigs, ad, as beig mrtals, t set them  mrtal
thigs, it is ur duty, as far as may be, t act as immrtal beigs,
ad d all we ca t live i accrdace with the supreme part f
us.--Aristtle.
Ma ale, amg all beigs, ccupies a middle place betwee thigs
crruptible ad thigs icrruptible.... Tw eds, therefre,
Ieffable Prvidece has rdaied fr ma: Blessedess i this life,
which csists i the exercise f ative faculty, ad is figured by
the Earthly Paradise, ad blessedess i the eteral life, which
csists i the ejymet f the visi f Gd, a thig t t be
achieved by ay ative faculty, uless aided by divie light, ad

which is t be uderstd by the Heavely Paradise.... These eds

ad meas wuld be disregarded by huma passi, if me were t
restraied i their curse by bit ad bridle.... Fr this reas ma
required a duble directive, crrespdig t this duble ed. He
required the Supreme Ptiff t guide the huma race t life
eteral, ad the Emperr t guide the huma race t tempral
felicity, i accrdace with the teachigs f philsphy.... The
truth with regard t the questi whether the authrity f the
Emperr is derived directly frm Gd r frm ather, must t be
take s strictly as t mea that the Rma Price is t, i sme
respects, subject t the Rma Ptiff, the fact beig that this
mrtal felicity f urs is, i sme sese, rdaied with a view t
immrtal felicity. Let Csar, therefre, display that reverece fr
Peter which the first-br s ught t display fr his father, s
that, beig illumiated by his father's grace, he may with greater
virtue elighte the wrld, which he has bee called t gver by
Him wh is gverr f all thigs, spiritual ad tempral.--Date.
O Grace abudig, whece I did presume
T fix my gaze up the eteral light
S far that I csumed my sight therei!
Withi its deeps I saw iteralized
It e vlume, bud with lve,
That which is utered i the uiverse;-Substace ad accidet, ad all their mdes,
As 'twere, tgether merged i such a srt
That what I mea is but a simple light.
The uiversal frm f this same kt
I thik I saw, because, whe thus I speak,
I feel that I rejice with larger jy.--_Id._
Ma's chief ed is t glrify Gd, ad t ejy him
frever.--_Westmister Shrter Catechism_.
Plat's chief purpse, i writig up educati, had bee t suggest a
remedy fr the scial ad mral cditis f his ative Athes.
Aristtle has  such purpse. He is, i a very deep sese, a
csmplita, ad writes i the iterest f sciece ad uiversal
utility. His rage f visi is t cfied t Athes, r eve t
Greece (thugh he is very prud f beig a Greek), but rages ver the
whle kw wrld i time ad space. Ulike Plat, t, wh had bee
familiar maily with istitutis f the past i Egypt ad Greece,
Aristtle is deeply affected by the tedecies f the future, ad,
thugh  e lays greater stress tha he up the ecessity f a
kwledge f the past fr him wh wuld cstruct a sud scial thery,
he evertheless declares that the whle f the past is shaped by
smethig which is i the future, by the ultimate realizati. This view
cmes ut i a paradxical way i his famus sayig that "the State is
prir t the idividual," by which he meas that it is ma's plitical
ature wrkig i him that makes him a idividual, ad at the same time
realizes itself i a State. Ad this brigs us t Aristtle's ccepti
f the State, which we must csider befre takig up his thery f
educati, fr the reas that t him, as t all the aciet wrld,
educati is a fucti f the State, ad is cducted, primarily at
least, fr the eds f the State.
Befre veturig up a thery f the State, Aristtle, true t his
iductive priciples, wrte the Cstitutial Histries f ver tw
hudred ad fifty differet states. Oe f these, the _Cstitutial

Histry f Athes_, has recetly bee discvered ad published (see p.

96). He held that it was ly by meas f a brad iducti, thus
redered pssible, that he culd discver the idea f the State, that
is, its self-realizig frm. Emplyig this methd, the, he came t the
cclusi that the State is that highest scial istituti which
secures the highest gd r happiess f ma. Havig, i a previus
treatise, satisfied himself that this gd is Wrth (), and woh
bing in vy cas h full xcis of chaacisic o
diffniaing faculy, h concluds ha, sinc man's disinguishing
faculy is ason, h Sa is h insiuion which scus o man h
fulls and fs xcis of his. I follows dicly ha h Sa
is, simply and solly, h supm ducaional insiuion, h
univsiy o which all oh insiuions a bu ppaaoy. And wo
mo conclusions follow: (1) ha sas will diff in consiuion
wih h diffn ducaional nds of h popls among whom hy
xis, and (2) ha, sinc all ducaion is bu a ppaaion fo som
wohy aciviy, poliical ducaion, h lif of man as a ciizn, is
bu a ppaaion fo h highs aciviy, which, bcaus i is
highs, mus ncssaily b an nd in islf. This aciviy, Aisol
agus, can b non oh han conmplaion, h Vision of h Divin
().
Resuts which h ve mved the wrd fwed 
ic y frm this
dctrine. Where s P t h d m de prvisin fr sm  nd seect bdy
f super-civic men, nd s p ved the w y fr rei
ius mn sticism nd
sceticism, Aristte m int ins th t in every civiized m n, s such,
there is
super-civic p rt, in f ct, superhum n nd divine p rt, fr
the cmpete re iz tin f which  the ther p rts, nd the St te
wherein they find expressin, re but me ns. Here we h ve, in embry,
the whe f D nte's thery f the re tin f Church nd St te,
thery which ies t the b sis f  mdern pitic  effrt, hwever
itte the f ct m y be rec
nized. Here, indeed, we h ve the whe
fr mewr f the _Divine Cmedy_; here t we h ve the dctrine f the
Be tific isin, which fr
es sh ped nd, t  r
e extent, sti
sh pes, the ife f Christendm. We mi
ht D nte c im Aristte s his
m ster (see p. 153)! We mi
ht the
re t dctrs f the Church spe  f
him s "_The_ Phispher," nd s the "Frerunner f Christ in Thin
s
N tur ." In v in did Peter R mus nd Luther nd Brun nd B cn
depreci te r n them tize him! He is mre pwerfu t-d y in thu
ht
nd ife th n t ny time fr the  st twenty-tw centuries.
It m y be sed hw f r, nd in wh t frm, Aristte cnceives the
divine ife t be pssibe fr m n n e rth. He nswers th t, thu
h it
c nnt be perfecty r cntinuusy re ized here, it is in sme de
ree
nd fr cert in times tt in be (see p. 161). In s f r s it is
sci  ife, it is the ife f friendship r spiritu  ve (), t
which he h s devted mst tw bs f his _Ethics_, bs which
ive
us
ftier ide f his persn  purity nd wrth th n ny ther f his
ext nt writin
s. He insists th t friendship is the supreme bessin
(see
p. 166), nd th t "wh tever m n's bein
is, r wh tever he chses t
ive fr, in th t he wishes t spend his ife in the cmp ny f his
friends." It is even s id th t Aristte, whie te chin
in the Lyceum,
nt f nbe yuths nd e rnest students, nd

thered but him
frmed them int ind f cmmunity, with view t e din

truy
spiritu  sci  ife.

CHAPTER I

ARISTOTLE'S PEDAGOGICAL STATE

N ture is the be
innin
f everythin
.--Aristte.
Life is mre th n me t,

nd the bdy th n r iment.--Jesus.

The frces f the hum n p ssins in us, when cmpetey repressed,

becme mre vehement; but when they re c ed int ctin fr shrt
time nd in the ri
ht de
ree, they enjy me sured dei
ht, re
indy, inste d
sthed, nd, thence bein
pur
ed w y, ce se in
f vient, w y. Fr this re sn, in tr
edy nd cmedy, thru
h
bein
spect trs f the p ssins f thers, we sti ur wn
p ssins, render them mre mder te, nd pur
e them w y; nd s,
iewise, in the tempes, by seein
nd he rin
b se thin
s, we re
freed frm the injury th t wud cme frm the ctu  pr ctice f
them.--J mbichus.
C re fr the bdy must precede c re fr the su; next t c re fr
the bdy must cme c re fr the ppetites; nd,  st f , c re
fr the intei
ence. We tr in the ppetites fr the s e f the
intei
ence, nd the bdy fr the s e f the su.--Aristte.
The pr ctice f brtin w s ne t which few persns in nti uity
tt ched ny deep feein
f cndemn tin.... The physi
ic 
thery th t the ftus did nt becme ivin
cre ture ti the hur
f birth h d sme infuence n the jud
ments p ssed upn this
pr ctice. The de th f n unbrn chid des nt ppe  very
pwerfuy t the feein
f cmp ssin, nd men wh h d nt yet
tt ined ny strn
sense f the s nctity f hum n ife, wh
beieved th t they mi
ht re
u te their cnduct n these m tters by
utiit ri n views, ccrdin
t the
ener  interest f the
cmmunity, mi
ht very re diy cncude th t preventin f birth w s
in m ny c ses n ct f mercy. In Greece, Aristte nt ny
cunten nced the pr ctice, but even desired th t it shud be
enfrced by  w, when ppu tin h d exceeded cert in ssi
ned
imits. N  w in Greece, r in the Rm n Repubic, r durin
the

re ter p rt f the Empire, cndemned it.... The  n
u
e f the
Christi ns frm the very be
innin
w s very different. With
unw verin
cnsistency nd with the strn
est emph sis, they
denunced the pr ctice, nt simpy s inhum n, but s definitey
murder.--Lecy, _Eurpe n Mr s_.
Aristte ce ry s w th t the strn
tendency f the hum n r ce t
incre se, uness crrected by strict nd psitive  ws, w s
bsutey f t  t every system funded n e u ity f prperty;
nd there c nnt surey be
strn
er r
ument
inst ny system f
this ind th n the necessity f such  ws s Aristte himsef
prpses.... He seems t be fuy w re th t t encur
e the birth
f chidren, withut prvidin
prpery fr their supprt, is t
bt in very sm  ccessin t the ppu tin f cuntry, t the
expense f very
re t ccessin f misery.--M thus, _Ess y n
Ppu tin_.
Cnsiderin
Aristte's views with re
rd t m n, his end, nd the
functin f the St te, we c n h ve itte difficuty in divinin
the
ch r cter nd methd f his educ tin  system. M n is
bein
endwed
with re sn; his end is the fu re iz tin f this, his sverei
n nd
distin
uishin
f cuty; the St te is the me ns whereby this is

ccmpished.
Re ders f Gethe's _Wihem Meister_ wi remember the descriptin, in
the secnd p rt, f the Ped

ic  Prvince. Nw, Aristte's St te
mi
ht with entire prpriety be c ed Ped

ic  Prvince. In tryin

t describe this St te, nd the m nner in which it disch r
es its
functin, it is difficut t nw where t be
in, fr the re sn th t,
t en s whe, the St te is bth te cher nd pupi. It rr n
es the
whe scheme f educ tin, nd is therefre re ted t it s c use; it
is buit up by this scheme, nd is therefre re ted t it s effect. It
cmes, ccrdin
y, bth t the be
innin
nd t the end. It is
university which rr n
es the entire scheme f educ tin, nd is itsef
its hi
hest
r de. I sh  try t surmunt this difficuty by
distin
uishin
wh t the St te is frm wh t it des, be
innin
with the
frmer, nd endin
with the  tter.
With re
rd t wh t the St te is, we h ve t cnsider (1) its n tur ,
(2) its sci , cnditins. The frmer re cim te, nd extent, n ture,
nd situ tin f territry; the  tter, number nd ch r cter f
inh bit nts, prperty re
u tins, distinctin f c sses, city
rchitecture, mde f ife,
vernment, nd re tins t ther st tes.
Aristte dem nds fr his St te temper te cim te, n the
rund th t
cd ne renders men strn
nd bd, but du nd stupid, whie
ht
ne renders them inteectu  but effemin te. The best cim te is ne
th t m es them t nce br ve nd intei
ent. The territry must be
extensive enu
h, nd fertie enu
h, t suppy its inh bit nts with 
the m teri  cnditins f ife in nswer t  br which sh  ruse,
withut exh ustin
, their ener
ies. It must f ce e st r suth, nd be
he thy, we-w tered, ccessibe frm  nd nd se , nd e siy
defensibe.
As t the sci  cnditins, Aristte finds the mst imprt nt t be
the number f citizens. And here tw thin
s must be c refuy brne in
mind. (1) He me ns by "St te" city with
sm  territry. This is
nt, s h s been errneusy suppsed, his hi
hest sci  unity. He
rec
nizes ce ry the n tin () 
h cf
 cy ();
but he hds th t they exist merey fr m teri  ends, where s the end
f the St te is spiritu . (2) He me ns by "citizen" pitici n. A m n
is citizen, nt bec use he is brn r dmicied in St te, but
bec use he is sh rer in its functins. A St te m de up f mech nics,
n m tter hw
re t their number, wud be
sm  St te, nd ne
cmpsed f s ves wud be n St te t . Thus, in estim tin
the
size f St te, we re t cnsider the ch r cter f its inh bit nts,
their fitness fr pitic  functins, r ther th n their number. Litte
Athens w s much  r
er St te th n
i
ntic Persi n the fied f
M r thn. Aristte  ys dwn th t the number f citizens must be  r
e
enu
h t insure independence, this bein
essenti  t Cuture-St te,
nd nt t  r
e t be m n
e be. Besides the citizens, there wi
necess riy be in the St te
very  r
e number f ther hum n bein
s,
s ves,
ricuturists, mech nics, s irs--fr  these he excudes
frm citizenship n the
rund th t they d nt m e virtue, th t is,
the re iz tin f re sn, the end f their ives. Wmen, in sense,
re citizens, if they ben
t the f miies f citizens; but their
sphere is the f miy.
With re
rd t prperty, Aristte be
ins by cnsiderin
wh t thin
s it
is necess ry fr. These he finds t be six, three priv te nd three
pubic. The frmer re fd (incudin
cthin
nd sheter),
instruments f prductin, nd rms; the  tter re pubic enterprises

(civi nd miit ry), rei
in, nd  w. These re the "necess ries"

() f St te, fr which it must duy prvide. The mst
imprt nt f  is rei
in, n which he everywhere  ys
re t stress.
As t the distributin f prperty, he prpunds scheme which is h f
sci istic. A the  nd is t ben
t the St te, th t is, t the
bdy f the free citizens. It is t be divided int tw e u  prtins,
nd ne set p rt fr pubic, the ther fr priv te, uses. The revenue
frm the pubic p rt is t
 fr the supprt f rei
in ( nd  w?) nd
f the pubic t bes, frm which n citizen is excuded by pverty. The
priv te p rt is t be s divided th t e ch citizen sh  h ve ne t
ne r the city, nd ne ne r the frntier. This wi
ive him n interest
in defendin
the whe territry. Bth p rts re t be cutiv ted by
serfs r s ves, p rt f whm wi necess riy ben
t the St te, nd
p rt t priv te individu s. L nd-wnin
is t be
cnditin f
citizenship, nd  citizens re t be frbidden t exercise ny frm
f prductive industry. This  st rue, it is hped, wi prevent

rievus ine u ities f we th, nd the evis th t fw frm them. A
mdest cmpetency, derived frm his est te, is  th t ny citizen
shud im t. Ony de
r ded pepe, inc p be f virtue, wi cr ve fr
mre.
Upn the distinctin f c sses sme i
ht h s been re dy thrwn. They
re tw; the ruin
nd the rued. Aristte hds th t this distinctin
runs thru
h the whe f n ture nd spirit, th t it is fund ment  in
bein
itsef. It hds between Gd nd the universe, frm nd m tter,
su nd bdy, bject nd subject, husb nd nd wife, p rent nd chid,
m ster nd s ve, etc., etc. The ruin
c ss
in is sub-divided int
tw p rts, ne th t thins nd determines (e
is trs nd jud
es), nd
ne th t executes (ffici s, fficers, sdiers); whie the rued is
sub-divided int husb ndmen, mech nics, nd se men (s irs, fishermen,
etc.). A the members f the rued c ss re serfs r pubic s ves,
wrin
, nt fr themseves, but fr their m sters. Aristte hds th t
they u
ht t be b rb ri ns f different r ces, nd nt Grees.
The rchitecture f the city wi in sme de
ree crrespnd t this
sci  divisin. It wi n tur y f  int three divisins, miit ry,
rei
ius, nd civi. First f ,
city must h ve w s. These shud
h ve twers nd b stins t prper dist nces, nd be m de s ttr ctive
s pssibe. The tempes f the
ds nd the ffices f the chief
m
istr tes shud, if pssibe, st nd t
ether n frtified cit de,
cnspicuusy dmin tin
the entire city. Adjinin
this u
ht t be the
Freemen's S u re, reserved entirey fr the ruin
c ss, nd
unencumbered by business r w res f ny srt. Here u
ht t st nd the

