Energy Recovery

ENERGY RECOVERY
No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no
expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No
liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information
contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in
rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
ENERGY RECOVERY
EDGARD DUBOIS
AND
ARTHUR MERCIER
EDITORS
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York
Copyright 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher.
For permission to use material from this book please contact us:
Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175
Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com
NOTICE TO THE READER
The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or
implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No
liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of
information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special,
consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers use of, or
reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated
and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.
Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in
this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage
to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise
contained in this publication.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the
subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not
engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert
assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A
DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE
AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
DuBois, Edgard.
Energy recovery / Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61728-402-1 (E-Book)
1. Waste products as fuel. I. Mercier, Arthur. II. Title.
TP360.D82 2009
662'.87--dc22
2009024627
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York
CONTENTS
Preface
vii
Chapter 1
Biogas Recovery from Landfills

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith
Chapter 2
Landfill Gas: Generation Models and Energy Recovery

Lidia Lombardi
Chapter 3
Energy and Material Recovery from Biomass: The Biorefinery

Approach. Concept Overview and Environmental Evaluation
Francesco Cherubini and Gerfried Jungmeier
Chapter 4
Pinch Technology for Waste Heat Recovery Applications

in Oil Industry
Mahmoud Bahy Noureldin
1
69
97
141
Chapter 5
Treatment of Secondary Sludge for Energy Recovery

Chunbao (Charles) Xu and Jody Lancaster
Chapter 6
Energy Recovery from Waste: Comparison

of different Technology Combinations
Lidia Lombardi and Andrea Corti
213
Energy Recovery from Waste Incineration: Linking

the Systems of Energy and Waste Management
Kristina Holmgren
229
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Experimental Analysis of a Combined Recovery System