ymn sium fr the der citizens, wh wi thus be bru
ht int cnt ct
with the m
istr tes nd inspired with "true reverence nd freemen's
fe r." The m ret-s u re must be p ced s s t be cnvenient fr the
receptin f
ds bth frm se nd  nd. This cmprehends  the
civi rchitecture except the mess-h s, f which we sh  better spe 
in the next p r
r ph.
The mde f ife f the ruin
c ss wi necess riy differ widey frm
th t f the rued. Abut the  tter Aristte h s nthin
t s y. He
hpes fr itte frm th t c ss beynd the pssibiity f bein
hed in
cntented subrdin tin. As it h s n pitic  ife,  th t is eft
t it is the ife f the f miy. The ruin
c ss, n the cntr ry,
ive t
 r
e extent in pubic, nd n pubic funds. They exercise in
pubic
ymn si nd e t t pubic t bes. The chief m
istr tes h ve
their mess-h  in the cit de; the priests h ve theirs cse t the
tempes; the m
istr tes, wh preside ver business m tters, streets,
nd m rets, h ve theirs ne r the m ret-s u re, whie thse wh ttend

t the defences f the city h ve t bes in the twers. When nt en

ed
in pubic business, the citizens m y meet in the Freemen's S u re nd
enjy n pen- ir _cnvers zine_, with music, petry, nd phisphy,
in wrd, , fo which ou languag has no vn appoxima
quivaln (s p. 33). In popoion as hy advanc in yas, h
ciizns njoy mo and mo , which, indd, is gadd as h
nd of lif, h and haf.
Th govnmn is nily in h hands of h f ciizns, h
lgislaiv and dlibaiv pow bing in hos of h lds; h
xcuiv pow, civil and miliay, in hos of h young poion. I
is cuious ha, hough Aisol gads his as h bs possibl
aangmn und odinay cicumsancs, h nvhlss blivs ha
h happis condiion fo a Sa would b o b govnd by som
divin o hoic man, fa supio o all h ohs in wisdom and
goodnss. H plainly consids Pisisaus o hav bn on such man,
and h phaps hopd ha Alxand migh b anoh.
Th laions of h pdagogical Sa o oh Sas a, as fa as
possibl, o b pacful. Jus as all labo is fo h sak of s and
, so all wa is fo h sak of pac; and ha Sa is o b
nvid which can mainain an honoabl indpndnc wihou wa. A
culud Sa will schw all amps a conqus, and b as unwilling
o yanniz ov anoh Sa as o b yannizd ov by on. A h
sam im, i will always b ppad fo wa, possssing an amy of
wll-aind, wll-amd soldis, and a wll-mannd, wll-quippd
fl.
Such a h chif faus of Aisol's idal Sa, basd, as h
blivs, on man's poliical nau and h hisoy of h pas. Lik
all social idals, lik havn islf, as odinaily concivd, i is a
saic condiion. Is insiuions a fixd onc fo all, and vy
ffo is mad o psv hm. I is cuious o no in how many
poins i coincids wih Xnophon's idal.
Th pupos of h Sa is o duca is ciizns, o mak hm
viuous. Viu is h vy lif-pincipl of h Sa, and i dos
no dpnd, as oh condiions do, upon nau o chanc, bu upon f
will. Th idal Sa, lik vy oh, mus duca wih a viw o is
own insiuions, sinc only in his way can hs b psvd. "And,
sinc h Sa, as a whol, has bu on aim, i is vidn ha h
poliical ducaion of all h ciizns ough o b h sam, and ha
his is a ma fo h Sa o and o, and no on o b lf o
individual capic, as is now almos univsally don, whn vy pan
ands o h ducaion of his own childn, and givs hm whav
schooling suis his own fancy." Fo h ducaion of hos mmbs of
h Sa who a no ciizns h Sa maks no povision. Thy lan
hi pacical duis by pfoming hm, and a complly und h
conol of h ciizns. Aisol maks h mos vigoous ffos o
pov ha slavy has is jusificaion in nau, which has
sablishd bwn Gk and babaian h laion of mas and slav
(s p. 12). As woman blongs o h family, and is only indicly a
ciizn of h Sa, h ducaion is nusd o h fom
insiuion. Th daugh is o b ducad by h pans, and h wif
by h husband, xacly as commndd by Xnophon.
Having concludd ha ducaion ough o b a ma of Sa
lgislaion, and h sam fo all h ciizns, h coninus: "I
mains o inqui wha shall b h nau of h ducaion, and h
mhod of impaing i.... Th psn sa of ducaion lavs his

qusion in a pfc muddl, no on sming o know whh w ough o

ach hos subjcs which nabl popl o mak a living, o hos
which fos woh, o, finally, accomplishmns. All hav had hi
advocas. In gad o hos sudis which hav woh fo hi aim,
h is no gnal agmn, owing o h fac ha diffn popl
hav diffn viws as o wha kinds of woh a admiabl, and
consqunly diff in gad o h mans o b mployd fo h
culivaion of hm. On poin, howv, is pfcly cla, viz. ha
hos usful hings which a ncssay ough o b augh. Bu i is
qually cla ha a disincion ough o b mad bwn libal and
illibal sudis, and ha only hos usful subjcs ough o b
augh which do no un hos laning hm ino cafsmn. W ough
o look upon vy mploymn, a, o sudy which conibus o nd
h bodis, souls, o inllcs of f mn unfi fo h uss and
pacics of viu, as a caf. Fo his ason i is ha w call all
hos as which low h condiion of h body cafs, and xnd h
m o h mony-making ads, bcaus hy poccupy and dgad h
inllignc. As o h libal as, o culiva an acquainanc wih
hm up o a cain poin is no illibal; bu any ov-dvoion o
hm, wih a viw o aaining pofssional skill, is liabl o h
objcions mniond. I also maks a ga diffnc fo wha pupos
w do o lan a hing. If a man dos a hing fo his own, fo his
finds', o fo woh's sak, i is no illibal, whas if h dos
i ofn fo h sak of anybody ls, h will b hld o b doing
somhing mcnay o slavish."
Th nx and all-impoan qusion is, Fo wha nd shall h Sa
duca,--fo businss o fo lisu? In answing his, Aisol
baks nily away fom h old Gk adiions, as wll as fom
Plao, and mainains ha, whil i mus duca fo boh, y ducaion
fo lisu is fa mo impoan han ducaion fo businss, and cis
Nau as his auhoiy. "Nau islf dmands," h says, "no only
ha w should pusu businss poply, bu ha w should b abl o
mploy ou lisu lganly. If w mus hav boh, w mus; bu lisu
is pfabl o businss, and ou final inquiy mus b, in wha so
of mploymn w shall spnd ou lisu. I is uslss o say ha w
a o spnd i in play, and ha play is h nd and aim of ou lif.
If his is impossibl, and h uh is ha h pop plac fo play
is in h mids of businss (i is h man who is oiling ha quis
caion, which is h aim of play, businss bing accompanid wih
xion and nsion), hn, in having cous o play, w mus slc
h pop sasons fo adminising i, jus as if i w a mdicin.
Indd, all such movmn of h soul is laxaion, and bcoms
caion on accoun of h plasu which i affods. Lisu, on h
conay, is considd, in and by islf, o involv plasu,
happinss, and a blssd lif. Ths fall o h lo of hos who hav
lisu, no of hos who a ngagd in businss. Thos who ngag in
businss do so fo som ulio nd no alizd in i, whas
happinss is islf an nd and, accoding o univsal blif, bings,
no pain bu plasu. Of cous, as o h nau of his plasu,
h is a psn a vaiy of opinions, vy on having his own
pfncs du o his chaac and habis, and h highs yp of man
pfing h highs yp of plasu and ha which aiss fom h
nobls hings. W nd no fuh agumn o show ha w should
civ insucion and ducaion in cain hings wih a viw o
_oium cum dignia_ (o culud lisu), and ha hs should b
nds in hmslvs, in conadisincion o h insucion givn fo
businss, which is ncssay and has an ulio aim."
Th pincipls Aisol lays down as valid fo all ducaion: (1)

ha h aining of h body ough o ak pcdnc in im ov ha
of h mind; (2) ha pupils should b augh o do hings bfo hy
a augh h asons and pincipls of hm; (3) ha laning is
nv playing, o fo h sak of playing.
Th piods of ducaion disinguishd by Aisol a: (1) Childhood,
xnding fom bih o h nd of h svnh ya, and spn in
halhy gowing and, laly, in ppaaion fo disciplin; (2)
Boyhood, fom h bginning of h ighh ya o h advn of puby,
dvod o h ligh foms of disciplin, bodily and mnal; (3)
Youh, fom h ag of puby o h nd of h wny-fis ya,
occupid wih h sv foms of disciplin; (4) Manhood, dvod o
Sa duis. All hs a bu ppaaions fo h divin lif of h
soul. W shall a hs in od, including h scond and hid
und on had.

CHAPTER V
EDUCATION DURING THE FIRST SEVEN YEARS
Suff no lwdnss o indcn spch
Th apamn of nd youh o ach.--Juvnal.
L cu d'un homm vig s un vas pofond-Losqu la pmi au qu'on y vs s impu,
La m y passai sans lav la souillu;
Ca l'abm s immns,  la ach s au fond.
--Alfd d Muss.
Th Sa mus bgin h ducaion of childn bfo hi bih;
indd, bfo h maiag of hi pans. I mus s ha only
psons of obus consiuions may. Ahls a no suid fo
maiag, nih a waklings. Th bs ag fo maiag is
hiy-svn fo a man, and ighn fo a woman. Duing hi pgnancy
womn mus ak spcial ca of hi halh, living on ligh food, and
aking sho walks. Th Sa should mak a law ha hy visi h
mpls of cain gods vy day, and off up a pay of hanksgiving
fo h hono confd upon hm. Thy mus cafully avoid all foms
of moional xcimn. Whn dfciv childn a bon, hy mus b
xposd o dsoyd. Th Sa mus dmin wha numb of childn
ach maid coupl may hav, and, if mo han his numb a
bgon, hy mus b dsoyd ih bfo o af bih. "As soon
as childn a bon, i ough o b mmbd ha hi fuu
sngh will dpnd galy upon h nouishmn supplid o hm." A
milk di is bs, and win mus b avoidd. "I is likwis of ga
impoanc ha childn should mak hos moions ha a appopia
o hi sag of dvlopmn.... Whav i is possibl o inu
childn o, hy ough o b subjcd o fom h vy ous, and
gadual pogss o b mad. Childn, on accoun of hi high naual
wamh, a h pop subjcs fo inumn o cold. Ths and oh
poins of h sam nau a wha ough o b andd o in h fis
yas of h child's lif. In h following yas, up o h ag of
fiv, whil childn ough no o b subjcd o any insucion o
sv disciplin, fo fa of impding hi gowh, hy ough o ak
such xciss as shall guad hi bodis fom sluggishnss. This may
b scud by oh foms of aciviy as wll as by play. Ca mus b

akn ha hi gams shall b nih unfind, laboious, no

languid. As o h convsaion and sois which childn a o ha,
ha is a ma fo h anion of hos offics calld Guadians of
Public Insucion. I ough o b sn o ha all such hings nd o
pav h way fo fuu avocaions. Hnc all gams ough o b yps of
fuu sudis. As o h scaming and cying of childn, hy a
hings ha ough no o b pohibid, as hy a in som placs. Thy
conibu o h gowh of h body, by acing as a so of gymnasics.
Jus as psons ngagd in had wok incas hi sngh by holding
hi bah, so childn incas his by scaming. I is h
businss of h Guadians of Public Insucion o povid fo hi
amusmn gnally, as wll as o s ha hs bing hm as lil
as possibl in conac wih slavs. I is, of cous, naual ha a
his ag hy should lan impopiis of spch and mann fom wha
hy ha and s. As o foul languag, i ough, of cous, lik
vyhing ls ha is foul, o b pohibid in all sociy (fo
fivolous impuiy of alk asily lads o impuiy of acion), bu
abov all, in h sociy of h young, so ha hy may nih ha
no u any such hing. If any child b caugh uing o doing
anyhing ha is fobiddn, if h b fbon and und h ag whn
childn a allowd o com o h public abl, h ough o b
disgacd and subjcd o copoal punishmn; if h b old, i will
b sufficin o punish him wih disgac, lik a slav, fo having
bhavd lik on. And if w hus pohibi all mnion of impop
hings, wih song ason shall w pohibi all looking a impop
picus and lisning o impop naaivs. I ough o b mad h
businss of h Guadians of Public Insucion o s ha h dos
no xis a sau o a picu psning any such hing anywh in
h Sa, xcp in h mpls of hos gods o whom odinay blif
ascibs a cain wanonnss.... Th ough o b a gulaion
fobidding young psons o b psn a lampoons o comdis bfo
hy ach h ag whn hy a allowd o com o h public abl and
paak of win, and whn ducaion has foifid hm agains all
possibl dang fom hm.... W all hav a pfnc fo wha w fis
know; fo his ason vyhing ha savos of mannss o ignobiliy
ough o b mad alin o childn. Fom h complion of hi fifh
ya o ha of hi svnh, childn ough o b psn a h
giving of h vaious kinds of insucion which hy will afwads
hav o acqui."
In his bif skch of pimay ducaion w s ha Aisol dos no
dpa fa fom h noions of Plao. I conains vn h voling
faus of his schm. I assums ha h ciizns--mn, womn, and,
af a cain ag, childn--a a public abls, and ha ducaion
is nily managd by h Sa,--h family, in his spc, bing
mly is agn. Som of is faus, including h Guadians of
Public Insucion (, chl
-h
s)  l ly bw
fm
S  .

CHAPTER I
THE YEARS FROM SEEN TO TWENTY-ONE
Th  us h  gv v
c f bg h bls  jus hs
h  ms qu 
uc .--Sc s.
W fu
uslvs b h

bl c sl

Ecm ss
sv ms wh lfy w lls,
Df

u
by f  vul.
O' hs w  ss
s u sl
 h:
Thugh sv g s I 
wh hs s gs.
W c m u
m
w f fsh g.--D .
F hs 
, whch Asl
v
s  w (s . 183) by

v f uby, h,  h m , ccs h cus f su

y
cusm y  hs m. I csss, h s ys, f fu
b chs,--"Ls, Gym scs, Musc, 
D wg, h l s 
uvs l. Ls 
D wg   ugh bc us hy  usful

 y busss f lf 
f v y f uss, 
Gym
bc us hy fs m lss, wh s h us f Musc s

ubful."

h
bg
 h
scs

Of LETTERS Asl h s  much  s y, by

h f c h  hy 
css y  h cmm ff s f lf. H ch ms Hm g s
Pl , 
gs 
lg
scuss  shw h v lu f h
 m .
Is
f blvg, wh Pl , h  chl
 shul
s 
h 
hg h  wul
c h ms, h m  s h   s ly
by bg ly c

"ug
" h  hs c  b  


m
 sub
   h  s. Amg h  sss h  bsuc h
cs f  s  f  
y. T g
y uss hs 
h

 s hm ff  l s  

h mlss w y. Cm
y
s h s m
hg f l su 
l ugh. I f c, h m  s h  h sc l
fuc f h f s s  c s c h cs f h
ff
 sss. A s 
 l c. Asl h s lf us wk 
 g
y h  hl
s h l c f h  h l u f h  subjc
v  h s
y.
DRAWING Asl cmm
s s b ch f su
y whch
vls  s

ju
gm  g 
 h 
ucs f 
us l ; bu h s ys 
shul
 b su

mly f s us   blg us  chs hs,
 v wks f f , ccly, bu  h bc us   bls us
 c  b uy f fm. H

s: "Th u l
m 
f wh  s
mly usful s yhg bu
m k f b
h  lb ly."
Af hus bfly
smssg Ls 
D wg, Asl  sss 
 Gym scs 
Musc, 

vs cs
 bl s c   ch.
Algs
 GYMNASTICS, bu
sgush
fm hm, h  ms PHYSICAL
CULTURE (), saying ha, whil h fom givs chaac o
h acs of h body, h la givs chaac o h body islf. Th
aim of gymnasic aining should b nih ahlicism no fociy,
such as h Lacdmonians culiva in hi childn in h hop of
making hm couagous. Th fom is dimnal o h bauy and
gowh of h body; h la misss is aim (s p. 41). "Hnc
nobiliy, and no fociy, ough o play h pincipal pa among ou
aims in physical ducaion. Fo nih a wolf no any oh wild bas
v bavd a nobl dang. To do ha aks a nobl man; and hos who
allow hi childn o go oo dp ino such wild xciss, and so
lav hm uninsucd in h ncssay banchs, mak hm, in poin
of fac, m pofssionals, usful fo h nds of h Sa only in a
singl quisi, and, as w hav shown, infio o ohs vn in
ha.
"Th is a gnal agmn, hn, as o h uiliy of Gymnasics and
o h mann in which hy ough o b conducd. Up o h ag of
puby, childn ough o b subjcd only o h ligh xciss,

and all focd diing and violn xions schwd, so ha no

obsacl may b pu o h gowh of h body. I is no sligh vidnc
of h fac ha violn xcis impds gowh, ha h a no
mo han wo o h xampls on cod of psons' having bn
vicoious a h Olympic gams boh as boys and mn. Th xplanaion of
his is, ha h ohs w obbd of hi sngh in hi boyhood
by h aining hy had o undgo." Af h advn of puby, fo a
piod of h yas, h young mn a appanly o hav vy lil
gymnasics, and o dvo hmslvs assiduously o ls, music, and
dawing. Th piod following his is o b dvod o sv xcis
and sic diing, mnal xion bing ducd o a minimum; "fo h
wo kinds of xion naually wok agains ach oh, bodily xion
impding h inllc, and inllcual xion h body."
On MUSIC, as a banch of sudy, w hav almos a disquisiion fom h
pn of Aisol. Th qusion ha fis occupis him is, Wha is h
us of music? Is i a caion, an occupaion fo culud lisu, o
a gymnasic fo h soul? I is all h, h plis, and would dsv
sudy fo h sak of any on of hm. A h sam im, is chif valu
in ducaion lis in is hid us. Music impas a mnal habi; abou
ha h can b no doub. Fo xampl, h songs of Olympus "nd
h soul nhusiasic, and nhusiasm is an affcion of h soul's
habi." Aisol asons in his way: Music is capabl of affcing us
wih all kinds of plasus and pains. Bu moal woh a boom
consiss in finding plasu in wha is nobl, and pain in wha is
ignobl, ha is, in a coc disibuion of affcion. Bu in good
music h sains ha giv plasu a aachd o h idas ha a
nobl, and h sains ha giv pain o h idas ha a ignobl;
hnc, by a naual associaion, h plasus and pains which w find
in h music aach hmslvs o h idas which i accompanis. "Th
is nohing ha w ough o lan and pacic so assiduously as h a
of judging cocly and of aking dligh in gnlmanly baing and
nobl dds. And apa fom h naual manifsaions of h passions
hmslvs, h is nohing in which w can find ang, gnlnss,
couag, slf-conol, and hi opposis, as wll as h oh moods,
so wll psnd as in hyhms and songs. This w all know by
xpinc; fo h moods of ou souls chang whn w lisn o such
sains. Bu h pacic which w hus civ fom hyhms and songs,
in joicing and suffing poply, bings us vy na bing affcd
in h sam way by h aliis hmslvs." H Aisol daws a
disincion bwn music, which appals o h a, and h as ha
appal o h oh snss, o ah o sigh; fo no a appals o
ouch, as, o smll. In h objcs of a ha appal o h y, w
hav xpssions of passions only in so fa as hy affc h body,
whas in music w hav hi dic xpssion passing fom soul o
soul. Y psons a dply movd by sauay and paining, so much so
ha young popl ough no o b allowd o s such woks as hos of
Pauson. How much mo hn mus hy b movd by music! "Tha hy a
so is qui plain; fo h is such an obvious diffnc of nau
bwn hamonis ha h lisns a affcd in nily diffn
ways by hm. By som hy a hown ino a kind of mounful o gav
mood, _.g._, by wha is known as h mixd Lydian; by ohs a
snimnal un is givn o hi houghs, fo xampl, by languid
hamonis; whil h is anoh kind ha spcially poducs balanc
of fling and collcdnss. This ffc is confind o h Doic
hamonis. Th Phygian hamonis ous nhusiasm. Ths a coc
suls aivd a by hos hinks who hav dvod hi anion o
his banch of ducaion,--suls basd upon acual xpinc. Wha is
u of hamonis is u also of hyhms. Som of hs hav a sady,
ohs a mobil, chaac; of h la, again, som hav coas,

ohs find, movmns. Fom all hs considaions, i is obvious

ha music is calculad o impa a cain chaac o h habi of
h soul, whnc i follows ha i ough o b bough o ba upon
childn, and insucion givn hm in i. Musical insucion, indd,
is admiably adapd o hi sag of dvlopmn; fo young popl,
jus bcaus hy a young, a no fond of psising in anyhing ha
dos no giv hm plasu, and music is on of h plasan hings.
Th sms vn o b a cain kinship bwn hamonis and hyhms
[and h soul]; whnc many philosophs hold ha h soul is a
hamony, o ha i has hamony."
Aisol, having hus shown ha music is a pop subjc of
insucion, gos on o inqui "whh childn ough, o ough no,
o b augh music, by bing augh o sing and play hmslvs?" His
answ is wll woh quoing a full lngh. "I is qui vidn," h
says, "ha music will hav a vy much ga ffc in moulding
popl, if hy ak pa in h pfomanc hmslvs. Indd, i is
difficul, o vn impossibl, fo hos who do no lan o do hings
hmslvs o b good judgs of hm whn hy a don. A h sam
im, childn mus hav som amusmn, and w may look upon Achyas'
al, which hy giv o childn o spnd hi ngis upon, and o
pvn hm fom baking hings abou h hous, as a good invnion.
I is uslss o y o kp a young cau qui, and, jus as h
al is h pop hing fo babis, so musical insucion is h
pop al fo old childn. I follows ha childn ough o b
augh music by bing mad o poduc i hmslvs, and i is no
difficul o dmin ih wha is suiabl and unsuiabl fo
diffn ags, o o answ hos popl who pnd ha h sudy of
music is somhing ungnlmanly. In h fis plac, sinc popl mus,
o som xn, lan hings hmslvs, in od o fom a coc
judgmn abou hm, hy ough o lan h pacic of hm whil hy
a young, so ha, whn hy gow up, hy may b abl o dispns wih
i, and y, hough hi aly sudis, b abl o judg of hm
cocly and ak h pop dligh in hm. To h objcions which
som popl ais, ha music uns popl ino cafsmn, i is no
had o find an answ, if w consid o wha xn h pacic of
music ough o b quid of childn who a bing ad in h civic
vius, wha songs and hyhms hy ough o lan, and wha
insumns hy ough o us--fo his maks a diffnc. Hin lis
h soluion of h difficuly. Th fac is, h is nohing o pvn
cain kinds of music fom accomplishing h nd poposd.
"I is, of cous, obvious ha h acquisiion of music ough no o b
allowd o inf wih fuu usfulnss, o impa an ignobl habi
o h body, o nd i unfi fo civic duis,--ih fo h
immdia laning, o h subsqun xcis, of hm. All h
bnficial suls of musical ducaion would b aaind, if, insad
of going ino a laboious pacic, such as is quid o ppa
popl fo public xhibiions, if insad of ying o pfom hos
mavllous fas and _ous d foc_ which hav laly bcom popula
a public xhibiions, and passd fom hm ino ducaion, h childn
w o lan jus nough o nabl hm o ak dligh in nobl songs
and hyhms, insad of finding a m undisciminaing plasu in
anyhing ha calls islf music, as som of h low animals and h
bulk of slavs and childn do. If so much b admid, w nd b in no
doub spcing ou choic of insumns." Aisol spcially
condmns h flu, and lls how i cam ino us, and how i was
afwads discadd, as xing an immoal influnc. "In h sam way
w condmnd many of h old insumns, as h pcis, h
babius, and hos which ndd o poduc snsual plasu in h

has--also h spangl, h iangl, h sambuca, and all hos
quiing scinific manipulaion." ... "W would, hn, condmn all
pofssional insucion in h nau and us of hs insumns.
'Pofssional' w call all insucion ha looks owad public
xhibiions. Th pson who civs his pusus his a, no wih a
viw o his own culu, bu o affod a plasu, and ha a vulga
on, o oh popl. Fo his ason w hold ha such pacic is no
pop fo f mn, bu savos of mnialiy and handicaf. Th aim,
indd, fo which hy undak his ask is an ignobl on. Fo
audincs, bing vulga, a won o chang hi music, and so ac
upon h chaac of h pofssionals who ca o hi ass, and
his again has is influnc upon hi bodis, on accoun of h
moions which hy a obligd o go hough."
Sinc diffn kinds of music hav diffn ffcs upon h habi of
h soul, Aisol nx inquis wha kinds a suiabl fo ducaion.
"W accp," h says, "h classificaion mad by cain philosophs,
who divid songs ino hical, pacical, and nhusiasic, assigning o
hm h diffn hamonis spcivly, and w affim ha music is
o b mployd, no fo on usful pupos alon, bu fo sval;
_fis_, fo insucion; _scond_, fo pugaion; and _hid_, fo
culud lisu, fo laxaion, and fo caion. I is obvious ha
all hamonis ough o b mployd, hough no all in h sam way. Th
mos hical (_i.._ hos ha mos affc h _hos_ o habi of h
soul) mus b mployd fo insucion; h pacical and nhusiasic
fo nainmns by pofssional pfoms. Fo hos moions which
manifs hmslvs powfully in som souls a ponially psn in
all, wih a diffnc in dg mly, _.g._, piy, fa, and also
nhusiasm, a fom of xcimn by which cain psons a vy
liabl o b possssd. If w wach h ffcs of h sacd songs, w
shall s ha hos psons a sod o a nomal condiion und
h influnc of hos ha solmniz h soul, jus as if hy had
undgon mdical amn and pugaion. Th sam hing mus happn o
all psons pdisposd o piy, fa, o moion gnally, as wll as
o ohs in so fa as hy allow hmslvs o com wihin h ach of
any of hs; fo hm all h mus xis som fom o anoh of
pugaion and lif accompanid wih plasu. In his way hos
'pugaiv' songs affod a hamlss plasu, and i is fo his ason
ha h ough o b a lgal nacmn o h ffc ha pfoms
giving public concs should mploy such hamonis and such songs. Th
fac is, sinc h a wo kinds of public, h on f and
culivad, h oh ud and vulga, composd of mchanics, labos,
and h lik, h mus b nainmns and xhibiions o affod
pasim o h la as wll as h fom. As h souls of hs
popl a, so o spak, pvd fom h nomal habi, so also among
h hamonis h a abnomiis, and among songs h a h
saind and discolod; and ach individual divs plasu fom ha
which is gman o his nau. Fo his ason pfoms mus b
allowd o poduc his kind of music, fo h bnfi of his poion
of h public.
"Fo h puposs of insucion, as has bn said, w mus mploy
hical songs and h cosponding hamonis. Such a hamony is h
Doic, as has alady bn makd. W mus likwis admi any oh
spcis of music ha may hav appovd islf o such psons as hav
dvod anion o philosophic discussion and musical ducaion.... In
spc o h Doic hamony, i is univsally admid o b, of all
hamonis, h mos sda, xpssiv of h mos manly chaac.
Moov, sinc ou pincipl is, ha h man bwn xms is
dsiabl and ough o b pusud, and h Doic hamony holds his

laion o oh hamonis, i follows ha Doic songs should b

augh o young popl in pfnc o any oh. Two hings, howv,
mus b kp in viw, h pacicabl and h bfiing. I man ha w
mus discuss wha is spcially pacicabl fo diffn popl, as wll
as wha is bfiing. This, indd, will dpnd upon h diffn
piods of lif. Fo xampl, i would no b asy fo psons in h
dclin of lif o sing h inns hamonis; fo hm nau suggss
h languid kinds. Fo his ason hos musicians a igh who blam
Socas fo having condmnd h languid hamonis, as subjcs of
insucion, on h gound ha hy w inoxicaing. (By his m h
did no man inbiaing, in h sns ha win is inbiaing,--fo
win nds boisous ah han anyhing ls,--bu languid.) Th
uh is, wih an y o h fuu, o old ag, insucion ough o b
givn in hamonis and songs of his so. Moov, if h is any
hamony suiabl fo youh, as nding o fin as wll as o insuc,
as is h cas noably wih h Lydian, i, of cous, ough o b
adopd. I is cla, hn, ha h a h disinc hings o b
considd in fnc o ducaion, avoidanc of xms,
pacicabiliy, and appopianss."
So much fo h fou banchs of sudy which, accoding o Aisol,
ough o compos h cuiculum of youh. W hav noicd ha, in his
xan woks, h says lil abou Ls and Dawing. Jus wha
banchs h fom was supposd o includ, h has nowh old us
dicly; bu I hink h can b lil doub ha h gav a plac o
Gamma, Rhoic (including Poics), Dialcic, Aihmic, Gomy,
and Asonomy, which, along wih Music, mak up h Svn Libal As,
h _Tivium_ and _Quadivium_ of h Middl Ags. This cuiculum
undwn considabl changs a diffn ims, as w can s fom
Philo, Tls, Sxus Empiicus, S. Augusin, and ohs; bu in
Maianus Caplla i und o is oiginal fom, and in his
dominad ducaion fo a housand yas. W migh phaps daw ou
Aisol's pogamm of sconday ducaion hus:-{
{
{
{
{
{_Pacical_
{
{
{
{
STUDIES: {
{_Caiv_
{
{
{
{
{_Thoic_
{
{
{
{

CHAPTER VII

{Physical
{ Taining
{
{
{
{
{
{
{Gymnasics
{
{Music
{Dawing
{Gamma
{Rhoic
{Dialcic
{
{Aihmic
{Gomy
{Asonomy

{Dancing (s p. 82) }Bfo

{Dpomn
} puby.
{Running
{Laping
{Javlin-casing
{Discus-howing
{
{Wsling
{Shooing
{Maching
{Dilling
{Riding
}
}Bfo puby.
}
}
}Af puby.
}

}
}Bfo
} puby.
}
}
}Af
} puby.
}
}

EDUCATION AFTER TWENTY-ONE

B assud ha happinss has is souc, no in xnsiv
possssions, bu in a igh disposiion of h soul. Evn in h
cas of h body, no on would call i founa fo bing aayd
in splndid gamns; bu on would do so, if i had halh, and
w nobly dvlopd, vn wihou such appndags. In h sam
mann, w ough o ascib happinss o h soul only whn i is
culivad, and o call a man happy only if h posssss such a
soul, no if h is splndidly aid ouwadly, bu has no woh of
his own.... Fo hos whos souls a ill-condiiond, nih
walh, no pow, no bauy is a blssing; on h conay, h
mo xcssiv hs condiions a, h mo widly and dply do
hy inju hi possssos, bing unaccompanid wih
igh-minddnss.--Aisol.
Zno usd o ll a soy abou Cas, o his ffc: On day
Cas was siing in a shomak's shop, ading aloud Aisol's
_Exhoaion_ (o Philosophy), addssd o Thmison, king of h
Cypians, in which h king is mindd ha h posssss, in an
xcpional dg, all h condiions of philosophy, supabundan
walh, and high posiion. As h was ading, h shomak, wihou
inuping his swing, lisnd o him, unil a las Cas said:
"Philiscus, I hink I will wi an _Exhoaion_ fo you; fo I s
you hav mo of h condiions of philosophy han Aisol has
numad."--Tls.
A h ag of wny-on, hos young mn who hav succssfully
compld h Sa sysm of aining bcom ciizns o poliicians,
and bgin o xcis h funcions of such. Ths a of wo kinds, (1)
aciv, pacical, o xcuiv, and (2) dlibaiv, hoical, o
lgislaiv. As acion mus, on h on hand, b vigoous, and, on h
oh, guidd by dlibaion, which quis lag xpinc, h
funcions of h Sa mus b so aangd ha h aciv duis fall
o h young and obus, h dlibaiv o h ldly and mau. Th
disinguishing viu of h fom is foiud, wih nduanc o
painc; ha of h la philosophy. Boh qually hav slf-conol
and jusic. In his way dos Aisol disibu Plao's fou cadinal
vius.
Whn young mn fis bcom ciizns, hy a assignd o poss of
aciv svic, civil and miliay, and hus sudy pacical
philosophy--Ehics and Poliics--in a pacical way. As hy gow old,
hy gadually is o poss dmanding lss pacic and mo hough,
unil a las hy a admid o h dlibaiv body, o council,
whn hi aciv duis cas, and hy a abl o dvo hmslvs
o Spculaiv Philosophy o Thoics. Ths mn hav now achd h
nd of lif, as fa as his wold is concnd. Thy spnd hi days in
culud lisu, and h conmplaion of divin hings (). The
very dest f them, thse wh re mst cnvers nt with divine thin
s,
re chsen s priests, s th t they m y, s it were, ive with the
ds,
nd these be wrthiy served. Thus
r du y, mst insensiby, they
p ss frm the wrd f time t th t f eternity; frm the imperfect
ctivity f pr ctice, whse end is beynd itsef, t the perfect ener
y
f cntemp tin, which is sef-sufficient nd the ife f Gd. In this
w y Aristte settes the vexed uestin with re
rd t the
cmp tibiity nd re tive v ue f the pr ctic  nd the cntemp tive
ife. They re necess ry cmpements f e ch ther. Pr ctice is the

re iz tin f wh t cntemp tin discvers in the pure ener
y f Gd,

reve in
itsef in the wrd. Thus the pr ctic  ife f m n
ides

r du y int the cntemp tive ife f Gd.
Such is the hi
hest view f m n's destiny, nd the w y thither, th t the
Grees ever re ched, nd it is in m ny w ys mst ttr ctive nd
inspirin
ne. Its defects re the defects f  th t is Gree. They
re tw: (1) its ide  is inteectu  nd sthetic,-- crdin ted,
h rmnius whe, wheref the individu  is but p rt: nt mr  r
rei
ius-- sef-surrender f the individu  t the supreme wi;
cnse uenty, (2) it des nt prvide fr every hum n bein
, s such,
but ny fr sm , seect number, the fruit f the whe. Its ethics
re institutin  nt persn , nd, indeed, the Gree never rrived t
dist nt cnceptin f persn ity, th t bein
pssibe ny thru
h
the mr  cnsciusness, which is its cre. It sees t find h ppiness
in crre tin nd b  ncin
f individu  seves, nt in the
independent cnfrmity f e ch sef t supreme sef. Hence it w s
th t, with  its m rveus
r sp nd m ny prudence, the ide  f
Aristte prved pweress t restre the mr  unity f m n, unti it
w s bsrbed in hi
her.

BOOK I
THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD
(B.C. 338-A.D. 313)

CHAPTER I
FROM ETHNIC TO COSMOPOLITAN LIFE
'Tis Greece, but ivin
Greece n mre.--Byrn.
Mst
rius f  the Undyin
, m ny-n med,
irt rund with we!
Jve, uthr f N ture, ppyin
t  thin
s the rudder f  w-H i! H i! fr it justy rejices the r ces whse ife is
sp n
T ift unt Thee their vices--the Authr nd Fr mer f M n.
Fr we re Thy sns; Thu didst
ive us the symbs f speech t ur
birth,
Ane f the thin
s th t ive, nd mrt  mve upn e rth.
Wherefre Thu sh t find me extin
nd ever sin
in
Thy pr ise;
Since Thee the
re t Universe, rin
n its p th rund the wrd,
beys:-Obeys Thee, wherever Thu
uidest, nd
 dy is bund in Thy b nds,
S
re t is the pwer Thu cnfidest, with strn
, invincibe h nds,
T Thy mi
hty, ministerin
serv nt, the bt f the thunder, th t
fies,
Tw-ed
ed, ie
swrd nd fervent, th t is ivin
nd never dies.
A n ture, in fe r nd dism y, dth u e in the p th f its stre,
Wh t time Thu prep rest the w y fr the ne Wrd Thy ips h ve spe,
Which bends with i
hts sm er nd
re ter, which perv deth nd
thrieth  thin
s,
S
re t is Thy pwer nd Thy n ture--in the Universe Hi
hest f Kin
s!
On e rth, f  deeds th t re dne, O Gd! there is nne withut

Thee.
In the hy ther nt ne, nr ne n the f ce f the se ;
S ve the deeds th t evi men, driven by their wn bind fy, h ve
p nned;
But thin
s th t h ve
rwn uneven re m de even
in by Thy h nd;
And thin
s unseemy
rw seemy, the unfriendy re friendy t Thee;
Fr s
d nd evi supremey Thu h st bended in ne by decree.
Fr  Thy decree is ne ever-- Wrd th t endureth fr ye,
Which mrt s, rebeius, ende vr t fee frm nd shun t bey-I-f ted, th t, wrn with prneness fr the rdship f
dy thin
s,
Neither he r nr behd, in its Oneness, the  w th t divinity brin
s;
Which men with re sn beyin
, mi
ht tt in unt
rius ife,
N n
er imessy str yin
in the p ths f i
nbe strife.
There re men with ze  unbest, th t re we ried with fwin
f
f me,
And men, with b ser uest, th t re turned t ucre nd sh me.
There re men, t, th t p mper nd pe sure the fesh with deic te
stin
s:
A these desire beynd me sure t be ther th n  these thin
s.
Gre t Jve, -
iver, d r-cuded,
re t Lrd f the thunderbt's
bre th!
Deiver the men th t re shruded in i
nr nce, dism  s de th.
O F ther! dispe frm their sus the d rness, nd
r nt them the
i
ht
Of Re sn, Thy st y, when the whe wide wrd Thu ruest with mi
ht,
Th t we, bein
hnred, m y hnr Thy n me with the music f hymns,
Extin
the deeds f the Dnr, unce sin
, s ri
hty beseems
M nind; fr n wrthier trust is w rded t Gd r t m n
Th n frever t
ry with justice in the  w th t endures nd is
One.--Ce nthes.
The distin
uishin
ch r cteristics f Heenic educ tin were unity,
cmprehensiveness, prprtin, nd imfuness. It extended t the whe
hum n bein
, strivin
t brin
the v rius eements f his n ture int
cmpete h rmny in view f n end. This end w s the St te, in which the
individu  citizen w s expected t find
fied fr  his ctivities.
We h ve seen hw, whie cnserv tive Sp rt cun
t this ide  t the
 st, nd ri
rusy excuded thse infuences which tended t undermine
it, Athens, by freey dmittin
these,
r du y bre dwn the f ir
prprtin between bdiy nd ment  educ tin, in n excessive devtin
t the  tter, nd s c me t m e distinctin between the m n nd the
citizen. The resut w s n epidemic f individu ism which thre tened
the existence f  th t w s Heenic. A
inst this destructive pwer
the nbest men in the n tin, n schyus, n Aristph nes,
Perices,
Scr tes,
Xenphn,
P t, n Aristte, fu
ht with  the mi
ht
f wrth nd inteect. Sme f them su
ht nce mre t remer
e the m n
in the citizen by me ns f desptism nd the suppressin f 
inteectu  pursuits; thers, seein
ce ry the impssibiity f this,
tried s t define the sphere f the individu  th t it shud nt
encr ch upn th t f the citizen, but st nd in h rmnius re tin t
it. They did this by p cin
the sphere f the individu  bve th t f
the St te, nd, in smuch s the frmer w s purey inteectu  sphere,
they fund themseves driven t cncude, nd t  y dwn, th t the
cntemp tive ife is the end nd cnsumm tin f the pr ctic , th t
the citizen nd the St te exist ny fr the s e f the individu .
They were very f r indeed frm seein
 the impic tins f this
cncusin: these shwed themseves ny in the se ue; but the f ct is,
th t the principe f the sep r tin between the m n nd the citizen,
nd the ssi
nment f the p ce f hnr t the frmer, prved t nce

the destryin
n
e f Heenism nd the nim tin
spirit f the

civiiz tin which t its p ce. If we  csey t the schemes f
P t nd Aristte, we sh  see th t they try t render inncuus the
spirit f individu ism by exh ustin
its ctivities in inteectu 
re tins t the divine, fferin
it he ven, if it wi ny cnsent t
rein uish t the pitic  spirit its e rthy c ims. They pr ctic y
s id: M n, in  his re tins t his few-men here bew, is
citizen; ny in re tin t Gd is he n individu . The histry f the
 st tw thus nd ye rs is but cmment ry n this text. Frm the d y
when the m ster-mind f the Gree wrd credited m n's n ture with
divine eement h vin

supreme ctivity f its wn, Eurpe n thu
ht
nd ife h ve been
it ted by three uestins, nd  r
ey sh ped by
the nswers
iven t them: (1) Wh t is the n ture f the divine eement
in m n? (2) In wh t frm r institutin sh  th t eement find
expressin nd re iz tin? (3) Hw sh  th t institutin re te itsef
t the St te? And they h ve nt yet been definitey nswered.
Principes th t re t mve the wrd re never the resut f mere
bstr ct thu
ht, but w ys f crisis r epch in hum n ff irs. And
s it w s in the present c se. The sep r tin between the m n nd the
citizen w s ccmpished in f ct, befre it w s frmu ted in thery. On
the ther h nd, the thery received emph sis frm the events which
ccmp nied nd fwed its prmu
tin. The b tte f Chrne , which
t p ce sixteen ye rs befre Aristte's de th, by puttin
n end
frever t the free civic ife f Greece, remved the very cnditins
under which the d ide  cud re ize itsef, nd frced men t see
sphere f ctivity, nd t frm ssci tins, utside f the St te.
The St te, indeed, sti m int ined semb nce f ife, nd the d
educ tin, with its iter ture,
ymn stics, nd music sti cntinued;
but the spirit f bth w s
ne. The St te w s
r du y rep ced by the
phisphic schs, whie inteectu  tr inin
tended mre nd mre t
cncentr te itsef upn rhetric, th t rt which en bes the individu 
t shine befre his fews, nd t
in we th r pubic preferment.
Frm this time n, the spiritu  ife f Greece fund expressin in the
pretentius, empty individu ism f the rhetrici n, the ine 
descend nt f the sphists, nd in the phisphic  sects, which
embdied the spirit f Scr tes, their ppnent.
The funder f the rhetric  schs m y be s id t h ve been
Iscr tes, wh, fter bein
pupi f Scr tes', turned
inst the
phisphic tendency, nd ch mpined ee
nt phiistinism. The im f
these schs w s t turn ut cever men f the wrd, thru
hy
c u inted with ppu r pinins nd mtives, nd c p be f expressin

themseves
iby, sententiusy, nd persu sivey n ny nd every
subject. They usu y m de n prfessin f imp rtin
prfund e rnin

r eicitin
phisphic thu
ht: indeed, they despised bth; but they
did see t imp rt such n munt f rdin ry nwed
e s t p ce
their pupis in the chief current f the ppu r thu
ht f their time.
They thus bec me the be rers f pr ctic  educ tin mn
pepe wh,
h vin
st their pitic  ife withut findin
ny hi
her, su
ht t
bt in s tisf ctin in sci  intercurse. Fr hundreds f ye rs they
exerted n enrmus infuence, nd, indeed, t cert in times nd p ces
were frmid be riv s f the phisphic schs.
The first m n f Gree r ce wh ttempted t fund sect r sch
utside the St te w s Pyth
r s, nd there c n be n dubt th t 
subse uent schs were in sme de
ree mdeed upn his. It is true
th t the Pyth
re n sch h d been bren up nd dispersed n
befre
the d ys f P t nd Aristte (see p. 54); nevertheess, his
fwers, sc ttered ver Greece, h d c rried with them the ide s nd

principes f their m ster, nd nw th t Athens h d f en int the

cnditin
inst which the Pyth
re n discipine h d been
prtest,
these ide s fund re dy respnse in the he rts f thse men whm the
sci  ife f the time cud nt s tisfy. Hence the schs f P t
nd Aristte, which h d ri
in y been mere educ tin  institutins,
turned, even durin
the ifetime f the  tter, int sects (,
hss, s hy w c ll
l  ), wh
f ss f
-lc l cls,  cc
c wh whch h mmbs 

 sh  h lvs. I c  b s 

h  hs w schls w 
y hgh
g succssful, 
h  ss w h  hy w 
uly llcu l, h  hy m
  skg vl g s lc l
lf, 
h  hy c ll
f y f m    sy  f
. Bu,
shly f h
 h f Asl, h s, lms
cm usly, w h schls, whch 
 fluc,


w
, f v s hu

y s. Ths w h Ecu  
h
Sc. W
ly s hs
ff
 sc  m s, hy sugh h
s m 
,  mly, s l 

c, 
hy sugh  by
cfmy  l ws ms
by  hum  lgsl , bu by  u. Th
fm k h l w f h sss, h l  h l w f h s, f
s gu
; 
, by s g c
c, whl h fm ch m

f wll, h l  fss

f  lsm. Ths fu schls w h
ly s h  v m wh sv   g  Ahs, 
wh h
c f h Ac
mc, hy v
vg
f  fm h cls
f h fu
s. I h m f M cus Aulus, f Ahs h
b
f gs m Rm  uvsy, hy w l c
u
 S 
  g, 
su
by ublc fu
s, 
h s  c
 shw
h  hs w s
scu
ul hy w f lly cls
by h Em
Jus   A.D. 529.
N lg f h
 h f Asl, Ahs w s sul 
by
Al 
 , s h c f Gk fluc. H h hc l 

hlshc schls s blsh

hmslvs, 
cul
s b s
umus
sclsh. Ths, hwv, w s  lg clusvly,  v
m ly, Gk, bu w s cu
fm ll h  s f h kw
wl
, m sc lly hs f h E s. Phc s, Sy s, Jws,
Ps s, c.,   s k f Egy s, w bc m su
s f Gk
hlshy, 
mmbs f hlshc scs, whs mmbs  ly
su

gh, bu f, 
l g , lv
gh 
cmmus. Abu h y  B.C. 300 w fu

h f mus Musum 

Lb y f Al 
 --h fs uvsy 
h fs ublc lb y
 h wl
. Ru
hs h v us scs g h
,  su
y, 

scuss, 
 ch g s. N w s  Gk hugh l h 
g g
h . Th s 
blfs f Egy 
h E s
c m  f sh , 
,  h 
, f h l gs sh . N s hs
w
ful, wh w cs
 h
c h  hugh 
lf w
h  kg.
W h v l
y s h , s Gk cvc lf ls h c
s f
s sc, h hughful  f h l c m m 
m
 sk f lf-cls  h sussbl wl
f llc. Th
 u f hs wl
Pl  
Asl h

 h bs  v l.
Bu h v v
h  h  

hs f 
 s cmm 

by
Sum Illgc sv
by hs f lw
h G
, 
llgcs, cul
yl
h cls whch h lf f h m

m 

; 
hus w f
h hlshs f Al 
 svg 
l h llgbl wl
wh fms
 w fm ll h lgs
f h E s, clu
g Ju
sm. Thus h gw u h v us fms f
Al 
 hlshy, cmu
s f Gk hugh 
O l
lg. O h b ss f hs g  w g z
,  h s m m,
v us fms f sc l lf, ll 
g m  lss  lgus

cmmusm. Hc c m h Esss (s . 59), h Th us, h
Nyh g s, 
h Nl ss, ll f whm, whs 
g
c  shcmgs,

much  ufy lf, 
  v h w y f
hgh cvlz .
I B.C. 146, Gc, 
,  B.C. 30, Egy, fll  h h 
s f h
Rm s 
hcfh fm
vcs f h m. Ahs 

Al 
 w w Rm  uvsy-ws, whl Rm bc m m 

m h
ffusg c f Gk 
O l fluc. I wul
b
mssbl,  wk lk h s,  gv v skch f h
fms whch 
uc  ssum
 hs h g  cs,   h
wl
h  vlv
u
hm,  h s hu


m y s h 
 ss
bw h lss f Gk umy 
h umh f
Chs y. W sh ll mly 
 v  gv g l  f s
w chf 
cs, whch, s w s w, w w 
s hc 

hlshy; 
w sh ll
 hs  cc wh h  ms f w
m, wh m y b g 

s scvly yc l f h w 
cs,
Qul  h hc , 
Plus h hlsh. By
g s w
sh ll  v h w y f h cs
  f h Rs f h Chs 
Schls.

CHAPTER II
QUINTILIAN AND RHETORICAL EDUCATION
Rhc s h cu  f D lcc. Bh h v f h
subjcs hs hgs whch,  c  w y,  m s f cmm
kwl
g, 
blg  
f scc. Hc vyb
y, 
sm
g, s gf
wh hm; f vyb
y,  sm ,
s   m 
sus   gum, 
f
hmslf, 

ccus hs.--Asl.
Th s c  lc l hy whch s m
 u f m y g 
hgs. A l g 
m    f  s fc l lquc,
whch hy c ll hc.--Cc.
Evy
uy whch 
s  sv hum  l s 
hum  scy
mus b ssg

hgh l c h  y h  ss sh wh

kwl
g 
scc.--_I
._
Z, h vg ss
hs fgs gh 
cls
hs fs, s 

h  w s lk D lcc; h vg s

hm u 

hs h 
,
h s 
Elquc w s lk hs  lm h.--_I
._
T c cs
 ly s f m mm h   hk wsly.--_I
._
I  ss  h l su f  c l lquc, h
lgh f whch
 jys   y  mm, bu lms vy
y 
vy
hu.--T cus.
G mm  s  m l kwl
g f h us gs f l gu g s
g lly cu mg s 
s ws. I s
v


s  s, (1)  

g wh
u g 
 s
y [_.._
s , ccu , qu y, mh ss, m, c.], (2)
s cc
g  c fgus [l y ccsm], (3)

y s m f
 lcc l cul s 
lluss
[hllgy, gg hy, hsy, myhlgy], (4)
scvy f

ymlgs, (5) ccu  ccu f  lgs [ cc

c 

sy ], (6) ccsm f c l 

ucs, whch s h bls
  f h g mm c  [hcs, lcs, s gy,
c.].--Dysus Th .
R
g s h 
g f c  s 
ucs whu
sumblg  hs cy. I mus b
 wh
u g 

ss, s
y, 
 uss. Fm h ss w l  h
m f h c, fm h s
y h  f h 
, 
fm
h  uss h m g 

 b cvy
. I hs w y w 

 g
y hc lly, cm
y cvs  lly, lg cs hllgly,
cs sus 
ly, lycs musc lly, 

gs sfly 

l vly. Ay 
g
 whu
u bsv c f hs uls

g
s h ms f h s 
m ks h h bs f 
s

culus.--_I
._
Sm s  cmm, hs lb l.... Th lb l s, whch
sm c ll h lgc l s,  smy, gmy, musc,
hlshy, m
c, g mm , hc.--_Schl  Dysus
Th ._
I s bvus h  m  cls h h m ls  wh 
sch:
Why m y w  hl
h  hs wh csss s much  lquc s
  s?--Qul .
Th cvl m , 
h wh s uly ws, wh
s 
v hmslf
 
l
sus, bu  h
ms  f h cmmw lh
(fm whch hs flks wh  c ll
hlshs h v f hs
wh
 w hmslvs), wll b gl
 mly vy v l bl
 c l m s   ch hs 
s, h vg vusly sl
 hs
w m
wh  
s  h bl.--_I
._
If w cu v ll h chs f lf, w sh ll f
s  s f 
m umus h  s l sus.... Th fs, h  f b byh
, s
yg. Th b by s hugy; h us s
s   sl:  s
hsy; sh w shs :  w s  g  sl; sh  ks  l

m ks s. Wh h chl
h s sc 
fm h us,  s
 k hl
f by h 
ggu, h hysc l  , h
g mm -m s, h musc-m s, h
 wg-m s. I css f
m, h 


h hmc-m s, h gm, h
hs-b k; h ss  ly; h h s  ch c f lsu. H
bcms c
; g  h h s  f  h
ll-m s, h hysc l
 , h fcg-m s, h gym s ch. By ll hs h s
wh, w ch
, hl
. H g
u s fm h c
s  wy;
g  h

s 
w chs c   
g l, c.--Tls h
Sc (B.C. 260).
Th  lmy 
 h hsy f Rm s h 
wh sh h

 l u. I w s ly wh h Rm    ly bg  

b k u, 
csml  Gk 
cs  l y hl
u h
l, h  l u bg    . F hs  s, Rm 
l u fm s vy c s, fm bslu cssy,
fll
wh h Gk s, 
s 
s  h ms
c
s  h   l s f h l.--Mmms.
Qul , v g m
  summ juv,
Gl Rm , Qul , g.--M  l.
U  h m wh Rm bg  
cl, h schl 
uc  f h

yuh w s m g  h m, cssg f 

g, wg, 

ll l w. All l  

uc  h  w s m h  hs w s bw

fm h Gks. I w s bu h y  200 B.C.,  h cls f h
Sc
Puc W , h  h fluc bg  cl ly  shw slf. Th
sv C , wh s c
 lly
ss
hc s 
hlshs,
l  Gk  hs l
g 
w, f h us f hs s,
ss
f m u ls  hcs, hc, m
c, ml y scc, f mg, 

l w. A h s m m Sc Afc us s hs lsu hus 

 csg gym scs. Fm hs m , 
jus   s Rm
ls h   l ch  c 
bc m csml , sh m 
m


Gk m s, Gk lg ( lg), 
Gk

uc . Wh, f lly,  B.C. 146, Gc bc m Rm 

cy,
 w s scly u h  "C v Gc k c v h u

cqu." Thus 
s f Gk schlm ss, hc s,
hlshs, c., flck
 Rm, 
, hugh ms w m
 
l  suss hm, hy hl
h l c, f h sml  s
h  h 
uc  hy ff
w s cssy f h m. Rm, h
msss f h wl
, h
h  bcm csml   sh, 

sh f
h fm l v. Sh w, f h fs m, bg 
l u 
 culv  h w l gu g. Th su
s
 h v
whch sh sc lly ffc
w (1) g mm , h  s, l u, (2)
hc, (3) hlshy, whch cs

 schl, cllg, 

uvsy 
uc . Th l s, lk musc 
gmy, w s, f h
ms  ,  lg  ccmlshm,  h h  sus su
y. Th
hysc l sccs fu
ll f v.
S lg s Rm  
uc  w s  h h 
s f Gks,  w s c
uc

 h Gk l gu g, 

h uhs 


scuss
w Gk.
Bu h Rm s, hugh wllg ugh  bw Gk culu, w
uwllg  m  m ly  llcu l

c u
cqu
l, whch  m y scs hy
ss
. Sg ffs,
hf, w m
 
vl
  l l u 

  l

uc . Abu h y  B.C. 100, Lucus lus Pcus Sl,
why 
csv v Rm  kgh, 

v  cl ss  L 
g mm  
hc f yug m f h u cl sss, 
fm hs
m  h
c fluc f h Gks, c  hlshy,

cl
. Gk, 

, cu
 b sk by ll ss m kg
y ss  culu; bu L  bc m h l gu g f Rm 
l u. Amg h uls f Sl w   
Cc, wh, lg
wh Julus Cs , m y b c ll
h  s f h cl ssc l L 
l gu g, l u, 
lquc. Bh   
Cs  w wks 
g mm . A c  Cfcus (g lly kw s _Auc

Hum_) bu hs m w h fs L   s  Rhc;
bu h g  uhy  h subjc,   cc s wll s hy,
w s Cc, wh w  fw h  sv wks  . Wh Cc's

 h, 
h  sfm  f h ublc   m, lquc
ls s bls us, h
fc f lby. Rhc, vhlss,
cu
 b culv 
s f  
f fsc us, 
,


, w s m
  cv h whl f h hgh 
uc  f yuh. Of
hs  h ms clb 
 ch w s Qul , "h sum

c f g

y yuh, h gly f h Rm  g " (_.._ cvl

m h
).
Qul  w s b bu A.D. 35  h S sh cy f C l gus
(C l h ), wh, l , S. Dmc fs s w h lgh. H w s

uc 
 Rm, bu fw 
s u
 hs  v l c 

s blsh
hmslf s  ch f hc. Abu A.D. 68, h w s
v
by h Em G lb  sl  Rm, whch h

, gvg
suc  hc wh u  lll
succss f wy y s, 

 wg s l y fm h gvm. A h 

f h  m, h


, ch 
h
,  v  lf. I w s f hs h  h
w h wk whch c 
hs f m
w  sy, hs _Isu
O c _,  E
uc  f h O . I h fs bk f hs h

 ws u schm f   y 

uc  f h f mly 
h
schl; h succ
g  
v
 hc, 
h l s  h
ch  c f h  , whm h g 
s s 
c l wh h
culv 
glm . I s ly h fs bk h  ccs h m

su
 f 
uc , 
f hs I sh ll w gv
bf summ y.
Th fs c  f h  , f h bh f chl
, shul
b 
cu f  us f g
m l ch  c 
f culv 
sch.
A chl
h   ly l s b
h bs  cg 
s kg,  ly, f
v, gs cu
f hm fw 
s. G  c  ugh  b  k wh
g 
 h chl
's yuhful cm s, 
 hs 
ggu, wh
ugh  b f g
ch  c 
wll-fm
. Is fs l gu g
ugh  b Gk; bu L  ugh  b bgu  ly, 
bh  b
c fully culv 
. Th s  
 fllw h 
 y cusm f
 llwg h chl
 l   
 w bf h cls f s
svh y . Much c  vy f bly b
 by l y lg bf h .
I s ms k   ch chl
    h lh b bf hy
kw h fms f h ls. Ths hy m y l  fm  bls 
blcks. As s s h ls  cgz
, hy ugh  b w.
Fllwg wh  h fms f ls g v
 vy  bls s
g
hg. Af ls, syll bls mus b l -- ll h ssbl
syll bls  bh l gu gs. Af syll bls cm w
s, 
f
w
s, scs. I ll hs css,  s f h ums m c 
scu hughss by v
g h s. Th chl
mus  m w
s
ll h c  

w ll h syll bls,  scs ll h s
fcly f ml  wh w
s. I 
g scs, h mus l  
u h
, s h , whl h s ucg  w
wh hs ls, h
s cgzg hs wh hs y. Th wg lss shul
b
ulz
 
  m k h chl
cqu 
wh   w
s 
g

y. A hs s g, hs mmy ugh  b wll cs

, 
m

 l y u l g ss f g
l u f fuu us. A h s m
m, hs g s f sch shul
b wll  
, by bg m
 
uc  
ly vss c g
ffcul cmb s f su
.[5]
As s s h s bl, h chl
shul
g  schl. Hm 
uc  s
bjc bl  m y ccus, sc lly f bys 

f
 s. Ths, bv ll hs, mus l  sc bly,  c, 

_s
 cs_, 
fm schl-f
shs. M y m l lsss c 
b l , 
m y mvs mly
,  h schl, h   
ssbl  h f mly. Amg h l  s mb, whch "hugh
slf vc, s h   f m y vus," 
hf ugh  b
fly us
. H 
ly y mv s s wful.
Wh
by s s  schl, hs  ch's fs busss s 
vsg  hs ch  c 
c  cy. Th chf m ks f bly 
mmy 
w f m . Im  s  mmcy, whch s lw ys
sg f lw  u. Slwss, hugh bjc bl, s b h 
ccy, whch shul
b
scu g
 vy w y. Dff  m
s qu
f
ff bys: sm 
h b, sm h su. Th
bs by s h  "whm  s cs, whm gly l ss, wh cs
wh h s b . Such
 m y b ush
wh mul ;  ch
wll sg hm; h wll us hm." Bys ugh  h v s ss f
s 
l y, h  sh  ff
c ,   lg 
cu g 
lss. G ms f qus 
sw  g
f
sh g h ws. I l y  cll uy s ff
 h
 ch f l g h ch  c f hs uls. C l ushm s
lgh  b
c 
, 
, 

, s u

wh h  ch


s hs
uy.
Wh  bys l   schl s g mm ; bu hs mus b sulm
by
musc 
smy. Whu h fm  wll b mssbl  sc 
vs; whu h l ,  u
s 
c  lluss 
m
s f
fg
s  h s. A ll hlshy s css y f h s k
f u
s 
g such s s Em
cls 
Lucus; gmy, 

  gv  cc  
cc  sg, s wll s f  cc l
uss. Thus h cuculum f schl 
uc  wll css f G mm ,
Musc, Asmy, Phlshy, 
Gmy.
G mm  csss f w  s, (1) _Mh
cs_,  h  f cc
s kg, (2) _Hscs_ (Gm  _R l_), h   f
s, hs s, hlshs, c. _Mh
cs_--g mm   h m

ss--shul
m   blg by  s k 
w wh ccss,
cl ss, 
lg c. All b b sms (_.._ fg w
s 


ms), slcsms, ffc s, 
c lss uc s   b
v

. I h us f l gu g, fu hgs   b  k 
ccu, (1)  s, (2) quy, (3) uhy, (4) cusm. I

g, h by mus b  ugh "wh 
 w hs b h, wh 

v
 vs, wh h ss s cml, wh  bgs, wh h
vc s  b  s
, wh lw
, wh  flcs  us, wh  s
 b u
slwly, wh   
ly, wh  fcbly, wh  gly." "Th 
h m y b bl 
 ll hs, h mus _u
s 
_. R
g mus bv
ll b m ly 
g v, wh c  swss." Py mus  b

h s s,  y  sg-sg w y. All h c l
sfc , 
ll gscul  sm ckg f h cm
 ,  
b v

.
F _Hss_ h  ch mus b vy c ful  hs slc f
s. Hm 
gl  bs  bg wh. Thugh h full m
c  b u
s
by yuh, hy w k hus sm f wh  s bl

s
, 
wll f b 
 l  lf. "T g
s 
usful. Th s ushm  h lyc s"; bu hy mus b us

wh c u 
 slcs, fm whch vyhg l g  lv
mus b clu

. Ev H c mus b ug 
. S  
cm
y,
hugh f h ums v lu f h  , mus b
f
ll h
m l ch  c s suffcly s blsh
  b ju
by hm.
P ss gs fm h s ugh  b cmm
 mmy. I ll 
g,
h ums c  ugh  b  k  m uy 
m lss
(_s c s  vl s_).
Af 
g c f y, bys mus b m
   lyz 
sc 
,   u cul s f l gu g 
hyhm,  um  h

ff m gs f w

s,   m 
l  h v us fgus f
sch. Bu f  m m  h  ll hs  s, h  h  ch
shul
mss  h m
s h m c f sysm c  gm

y f
sc, "shwg wh  s su bl f  ch l,
wh  s cmm
bl  hugh, wh   ss, wh
ffusss
s , 
wh bvy." I gvg cll  l fm , whh
 hsy, myhlgy,  gg hy, h shul
k wh bu
s,
gvg ly wh  s css y 
ss  sc bl uhy. "I s
 f h vus f schlm s  b g  f sm hgs."
As g 
s lsss  cms, h  ch shul
bg by m kg
hs uls w u fm mmy h _F bls_ f s,  u, sml,

c, 
u

l gu g. H shul
h c ll u hm  u
y  s, 
   h s , h bfly 
ffusly. H
shul
h m k hm w u vbs, hhgms, hsms, sh,
bll  c
s, c. F mus ss l 
by h s m y b

us
s subjcs f cms, bu chfly f h s k f
fm . By
hs h schlm s shul
 g  h m  f
cms. Th s shul
b lf  h hc .
I s f g  m c  yuhful 
uc  h  sv l subjcs
shul
b su

 h s m m. Bys lk 

v y, 
,
wh hy g ,  s uly sshg hw much hy c  ccmlsh.
"Th s  h slghs  s f f g h  bys wll shk
fm h l b f su
y. N g s lss  sly f gu
." ... "Bys 
 u lly m cl
 h 
wk h  yug m."
Such,  bf, s Qul 's schl-g mm. I h s  l c f
hysc l scc (c Asmy), f m u l  g,  f
hysc l cs. Pl y s, 

, m
s css y c ,

gym scs 
hysc l  g ()  cmm


s f  s hy  css y   bl h bu

g    mv 

 gscul  g cfully; bu h  s ll. "Nhg c  l s h  s

 bcmg."
As s s h s 
y, h yug s  f  c l f m  sss
 h h 
s f h hc , u
 whm h l s ll h s,

cqus ll h  kwl
g, css y  f hm f hs
fss. N k
f kwl
g, 
 m l cllc ugh  b
fg  h  . Qul  s vy sv u h hlshs
f cl mg,  h l,  b,   c l w y, lvs f
ws
m, 
m  s h  h u   s h uly ws 
g

m . H s suly su  h hlsh, wh us hs b ck u

h wl

m fss  s  hum  ff s. Mv,
"hlshy m y b smul 
; lquc c ."
Th clsg ch  f h l s bk f Qul 's wk  s f h
  f hs m fm ublc lf. H s 
v hmslf 
wg 
 h su
y f , scc, 
hlshy. Th cu s
ch mg; bu  
s wh
 h, 
h s hg by
. G
m y
b
f
f  c l uss; bu hs sc s m  f
cjcu.
I Qul  w h v h hghs y f h cvc m  lvg u

csml 
ssm. Hs
fcs--hs 
y, hs svly, hs
g
m 
 ly, hs wl
lss--  ly such s   u l 
l c
 hs s, whu y ulk u hgh sc.

CHAPTER III
PLOTINUS AND PHILOSOPHIC EDUCATION
Th m  l b
y, whch s subjc  m, ch g,
sslu,


vs, qus  mm  l cl  hl

b

gh  uy. Ths cl f uy s h sul. If  w
m  l,  wul
qu h cl f uy, 
s  _

fum_, ll  mm  l fs w  ch

, whch wul
h
b h u sul.--Ammus S cc s.
Illgbl hgs, wh hy  u
wh h hgs,  
ch g
, s c l hgs  wh hy  u
wh  ch
h, bu m  s hy , 
wh  hy . Sul 
b
y 
m ly u
, bu  m
. Th sul c  s   
wh
 w

slf fm h

su llum s
sul  s l
 h h b
y

b
y,  ly  sl, bu ls  hugh. As h

y m s slf s   lgh, s s h
  h b
y. I s   h b
y s  l c;
s   
f .--_I
._

O's
uy s  bcm fs m , h G
.--Hcls.
Nh Schllg  B
  Hgl h s fu
Plus:  m y
w ys h s s bv hm.--Ahu Rch.
Wh  s lv
by us h s m l 
huful. Ou lv s lv f
 m g, h  f us  s s, bc us wh  w lv

w s  uly why f lv,  h g

whch w sugh. G

l s h u bjc f u lv.--Plus.

Th  cc l 
h cml v lvs, whch Pl  
Asl h

l b
s h 
 cmb 
cl ,  
  s v hum  wh

Gk cvlz , fll su
,
s ll h
ffs--g ly, f cus,  h
m f bh. I h bl
cu whch Qul 
 ws f Rm  lf  h fs cuy f
u  , w s  s
 f h sul f hs
vc:  h cul
s s f Luc , w lss h 
cuy l , w m y f

c
h h. Bu, jus s,  h m
s f h m l cu

bu ly, h s fm m  m why m lk Qul 

T cus, s m
h hlshc l ch l  y 
c, h
sll suvv

fw  s hks, wh s

wh ll h w
h  w s  hm 
v uh, 
sv  f
 h  l
wl
h   ly whch w s s ms bly w g  hs. By f  h
g  umb f hs m w h Gks  Rm s, bu
O ls, m whs hkg cmb
Gk hlshy wh sm
 s fm f E s myscsm. T such m hs lf w s mly 
uy f  g f hgh,  whch l y ll b uy, ll
g
, 
ll blss
ss. I s 
ffcul  s wh  s f

uc  wul
fllw fm hs vw f lf. I m y bs b
ch  cz
by h  w
" scc." I  lg sks   
h musly ll h f culs f b
y 
m
wh vw  why
sc l lf, bu   bl h sul 
  h b
y 
 sc l
lf, 
s s  u 
csubs  ly wh G
. I  sc
w s hs 
cy m m k
h   h Nl c, , s  mgh
qu lly wll b c ll
, h N sl   Nyh g , h
g s  m  whch s Plus.
Plus w s b  Egy bu A.D. 205. Hs   ly s ukw.
H cv
hs 
uc   Al 
 --g mm , hc, 

hlshy,-- 


h  chg f h l s s fss. H
sugh  v , hwv, f
sysm h  cul
s sfy hm, ll h
m wh Ammus "h S ck-b ," whm h  c cgz
s hs
m s. Ths Ammus h
b  
s Chs , bu h

s z
 bcmg cqu 
wh hlshy. Hs Chs 

uc , hwv, h
 b lgh ls  hm; f h h

c 
v  hlshy
fw f h
lgus s, 

sc 
 s h cu  c  Chs  scs. I w s hs,
 ly, h   bl
hm  gv
w
c  hlshy, 

 fu

w schl, whs fluc u subsqu, v Chs ,

hugh,  wul
b
ffcul  vsm . Hs schl w s h
Nl c, whch, m h  y h, u
fu
hugh wh
mysc hshy ().
Ptinus istened t Ammnius fr eeven ye rs, nd, n the de th f the

 tter, p id visit t Persi , with the view f studyin
the rei
in

f th t cuntry. He shrty returned, hwever, nd, fter brief
sjurn t Antich, bet himsef, in his frtieth ye r (A.D. 244), t
Rme, where he spent the rem inder f his ife s te cher f
phisphy. His s inty ch r cter nd his deep, rei
ius thu
ht drew
rund him cnsider be number f e rnest men nd wmen, incudin
even
members f the imperi  f miy. He m de sme ttempt t fund in
C mp ni
P tnpis, s th t his principes mi
ht be re ized in
sci  ife, in
thesphic cmmunity; but this w s never c rried ut.
He died in A.D. 270. Ptinus w s the ny truy
re t, ri
in  ncient
thiner fter Aristte.
Whie P t nd Aristte h d su
ht t rise t the intei
ibe wrd
frm, nd by me ns f, the sensibe, Ptinus, beievin
th t he h s
tt ined direct, intuitin  nwed
e f the frmer, sets ut frm it
nd thence tries t re ch the ther. At the summit f bein
he finds the
supreme P tnic principe, the One r the Gd, bsutey tr nscendent
nd sef-sufficient; next bew this, the supreme Aristtei n
principe, Intei
ence r Absute Knwin
, the _cus_ f  ide s;
nd third, the supreme principe f the Stics, Su, Life, r Zeus, the
nim tin
principe f the wrd. Gd, Intei
ence, Life--these re
Ptinus' divine trinity, evved by
prcess f bstr ctin frm the
_Nus_ f Aristte (see p. 161). The members f this trinity re
neither persn , cnscius, nr e u . E ch wer is c used by, but
des nt em n te frm, the next bve it; nd this c us tin is due, nt
t ny ct f free wi, but t n inner necessity. Thus the trinity f
Ptinus is mere ener
y, ctin
ccrdin
t necess ry  ws. The third
member f it turns tw rd m tter, which is mere pverty nd hun
er fr
bein
, nd, in s din
, prduces wrd f
ds, dmns, nd mund ne
bein
s, the hi
hest f which  st is m n. A th t h s m tter h s
mutipicity.
It is e sy enu
h t see wh t ind f ethics nd educ tin wi sprin

frm such system s this. In smuch s the
d me ns sef-sufficiency,
freedm frm mutipicity nd m tter, evi me ns dependence,
mutipicity, m teri ity. Wh tever evi there is in m n is due t his
cnnectin with m tter, fr which he is in n sense respnsibe. His
se business, if he desires bessedness, is t free himsef frm
m tter nd mutipicity, nd return t the unity f the Supreme Gd.
The steps by which this m y be ccmpished re, (1) Music r Art, (2)
Lve, (3) Phisphy r Di ectic: thru
h  these he rises bve
mutipicity int unity. In  this there is, bviusy, neither mr 
evi nr mr 
d, nd, indeed, the wrd f Ptinus cnt ins n
mr  eement, fr the simpe re sn th t it cnt ins nthin
persn ,
either in Gd r m n. Evi is the prduct f necessity, nd
cnsciusness, impyin
s it des, mutipicity, is p rt f it. The
unethic  ch r cter f Ptinus' te chin
cmes ut very ce ry in his
revers  f the psitins f instructin nd pur
tin in the scheme f
educ tin. Accrdin
t the d view, pur
tin w s mere medic 
prcess, prep r try t ethic  tr inin
(see p. 7). Accrdin
t the
Nep tnic view, ethic  tr inin
nd the "pitic  virtues" re
mere prep r tin fr pur
tin nd the inteectu  virtues. And this is
perfecty 
ic ; fr evi, bein
physic , must be cured by physic 
me ns. And the me ns which Ptinus recmmends re m
ic , r ther th n
mr ; rites nd pr yers, r ther th n heric deeds; the suppressin f
the wi, r ther th n its exercise.
Ptinus is t much f Gree t ccept, r even see,  the
cnse uences f his wn thery, which m es mr  ife cnsist in n
ttempt t esc pe frm the wrd nd t uench cnsciusness nd

persn ity. Accrdin
y, thu
h he h s

pr pinin f civic ife (
thin
excus be enu
h in thse d ys), he beieves th t the civic
virtues u
ht t be cutiv ted, s me ns tw rd the hi
her, nd h s
pp renty nthin
t s y
inst the rdin ry
r mm tic , rhetric ,
nd music  educ tin f his time. He h s
d de  t s y in f vr f
M them tics, s prep r tin fr wh t t him is the supreme br nch f
educ tin, Di ectics. But the tendency f his te chin
is ny t
bvius, nd the cncusins which he did nt dr w, time nd succeedin


ener tins drew fr him. The effect f Nep tnism w s, in the n

run, t m e the super-civic p rt f m n the whe m n, t discredit
pitic  ife nd pitic  effrt, nd t p ve the w y fr the mystic,
the scetic, nd the hermit. Nr were the tendencies f the ther
phisphic  schs in ny m red de
ree different. Thus phisphy,
inste d f cntributin
t h rmnize m n nd sciety, nd t restre
mr  ife, c me t be ne f the strn
est
encies in brin
in
but
cnfusin nd dissutin, by i
nrin
mr  ife t
ether, embr cin

superstitin, nd turnin
m n int
mere p ythin
f bind necessity
nd m
ic  frces. And thus ncient civiiz tin fe t pieces,
bec use m n himsef h d f en t pieces, nd e ch piece tried t set
itsef up fr the whe. The civic fr
ment finds its hi
hest expressin
in Quintii n, the super-civic in Ptinus. Ere the fr
ments c n be
united int truy mr  bein
, member f truy mr  sciety,
new cmbinin
frce, unnwn t either rhetrici n r phispher, must
rise.

CHAPTER I
CONCLUSION
Truy it w s n d wrd, nd even Cs r's p tritic
enius w s nt
enu
h t m e it yun

in. The d wn des nt return ti the
ni
ht h s fuy set in.--Mmmsen.
My thu
hts re nt yur thu
hts, neither
s ith the Lrd.--Is i h.

re yur w ys my w ys,

Thu sh t ve the Lrd thy Gd with  thy he rt, nd with 
thy su, nd with  thy mind. This is the
re t nd first
cmm ndment. And secnd ie unt it is this, Thu sh t ve thy
nei
hbr s thysef.--Jesus.
Render unt Cs r the thin
s th t
th t re Gd's.--_Id._

re Cs r's, nd t Gd the thin
s

Are nt five sp rrws sd fr tw f rthin
s? nd nt ne f them is
fr
tten in the si
ht f Gd. But the very h irs f yur he d re
 numbered.--_Id._
We ve bec use he first ved us. If m n s y, I ve Gd, nd
h teth his brther, he is
i r.--Jhn.
By ne intei
ibe frm, which is the divine Essence, nd ne
cnscius intentin, which is the divine Wrd, thin
s m y be nwn
in their mutipicity by Gd.--Thm s A uin s.
If Gd cts in  thin
s, nd such ctin in n w y der
tes frm
his di
nity, but even ben
s t his univers  nd supreme pwer, he

c nnt cnsider it bew him, nr des it st in his di
nity, if he

extend his prvidence t the individu  thin
s f this wrd.--_Id._
Une immense espr nce

p ss sur 

terre.--Afred de Musset.

We h ve seen th t the Gree ide  f ife rested upn the cmpete

identific tin f the m n with the citizen. We h ve seen s hw this
ide  w s p r yzed by the
rwth f individu ism; hw the wisest men
thu
ht t render this inncuus nd even beneficent, by prvidin
fr
it sphere f cntemp tin, superir t th t f pr ctice, but
r
nic y re ted t it, nd, fin y hw, with the f iure f this
ttempt, the tw sides f hum n n ture, divrced frm e ch ther,
de
ener ted, the ne int sefish wrdiness, the ther int e u y
sefish ther-wrdiness, bth cnditins e u y destitute f mr 
si
nific nce.
This s d resut w s m iny due t three c uses, (1) th t the remedies
prpsed fr individu ism were nt sufficient, (2) th t the best remedy
w s set side, (3) th t the cnditins fr which the remedies were
ffered sn ce sed t exist. Bth P t nd Aristte wrte fr the
sm  Gree pities, which st their utnmy thru
h the M cedni n
cn uest. If it m y be dubted whether even the prps s f the  tter
wud h ve redeemed these pities, h d they cntinued free, it is
cert in th t they wud h ve been ineffective under the ch n
ed
circumst nces. At  events, they were never dpted, nd even fr the
super-civic m n the te chin
f P t w s preferred t his.
As the new csmpit nism deepened the
uf between the citizen nd the
individu , nd imme sur by widened the sphere f the  tter, in the
s me prprtin did the te chin
f P t f i t brid
e ver th t
uf,
nd prvide ctivity fr th t sphere. T te the super-civic m n nw
th t his functin w s t cntemp te divine thin
s nd r cu ry
deiver  ws fr the
uid nce f the wrd, wud h ve r
ued n bsence
f humr nt cmmn in thse d ys. Besides, thse persns wh c imed
t h ve cntemp ted divine thin
s shwed n such fitness fr
e
is tin s t induce pr ctic  men t ccept their
uid nce. The
sber f ct w s, th t the cntemp tin f divine thin
s, which mre nd
mre bsrbed the ener
y f Gree thu
ht, w s, except fr Aristte,
mere v
ue sper tin withut mr  v ue, nd bec me ever mre
srt
f mystic ecst sy, in which the individu , inste d f c uirin
insi
ht
nd pwer t ive wrthiy nd beneficenty in the wrd, w s thrwn
b c upn himsef, with his wi p r yzed. Nr cud this be therwise,
seein
the n ture f the divine thin
s, the cntemp tin f which w s
recned s imprt nt. Inste d f bein
persn  ttributes, r persn
impsin
mr   w seen t be bindin
, they were mere bstr ctins,
incre sin
in emptiness the hi
her they were in the series, the hi
hest
bein
bsute v c ncy. In v in h d Aristte prtested th t  re ity
is individu : the P tnic thery, th t  nwed
e is f ide s r
univers s, prev ied, with the resut th t the hi
hest nwed
e w s
hed t be nwed
e f th t which is bsutey univers , viz.
indetermin te bein
r, s Ptinus hed, smethin
 cin
even the
determin tin f bein
--the Supreme Gd. Th t the super-civic m n
shud find s tisf ctin in
zin
int v c ncy, r be ny mre v u be
in the wrd fter he h d dne s, n m tter hw sptess his ife nd
ecst tic his , is incnceiv be.
But whie, in the Gree wrd, the sphere f ctivity f the super-civic
m n w s v nishin
int nthin
ness, mn
sm  nd bscure b nd f
restred exies f Semitic r ce, th t sphere h d cme t c im the

entire m n nd  his re tins, pr ctic  nd spiritu . Is i h's

n tin,
itte b nd f f ithfu fwers (see p. 133) h d
rwn int
ivin
by n  w s ve th t f Jehv h, very re , very wfu, nd very
hy persn ity, whm the he ven f he vens cud nt cnt in, but wh
yet w tched the risin
up nd the sittin
dwn f every sn f m n. Ln

befre Quintii n wrte his ee
nt tre tise n rhetric, r Ptinus
his p ntheistic Enne ds, there h d sprun
frm the bsm f this pepe
m n wh, burstin
, t the expense f his ife, the n rrw bunds f
his n tin y, eev ted the thecr cy f his pepe int Kin
dm f
He ven, which he h d b de prc im t  the wrd. It w s prc imed,
nd then (thu
h t sme it seemed
stumbin
-bc, nd t thers
fishness) the super-civic m n, wh fr hundreds f ye rs h d been
w nderin
in d rness, in se rch f his f ther nd, suddeny bec me
w re th t he h d fund it in the Church f Christ. He nw n n
er
tries t esc pe frm the visibe wrd int the emptiness f n bstr ct
first principe; but, in the service f First Principe wh is the
mst cncrete f re ities, nd wh numbers the very h irs f his he d,
he
es dwn int the mst  thsme depths f the m teri  wrd t
eev te nd redeem the me nest f the sns f men. There is n uestin
f bnd r free, ruer r rued, nw. In the Kin
dm f He ven there re
n such re tins. The ny
re tness rec
nized there is
re tness in
service; the ny  w, the L w f Lve. Lve! yes, the whe secret is
in th t ne wrd. By ddin
ve t the cnceptin f the Gd f his
pepe, by exempifyin
it in his wn ife, nd dem ndin
it f his
fwers, Jesus ccmpished wh t h d b ffed  the wisdm f the
Gree s
es. He restred the mr  unity f m n, bished the d
wrd, nd m de
new he ven nd
new e rth. In v in h ve the dvc tes
f n indetermin te, sef-evvin
first principe, whether c in

themseves Nep tnists, mystics, m teri ists, evutinists,
He
ei ns, r Thesphists, striven t brin
b c the d wrd with its
c ss distinctins nd institutin  ethics; in v in h ve they su
ht t
sin the individu  Gd nd m n f re ity in the univers  ide s f
thu
ht. The L w f Lve, which is the
rund f individu ity, s we
s f true sciety, h s bidden, nd wi bid them, defi nce.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX
THE SEEN LIBERAL ARTS
The Grees ri
in y rec
nized tw br nches f iber  educ tin[6]
(1) Gymn stics, fr the bdy, nd (2) Music, fr the su. Out f music

rew, in prcess f time, nt ny the s-c ed Liber  Arts, th t is,
the rts th t
 t cnstitute the educ tin f every freem n, but s
wh t w s re
rded s superfuus uxury (), Philosophy. I is
h pupos of his appndix o ac, as fa as possibl, his gadual
dvlopmn.
In doing so, on mus ba in mind ha oiginally h m "Music"
covd, no only wha w call music, bu also poy, and ha poy
was h vhicl of all h scinc ha hn was. Th Homic _aoidos_
knows h "woks of gods and mn." Sicly spaking, hfo, i was

ou of music and poy ha all h as and scincs gw. Th fis
sp in his dicion was akn whn Ls w inoducd, ha is,
abou h fis Olympiad.[7] Bu i was long bfo Ls w
gadd as a spaa banch of ducaion; hy w simply a mans of
coding poy. Evn as la as h im of Plao, Ls a sill
usually includd und Music. In Aisol, hy a cognizd as a
spaa banch. I follows fom his ha, whn w find Gk wis
confining soul-ducaion o Music, o Music and Ls, w mus no
conclud ha hs signify only playing and singing, ading and
wiing. Socas was saying nohing nw o paadoxical, whn h
affimd ha Philosophy was h "highs music." Th Pyhagoans had
said h sam hing bfo him, and h can b no doub ha
Pyhagoas himslf includd und Music (1) Ls, (2) Aihmic, (3)
Gomy, (4) Asonomy, (5) Music, in ou sns, and (6) Philosophy (a
m invnd by him). Plao did h sam hing. H spaks of "h u
Mus ha is accompanid wih uh () 
hlshy." Bu  hs
m "Musc" w s us
 w sss, b
,  whch  clu


h whl f llcu l 

uc , 

 w ,  whch  s

cf
 musc  h m
 ss. I s  hs l  ss h 
 s us
by Asl, wh h m ks h llcu l b chs f
schl 
uc  (1) Ls, (2) Musc, 
(3) D wg. Phlshy h
l cs  hgh g
. H vg
sgush
Ls fm Musc,  s
 u l ugh h  h shul
ssg  h fm h b chs whch
Pyh g s h
clu

u
 h l . Hs l y schm  s 
b (1) G mm , (2) Rhc, (3) D lcc, (4) Ahmc, (5)
Gmy, (6) Asmy. A

Musc, 
w h v  cly h Sv
Lb l As; bu, s D wg mus ls b


,  s cl  h  h
w s, s y,  hugh f fg
fly h umb sv. Th 
D wg w s f
lg m   f h schl cuculum, s 


cl  by  ss g 
wk f Tls (B.C. 260) qu
by Sbus
(cv, 72),  whch  s s 
h  bys su
y (1) Ls, (2)
Musc, (3) D wg; yug m, (4) Ahmc, 
(5) Gmy. Th
l s w b chs  h l
y
sgush
fm Ls; bu w
c  b su h  h ls s 

 b h usv. Wh  s
sc lly c bl  h ls f Tls s, h  
 ws cl 

sc bw h lw 

hgh su
s,
sc whch
fsh
ws h _Tvum_ 
_Qu
vum_ f l  ms.[8]
Phlshy,  h hghs 
uc , Asl
v

 (1) Thy

(2) P cc. Thy h sub
v

 ( ) Thlgy, Fs
Phlshy,  Ws
m, c ll
l  M hyscs, h scc f h
Uch g bl, 
(b) Physcs, h scc f h Ch g bl; P cc
 ( ) Ehcs, clu
g Plcs 
nm, and (b) Pet 
tet.
Afte Tele we ea lttle f te Geek l-uulum untl abut
te Ctan ea. Meanwle, te Rman, avng aqued a matteng
f Geek leanng, began t daw up a eme f tude utable f
temelve. It  nteable tat n t eme tee  n u
dtntn a te Geek dew between lbeal (, ,
) nd iiber  () s.[9] As  ly s h fs h lf f
h sc
cuy B.C., C  h Cs w ss f m u ls f
hs s  (1) Ehcs, (2) Rhc, (3) M
c, (4) Ml y Scc,
(5) F mg, (6) L w. I s vy sgfc  h  h ly Gk
schl-su
y whch  s h s Rhc; hs h Rm s, 

 bly C  hmslf, lw ys su


wh g  c  f  cc l
uss. I sms h  C ,  
  ss h 
s f Gk

uc  
m s, whch h fl  b
m lzg, 

 w
u
ch  csc lly Rm  cuculum. Gc, hwv,  g 
m su, v l
, 
h lf
cuy l  w f
  wg u

ms f h subjcs  h Gk cuculum: G mm , Rhc,

D lcc, Ahmc, Gmy, Asmy, Musc, Phlshy, bs
s
m y hs. H w
 s   bks, c ll
_Dscl um
Lb_. Rschl,  hs _Quss   _,[10] 
 shw h 
hs "Dscl" w h Sv Lb l As, _lus_ Achcu 

M
c, 
Mmms,  hs _Rm  Hsy_, h s fllw
hm; bu
Rschl hmslf l  ch g
hs . Th sms 
ub h  (1)
G mm , (2) Rhc, (3) D lcc, (4) Musc, (5) Gmy, 
(6)
Achcu w  
 h wk: wh  h s w w c  ly
guss.[11] Th s  gu
f h ss h  h Sv Lb l
As w b 
by
g Achcu 
M
c fm  's
ls. I mus h v b bu h m f  , f   l, h 
Rm  
uc  c m  b
v

 h g
s, c ll

scvly (1) G mm , (2) Rhc, 

(3) Phlshy, h l s
f llg  h l f bu fw ss. Of cus "G mm " w c m 
h v
vy sv m g, s w c  s fm h
f f 
gv by Dysus Th ,  hs g mm ,  
 ly f Rm 
us (B.C. 90). I h Schl  h  wk (I m u bl  f h

), w f
h Lb l As um 
s (1) Asmy, (2)
Gmy, (3) Musc, (4) Phlshy, (5) M
c, (6) G mm , (7)
Rhc.[12]
Bu  u  h Gks. I h wks f Phl Ju
us,
cm y f Jsus, w f
h Ecyclc As fquly f
,


sgush
fm Phlshy. Th fm, h s ys,  s

by h Egy  sl v H g , h l  by S  h, h l wful wf. O

mus ssc  wh h As bf h c  f
Phlshy fuful. I
   ss g
s Phl gv ls f h Ecyclc As. I  l c
w f
um 
(1) G mm , (2) Gmy, (3) Musc, (4) Rhc
(_D Chub._, 30);  h (1) G mm , (2) Gmy, (3) "h
 musc f cyclc suc" (_D Agcul._, 4);  h
(1) G mm , (2) Musc, (3) Gmy, (4) Rhc, (5) D lcc (_D
Cgssu Qu. Eu
. G ._, 5);  h, (1) G mm , (2)
Ahmc, (3) Gmy, (4) Musc, (5) Rhc (_D Sms_, 35),
c.
I wul
sm h  h Ecyclc As, cc
g  Phl, w (1)
G mm , (2) Rhc, (3) D lcc, (4) Ahmc, (5) Gmy, (6)
Musc. Asmy  s   f h lss. Phlshy s
v


 (1) Physcs, (2) Lgc, (3) Ehcs (_D Mu . Nm._, 10),

vs h  w s lg cu.

Fm wh  h s b

uc
, I hk w m y f ly cclu
 h   h
Chs   
f umb h
b f
f h lb l s
h  Ahs, Al 
 ,  Rm. Th ls  ly
ff


ff l cs. Cl ly h Rm  g mm w s qu

ff fm
h Gk. Shly f hs  , w f
Sc (wh

A.D. 65)
gvg h lb l s, _lb l su
 _, s (1) G mm , (2) Musc,
(3) Gmy, (4) Ahmc, (5) Asmy (_Es._, 88). H
v
s
Phlshy  (1) M l, (2) N u l, (3) R  l, 
h l s h
sub
v
s  ( ) D lcc 
(b) Rhc. Abv ll h l cs
Ws
m, "_S  fcum bum s ms hum _" (_Es._, 89).
H w s h  w f h Sv Lb l As  cl ss
u

Phlshy. A ll l , Qul 
v
s ll 
uc   (1)
G mm , 
(2) Rhc, bu c
sc
s  llw hs yug   
su
y ll Musc, Gmy, 
Asmy.
Tug  h Gks, w f
Sus Emcus, wh sms  h v
flush
 Ahs 
Al 
 w 
h 
f h sc

cuy, wg g  wk g s h

gm ss 

"m hm c s," f whm h f

s  cl sss, cs
g  s
s, 
h sccs f hlshy. Th s  (1) G mm , (2)
Rhc, (3) Gmy, (4) Ahmc, (5) Asmy, (6) Musc: h
sccs, (1) Lgc, (2) Physcs, (3) Ehcs. W  w  f  fm
h Sv Lb l As; sll w h v   ch
hm.
Th s , I hk, y why ls f h lb l s  b
fu
 y c uh f Sus, ll w cm  S. Augus.
I hs _R cs_, w bu 425, h lls us (I, 6) h   hs
yuh h u
k  w _Dscl um Lb_ (h  c l f
 's wk!), h  h fsh
h bk  (1) G mm , w s
vlums  (2) Musc, 
m
 bgg wh _h fv_

scls, (3) D lcc, (4) Rhc, (5) Gmy, (6) Ahmc,

(7) Phlshy. I h s fquly b ssum
h  w h v h, f
h fs m, h Sv Lb l As
fly f
; bu h s
hg wh v  h  ss g  jusfy hs ssum. Th uh

s  s y "_h_ h fv

scls," bu mly "h fv."
Amg hs fv, mv, s  m
Phlshy, whch, hugh c ly
"
scl," w s v, s f  s I c 
scv, c ll
 ,
lb l  hws. Th s  h sm lls  s f  cg b ck
h Sv Lb l As  S. Augus, wh suly w s c  bl f y
such l yg wh umbs. H
s , 

, cgz h "Sv."
I s  h f  sc 
sufc l wk f M  us C ll ,
h h cm y f Augus's, h  hy fs m k h
  c, 
v h  sss s l 
u h umb. Thy 
(1) G mm , (2) D lcc, (3) Rhc, (4) Gmy, (5) Ahmc,
(6) Asmy, (7) Musc. Ths, 
ub, w h b chs  ugh 
h b schls f h Rm  Em  h fuh 
ffh
cus, wh,  h whl, h Gk lb l cuculum h

sul 
h Rm  hc l . Th s  h slghs gu

f susg h  C ll h

yhg 
 wh fg h cuculum
whch h clb s. Hs wk s wch

uc, suffcly
ch  cz
by s l, _Th W

g f Mcuy 
Phllgy_. H
w bu sv s bc us h fu
sv  w bu. A
w s fs c ll
 h _umb_ f h s, 

mysc l m g
 ch
 , by h Chs  s , C ss
us (480-575)  hs
_D Abus  Dscls Lb lum L um_. H f
s  w
 Pv. , 1, h  "Ws
m h h bul

h hus. Sh h h hw u
h sv ll s." H cclu
s h  h Sv Lb l As  h
sv ll s f h hus f Ws
m. Thy cs
ls  h
ys
f h wk, whch  ls sv. I s  b bsv
h  h

sgushs h "As" fm h "Dscls," , s hy s 

l ,
h _Tvum_ fm h _Qu
vum_. Th us  f C ss
us w s
wk
u by Is
 f Svll (

636)  hs _Eymlg_, 
by
Alcu (

804)  hs _G mm c _. Of cus, s s s h umb
f h s c m  b g 

s f
by Scu uhy, 
bc m s f ml 
f c s h umb f h l s  f h
ys f
h wk,  

, s h umb f h lms. Abu A.D. 820
H b us M uus (776-856), ul f Alcu's, w
wk, _D
Clcum Isu_,  whch h h s _Sm Lb ls As_
s s 
 ccu f h fs m. Abu h s m
 Th
ulfus
w hs llgc l m _D Sm Lb lbus  qu
m Pcu
Dscs_.[13]
Th Lb l Su
s f S. Augus

 clu
 Phlshy,
whch s
u h Sv As, s u "sv ll s," 
w s
usu lly
v

 (1) Physc l, (2) Lgc l, (3) Ehc l.[14] Af
m Phlshy c m  b  ll-mb cg m. I cmm y  h
_Tmus_ f Pl , ssg
by Cus  h wlfh cuy, w f

h fllwg schm:-{ Ehcs.

{ P cc l { Ecmcs.
{
{ Plcs.
{
{
{ Thlgy.
PHILOSOPHY {
{
{
{ M hm cs.
{ Thc l {
{
{
{
{ Physcs.

{
{
{
{

Ahmc
Musc
Gmy
Asmy

}
}
} = Qu
vum.
}

Th uh ssly s ys h  "M hm c qu

vum c"; bu h
l ly
s  clu
 h _Tvum_ u
 Phlshy. Ths, hwv,
w s
 h fllwg cuy. I h _I um Ms  Dum_ f
S. B vu (1221-74) w f
h fllwg  gms:-{
{
{ N u l
{
{
{
{
PHILOSOPHY {
{ R  l
{
{
{
{
{ M l
{

{ M hyscs--ssc: l
s  Fs
{
Pcl = F h.
{ M hm cs--umbs, fgus: l
s
{
 Im g = S.
{ Physcs-- us, ws,
ffuss:
{
l
s  Gf f Hly S.
{ G mm --w f ss = F h.
{ Lgc--scuy  gum = S.
{ Rhc--skll  su
g = Hly
{
S.
{ M scs-- scbly f F h.
{ nm--famlaty f Sn.
{ Plt--lbealty f Hly Spt.

Hee we ave te _Tvum_, unde te dvn "Ratnal," wle te
_Quadvum_ mut tll be nluded unde "Matemat." In bt ae
we get nne ene  dplne, and te numbe wa appaently
en, beaue t  te quae f tee, te numbe f te Hly
Tnty. In te latte ae t wa etanly tue. Speakng f te
pmay dvn f Plpy, te Sant ay: "Te ft teat f
te aue f beng, and teefe lead t te Pwe f te Fate; te
end f te gund f undetandng, and teefe lead t te Wdm
f te Wd; te td f te de f lvng, and teefe lead t
te gdne f te Hly Spt."
Dante, n  _Cnvv_ (II, 14, 15), gve te fllwng eme, baed
upn te "ten eaven," nne f w ae mved by angel 
ntellgene, wle te lat et n Gd.
{
{ Tvum
{
LIBERAL ARTS {
{
{ Quadvum
{
{

{ Gamma
{ Dalet
{ Ret
{
{
{
{

{ Py and
{ Metapy

Atmet
Mu
Gemety
Atlgy

Mn
Meuy
enu

Angel.
Aangel.
Tne.

Sun
Ma
Jupte
Satun

Dmnn.
tue.
Pnpalte.
Pwe.

} Stay Heaven
}

Ceubm.

PHILOSOPHY

{
{ Mal Sene { Cytallne }
{
{ Heaven
}
{
{ Telgy
Empyean

Seapm.[15]
Gd.

In Dante ae ummed up te anent and medval ytem f eduatn.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
It  nt ntended ee t gve a mplete Bblgapy f Geek
Eduatn, but meely t pnt te eade f t bk, w may dee
t puue te ubjet fute, t te ef ue f nfmatn.
1. ANCIENT WORKS
F te ft pat f te Hellen Ped, tat f te "Old Eduatn,"
u autte ae fagmentay, and ften vague. Tey ae te _Ilad_
and _Odyey_ f Hme, te _Wk and Day_ f Hed, te fagment f
te pe-Sat plpe (lleted by Mulla, n  _Fagmenta
Plpum Gum_, Pa, Ddt, 1860-81, 3 vl. 4t), and te
mede f Atpane, epeally te _Clud_. F te end pat
f te ame ped, tat f te "New Eduatn," te ef autte
ae te tagede f Eupde, te _Clud_ f Atpane, te
dalgue f Plat, epeally te _Ptaga_, _Ly_, _Republ_,
and _Law_, and te _Cypda_, _nm_, and _Cnttutn f
Laedmn_ f Xenpn.
F Attle' eduatnal dtne, we ae nfned f nfmatn
t  wn wk, and, amng tee, t te _Et_ and _Plt_. Of
te latte, te lng apte f te event, and te wle f te
egt, bk deal pfeedly wt eduatn. Sme nfmatn may al
be gleaned fm te eently dveed _Cnttutn f Aten_.
F te Hellent Ped, u nfmatn  deved efly fm
nptn, fm te wtng f Pl Judu, Sextu Empu,
Pluta (_On te Nutue f Clden_), lan (_Mellane_), Luan
(_Anaa_ efly), Stbu, Pltnu, a, Ce, Senea,
Quntlan (_Eduatn f te Oat_), Matanu Capella (_Nuptal f
Meuy and Pllgy_), and Cadu, and fm tay nte n
te pet, tan, and plpe.
Of te wk efeed t, tee deeve peal mentn:-1. Atpane, _Clud_. Tanlatn by Jn Hkam Fee,
Tma Mtell, and W.J. Hke (n Bn' Lbay).
2. Xenpn, _Cypda_. Tanlatn, n _Wle Wk tanlated by
Aley Cpe and Ote_, Pladelpa, 1842, and by J.S. Watn
and H. Dale (n Bn' Lbay).
3. Plat, _Republ_. Tanlatn by J. Ll. Dave and D.J.
augan, by B. Jwett, and by Heny Dav (n Bn' Lbay).

4. Plat, _Law_. Tanlatn by B. Jwett, and by G. Buge (n

Bn' Lbay).
5. Attle, _Plt_ (Bk II, III). Tanlatn by B.
Jwett, J.E.C. Weldn, and E. Walfd (n Bn' Lbay).
6. Pluta, _On te Nutue f Clden_. Tanlatn n _Mal_,
tanlated fm te Geek by eveal and, eted and eved by
W.W. Gdwn, Btn, 1878.
7. Quntlan, _Eduatn f an Oat_. Tanlatn by J.S. Watn
(n Bn' Lbay).
2. MODERN WORKS
Tee ae vey numeu; but te mt mpeenve  Lenz
Gabege' _Ezeung und Untet m klaen Altetum, mt
bendee Rkt auf de Bedfne de Gegenwat_, Wzbug,
1864-81, 3 vl. Te ft vlume deal wt te pyal tanng f
by, te end wt te ntelletual tanng, and te td wt
te eduatn mpated by te State t yung men (). A vlum f
l s s ms
. Th wk s b
ly csuc
, bu s m f
fm  
f fcs.
Alg wh hs m y b  m
O.H. Jg, _D Gym sk
 Hll, 
hm Efluss uf's gs mm Alhum u
h B
uug f


usch Ggw _, Esslg, 1850; Fu, _Su l'E

uc  
l'Isuc Publqus chz ls Gcs_, Bl, 1833; Bcq

Fuqu, _Ls Ju
s Acs_, P s, 1869; D P uw, _Rchchs
Phlshqus su ls Gcs_; F. J cbs, _Ub
 Ezhug

Hll zu Slchk_, msch Sch. P. III.; Alb Dum,
_Ess  su l'Ehb Aqu_, P s, 1876-6; Dbg, _D Ehbs
Acs_; Ch. Ps, _D s Gym sum
 Gch  ch s
b ulch Echug bschb_, H mbug, 1858; Al 
  ,
_Pl 's Ezhugslh_, M
, 1833, 
_Asl's
S s
ggk_, H mm, 1837; J.H.  us, _Gschch
 Ezhug
s
Uchs u

 Bl
ug b
 Gch, Eusk u
Rm_,
H ll, 1851.
Ch s  Gk E
uc  m y b fu
 W.A. Bck's _Ch cls_

_G llus_;  Guhl 
's _Lf f h Gks 
Rm s_-- ll
h  sl 
 Eglsh. I _Hllc _ s  ss y, by R.S.
Nlsh,  h _Thy f E
uc   h Rublc f Pl _,
Rvg, 1880, 
 E
w H ch's _Ifluc f Gk I
 s u h
Chs  Chuch_ (Hbb Lcus) s ch   Gk E
uc 
(Lcu II).
FOOTNOTES:
[1] I s wh whl   h   w s  ss g fm Phll us h 
suggs
 Ccus h vlu f h  h u

c.
[2] Ths s s
 h ch mg Ayms f h  c .
[3] S s ys Asl, wh lls us fuh h   hs m  hs
cc s hy w s
wh s  
shl
_by h l_ (s
. 97).

[4] I m h usg h ms "bjcv" 

"subjcv"  h
m
 cc , whch lms  cly vs h c us g. S
M  u, _Su
y f Rlg_, vl. , . 385, . 2.
[5] Lk "P P," c.,


h Gm  "Msswchsl W chsm sk."

[6] I mus b b  m

h  h Gk , at, epnd
almt exatly t wat we mean by "ene." It  defned by Attle,
_Metap._, A. 1; 981 a 5 qq. Swegle, n  tanlatn f te
_Metapy_, ende t by _Wenaft_.  u
"plpy."
[7] See Jebb, _Hme_, pp. 110 qq.
[8] It  a pty tat we annt fx te date f te -alled _Ptue_
f Cebe ( ). I this we fid eumer ted the vot ries of
F lse Le rig, (1) oets, (2) Rhetorici s, (3) Di lectici s, (4)
Musici s, (5) Arithmetici s, (6) Geometrici s, (7) Astrologers (if we
cout oets = Gr mm ri s, we h ve e ctly the Seve Liber l Arts), (8)
Hedoists, (9) erip tetics, (10) Critics, " d such others s re like
to these." The "Hedoists" () re the Cyren ics; the "Critics"
() c n h rdy be the
r mm ri ns, thu
h th t is usu y the
me nin
f the term in  ter times. Shud we nt re d ?
[9] "Liber " me ns fit, "iiber " unfit, fr freemen. The sum f the
iber  rts w s c ed , which we h ve crrupted int
_Encycpdi _.
[10] Bnn, 1845.
[11] See Bissier, _tude sur  ie et es Ouvr
es de M.T.  rrn_,
pp. 332, s .
[12] See Beer's _Anecdt

Grc _, ii., 655.

[13] I m indebted fr number f these f cts t n rtice by

Prfessr A.F. West, in the _Princetn Ce
e Buetin_, Nvember,
1890.
[14] These terms, which we sti find in Isidre nd Hr b nus M urus,
re fterw rds, in the thirteenth century, rep ced by their L tin
e uiv ents: N tur , R tin , nd Mr . In the c se f the secnd,
this c used cnsider be cnfusin, in smuch s when it ce sed t be
used s "r tin ," it t the p ce f "di ectic."
[15] In the XXIIIth C nt f the P r dise, these n
eic pwers re
rr n
ed smewh t differenty, in deference t Dinysius Arep
it nd
St. Bern rd.

INDEX
A
Ac demics, 112, 210.
Ac demy, 86, 112.

Achies, 6.
i n Educ tin, 38 _s ._
i ns, 35.
schyus, 104 _s ._
sp's _F bes_, 146, 223.
, 47.
Al 
 h G , 40, 156 _sq._, 178.
Al 
 , 211.
Ammus S cc s, 225, 227.
Amh
m , 65.
Amy s, 156.
A  g s, 24, 99 _sq._
Ashs, 112.
Ayms, h, 82 _._
Achy s, 55, 193.
Asc cy  Ahs, 98.
Ash s, 105.
Asl, Lf, 29, 153 _sqq._
"

D h, 159.

"

Phlshy, 161.

"

Thlgy, 165.

"

Thy f h S , 166 _sqq._

"

P
ggc l S , 172 _sqq._

"

Schm f Sc
y E
uc , 199.

Ahmc, hw T ugh, 77.

Ams Oh , 50.
As, Og f,  Gc, 20.
Ah  E
uc , 60.
Ah  I
 l f h S , 63.
Ahls, 78, 184.

Ahlcs, 190.
B
B b  s _vs._ Gks, 12.
B
ly T g, 77.
B chs f Gk E
uc , 6.
C
Cs , 217.
C  M j, 216.
Ch , B l f, 157.
Ch  c f h Gks (Zll), 18.
Chl
, Dfcv, 185.
Chl
, T m f, 185.
Chs y, 233 _sqq._
Cc, 217.
Ch s, hs Fucs, 77.
Cz, M g f, 175.
Clshs, 98.
Cllg E
uc , 85.
Cmmc, Effc f, 21, 99 _sq._
Cm  E
uc , 71.
C
s f E
uc , 9.
Cml , 201.
Ccus, 39.
Cfcus (_Auc
Hum_), 217.
C  E
uc , 42.
Culu-S , 90, 175.
Cys gs (Gym sum), 86, 112.
Cyus, hs E
uc , 115 _sqq._

D
D cg, 82 _sqq._
Dmc cy  Ahs, 92, 99.
D gg (), 33, 178.
Dionysiac Chous, 85.
Dipnis and Scyllis, 21.
Discus-howing, 80.
Doian Educaion, 41 _sqq._
Doic Hamonis, 197.
Daco, 98.
Dawing, 189.
E
Educaion, "Old," 27, 33, 61 _sqq._
"

"Nw" 27, 93 _sqq._

"

High, 108.

(Ispirer), 47.

p miod s, 40, 55.

pheboi (C dets), 49, 89, 90, 116, 118.
pheboi, O th of, 61, 89.
picure s, 210.
pochs i duc tio, 26.
sseism, 59, 212.
thic d Cosmopolit  Life, 205.
 mi tios, 64, 90.
F
F mily duc tio i Athes, 64.
Freedom, Greek Tedecy to, 19.
Freem 's Squ re, 116, 177.
Friedship, Aristotle o, 170.

G
G mes, 66.
_Golde Words_, 57 _sqq._, 146.
Gr dig i Schools, 85.
Gr mm r, 214, 221.
Greeks

Mied R ce, 20.

Greeks _vs._ B rb ri s, 12.

Gu rdi s of ublic Istructio, 185 _sqq._
Gym si

t Athes, 86, 105.

Gym stics, 7, 77, 189.

H
H rmoy, 55, 56, 76.
"

Doric, Lydi , etc. 192.

"

i Music, Ukow to Greeks, 73.

Helleic eriod of duc tio, 26, 32 _sqq._

Helleistic eriod of duc tio, 27, 203 _sqq._
Helots, 44 _sq._
Herm , 79, 85.
Hermi s, 155.
Hesiod, 22.
Hetr, 132.
Holid ys, 85.
Homeric duc tio, 6, 17.
"

Society d Kigs, 16.

"

oems collected, 35.

Homerid, 21.
I
Ide l of Greek duc tio, 3, 206.

Idividu lism

d hilosophy, 93 _sqq._, 207.

Iductio, Method of, 162.

Ioi  duc tio, 60 _sqq._
Is i h, 53, 133, 234.
Ischom chus, 124 _sqq._
Isocr tes, 209.
J
J veli-c stig, 81.
Jumpig, 80.
Justii , 211.
K
K lok g thi , 8, 12, 15, 86.
K th rsis (purg tio), 7, 76, 229.
Kiderg rte, 66, 145.
Kigdom of He ve, 234.
"Kow Thyself," 108.
L
L rcey, Istructio i, 48.
Le pig, 80.
Le rig, how viewed i Greece, 72.
Leisure, duc tio for, 33, 179.
Letters, 22, 188.
Letters, Itroductio

d Uses of, 21.

Liber l Arts, 180 _sqq._, 198.

Libr ry of Ale dri , 211.
Life the Origi l School, 6.
Liter ry duc tio, 72.
Love, s

ower i Life, 234.

Lyceum, 105, 171.

Lycurgus, 42, 43.

Lysis, 39.
M
M cedoi  eriod i duc tio, 13.
M rri ge, 10, 127.
Melleirees, 49.
Milo, the Wrestler, 55.
Moey-m kig Cl sses, 13.
Music, 22, 34, 72 _sqq._, 188, 191.
Music, Greek Feelig for, 76, 146.
Museum

t Ale dri , 211.

N
Nymphum

t St gir , 156.

Neopl toism, 212, 227.

O
coomy, 13.
Olympic G mes, 78.


, 46, 185, 187.
P ls , 69 _sq._, 78 _sq._
P hsm, 136.
P m
s, 24.
P h, 24, 106.
P
ggc l S , 172 _sqq._
P
ggu, 68.
Plus, 7.
P hl, 88.
Pcls, 105 _sqq._

Pk, 44.
P
s f Gk E
uc , 26 _sqq._
Ps  E
uc , 115 _sqq._
Ps ly, 202.
Phcy
s, 53.
Ph
 , 44.
Phll us, 39.
Phlshy, Rs f, 22.
Phlshy 
I
v
u lsm, 93 _sqq._
Physc l Culu, 189.
Physc s  Hm, 17.
P
, 39.
Pss us, 35, 98, 178.
Pl , 29, 112, 133 _sqq._, 134, 136, 137, 142.
Pl y, 66, 181 _sqq._
Plus, 29, 225 _sqq._, 228 _sqq._
Psss, 21.
Py,  lu f, f E
uc , 73 _sqq._
"Pfss l," M g f, 195.
_Pmh _, 24.
Pus f A us, 155.
Pug , 7, 76.
Pyh g s, 29, 52 _sqq._, 149.
Pyh s, 156.
Q
Qu
vum, 144, 198.
Qul , 29, 214 _sqq._
R
R
g, 75.

Rh s
s, 23.
Rhc l Schls, 209, 217.
Rm  E
uc , 216 _sqq._
Rm  P
, 27.
Rulg


Rul
, 176.

Rug, 79.
S
Schl E
uc   Ahs, 67.
"

Bul
gs "

"

69.

"

Rms

"

77.

"

Sc Afc us, 216.

Sgg, 75.
Sl vs, 12.
Sc l Lf  Gc, 18.
Sc s, 24, 107 _sqq._
Sc c Mh
, 109.


hs L ws, 68, 98.

Sl,

Shs ys  Hm, 17.

Shss, 23, 100 _sq._
S   E
uc , 41, 43 _sqq._
S   Gls, 49.
"

Gvm, 44.

"

I
 l, 42.

"

Mclssss, 45, 50.

"

Wm, 44.

S g , 155 _sq._

S , M g f Tm, 174.
S 

Schl, 91.

Sl, Lucus lus Pcus, 217.

Scs, 210.
Sucvc M , 136, 234.
T
Thb  E
uc , 28.
Thmss, 17.
Ths f E
uc , 28.
Th us, 212.
Thm s Aqu s, 165.
Thucy

s' D ugh, 37.
T g
y, 84.
Tvum, 144, 198.
U
Uvsy E
uc , 90.
"

f Al 
 , 212.

"

f Ahs, 211.

W
_Wlhlm Ms_, 173.
Wglss cy, 63.
Ws
m, h I
 l f Ahs, 63.
Wm, E
uc  f, 49, 124.
Wh, 16, 48.
Wh, Asl's P  , 4.
Wslg, 81 _sqq._
Wg, 75.
X
Xh, 29, 113, 114 _sqq._
"

_Mms f Sc s_, 123.

"

_coomics_, 124.

o Fem le duc tio, 124 _sqq._

"

Typogr phy by J.S. Cushig & Co., Bosto, U.S.A.

resswork by Berwick & Smith, Bosto, U.S.A.

*

TRANSCRIBR'S NOTS
Correctios from the err t list o p. 2 h ve bee icorpor ted ito the
tet.
Words i it lics

re idic ted by uderscores, _like this_.

The v ri t spelligs "freebor"

"St tsp ed gogik", "subdivided"
The bbrevi tios B.C.
follow it.

d "free-bor", "St tspd gogik" d

d "sub-divided" re used i this tet.

d A.D. sometimes precede their d te, sometimes

Amedmets to the tet h ve bee m de

s follows:

p. 21: "Sp t " meded to "Sp rt ".

p. 63: "civiliz to" meded to "civiliz tio".
p. 74: "p rtiotism" meded to "p triotism".
p. 78: "e s" meded to "me s".
p. 78: "hum e" meded to "hum ".
p. 85: "p tomie" meded to "p tomime".
p. 186: "sufficet"

meded to "sufficiet".

p. 188: quot tio m rk deleted fter "ot beig uivers l."

p. 218: B.C. meded to A.D.
p. 227: "fourtieth" meded to "fortieth".
p. 243: "Gr mmer" meded to "Gr mm r".
p. 246: full stop dded

fter "M them tics".

p. 246: etr "the" deleted from "the followig cetury".

Greek:
O p. 22 h s  b ch g
 ( s in LSJ) s it m y be n
ccept be tern tive frm.
Simi ry n p. 223 h s  b ch g
 ( s

in LSJ).

End f the Prject Gutenber
EB f Aristte

Ide s, by Thm s D vidsn

nd Ancient Educ tin 

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