R. Herrero Martn
Chapter 9
Energy Recovery Systems from Industrial Plant Waste:

Planning of an Industrial Park Located in the South of Italy
Silvana Khtz, Francesca Intini, Sara Bellini
and Giovanna Matarrese
Index
187
253
289
311
PREFACE
Energy recovery occurs when the energy that is released from a resource recovery
process (i.e., pyrolysis/gasification) is used for another purpose such as to generate steam,
fuel or electricity generation. This book examines the energy recovery technologies which use
landfill gas to produce energy directly. An overview of a variety of secondary sludge post
treatment methods for energy recovery is given, including incineration, gasification,
pyrolysis, direct liquefaction, supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) and anaerobic digestion.
The several routes that energy recovery can follow from waste are looked at as well, of which
the most common is waste direct combustion associated with conventional energy recovery in
a steam turbine cycle. Energy recovery in air conditioning systems to promote energy saving
and improve environmental quality is also explored in this book.
Chapter 1 - Disposal of municipal wastes can produce emissions of most of the important
greenhouse gases (GHG). Solid wastes can be disposed of through landfilling, recycling,
incineration or waste-to-energy. This chapter will deal with emissions resulting from
landfilling of solid waste. The most important gas produced in this source category is
methane (CH4). Approximately 5-20 per cent (IPCC 1992) of annual global anthropogenic
CH4 produced and released into the atmosphere is a by-product of the anaerobic
decomposition of waste. A major source of this type of CH4 production is solid waste
disposal to land. In landfills, methanogenic bacteria break down organic matter in the waste to
produce CH4. In addition to CH4, solid waste disposal sites can also produce substantial
amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC).
The gases produced in solid waste disposal sites, particularly CH4, can be a local
environmental hazard if precautions are not taken to prevent uncontrolled emissions or
migration into surrounding land. Landfill gas is known to be produced both in managed
landfill and open dump sites. Both are considered here as solid waste disposal sites
(SWDSs). Gas can migrate from SWDSs either laterally or by venting to atmosphere, causing
vegetation damage and unpleasant odors at low concentrations, while at concentrations of 515 per cent in air, the gas may form explosive mixtures.
With the recognition of the formation of landfill gas and its associated hazards, and the
potential to utilize the energy content of the gas, the modern landfill site is designed to trap
the gases for flaring or use in energy recovery systems, particularly for the landfilling of
biodegradable municipal solid waste in non-hazardous waste landfills. The priority for control
of the gases is to protect the environment and prevent unacceptable risk to human health, and
viii
Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier
a landfill gas control system is therefore required. In addition, control mechanisms are
required to minimize the risk of migration of the gases out of the site.
This chapter will describe the processes that result in gas generation from SWDSs and the
factors which affect the amount of CH4 produced. It will then describe two methodologies for
estimating CH4 emissions from SWDSs. One of these methods is a default base method
which all countries can use to estimate CH4 emissions from different types of SWDSs. It is
recommended that countries which have adequate data also estimate their emissions using the
second method presented. Finally, this section discusses sources of uncertainty associated
with any estimates of CH4 emissions from SWDSs, in particular the availability and quality of
data required.
Chapter 2 - In this chapter different landfill gas production mathematical models have
been analysed, implemented and compared among themselves and with data collected from
existing landfills. These models will be presented in the chapter. One of these models has
been selected for application to some study cases. The selected model is based on first-order
decay equation and considers as basic inputs the years of landfill operation, the amount of
municipal solid waste landfilled per year, the municipal solid waste component
characterisation and biodegradability. Three different behaviours, in reference to
biodegradation rate, have been considered dividing the material categories into rapidly,
moderately and slowly biodegradable. The model has been used to predict the landfill gas
production of a case-study landfill in order to properly size the energy recovery system. In
particular, reciprocating engines were considered for energy recovery purposes. The landfill
gas energy recovery by means of reciprocating engines is a quite widespread practice in
modern landfills, but the energy recovery system definition and sizing, also in reference to its
economic convenience, is a crucial and tricky issue. For this reason, the selection of an
appropriate combination of engines has been carried out with the aim of obtaining the
maximum profits from selling the produced electric energy. The obtained configuration for
energy recovery was evaluated also from an energetic and environmental point of view,
estimating the overall contribution to Greenhouse Effect from escaped landfill gas, collected
and combusted landfill gas and recovered electric energy avoided emissions.
Further, in order to investigate the management possibilities to enhance energy recovery,
the behaviour of a landfill where leachate is recirculated was observed, recording a more
concentrated landfill gas production in a shorter time than in conventional landfills - and
reproduced by means of adapting the landfill gas production model. The landfill gas
production and energy recovery for the conventional landfill and the landfill with leachate
recirculation were compared from different points of view: economic evaluation, energy
conversion and environmental impact. The economic analysis showed that the specific
disposal cost is lower for the landfill with leachate recirculation with respect to the
conventional landfill. Moreover, the landfill with leachate recirculation shows better indicator
values both for the overall energy conversion efficiency and for Greenhouse Effect specific
emission.
Chapter 3 - A great fraction of worldwide energy carriers and material products come
from fossil fuel refinery. Because of the on-going price increase of fossil resources, the
uncertain availability, the environmental concerns and the fact that they are not a renewable
resource, the feasibility of their exploitation is predicted to decrease in the near future.
Therefore, alternative solutions able to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels should be
promoted. Electricity and heat can be provided by a variety of renewable alternatives (wind,
Preface
ix
sun, water, biomass), while the fossil resource alternative for production of fuels and
chemicals can be just biomass, the only C-rich material source available on the Earth, besides
fossils.
The replacement of oil with biomass as raw material for fuel and chemical production
leads to the development of biorefinery, a relatively young concept in the scientific
literature. In biorefinery, almost all the types of biomass feedstock can be converted to
different classes of biofuels and chemicals through jointly applied conversion technologies.
This chapter describes the emerging biorefinery concept and provides an overview of the
most important biomass sources, conversion technologies and platforms (or intermediates).
The advantages of biorefinery systems over conventional fossil systems are outlined by
means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): in the second half of this chapter, a LCA of a
biorefinery system based on a lignocellulosic feedstock (e.g. wood industrial residues) and
producing bioethanol and methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF) as transportation biofuels, furan
resins, fumaric acid and oxygen as chemicals and hydrogen, biomethane, electricity and heat
as further energy carriers, is reported. The biorefinery system is compared with a reference
system based on fossil sources. Results focus on greenhouse gas (GHG) and energy balances
and estimate the possible GHG and fossil energy savings. System performances are also
investigated with calculations of product yields and mass, energy, exergy and C conversion
efficiencies. Since the biorefinery system co-produces many high value products, an
allocation issue must be addressed. Different allocation procedures (substitution method, and
energy, exergy, economic allocation) are therefore used and final results compared. The
evaluation of the environmental performances reveals that relevant environmental benefits
can be gained with a shift from oil refinery to biorefinery: almost 89% of GHG emissions and
96% of fossil energy demand can be saved.
Chapter 4 - This chapter addresses the problem of waste heat recovery via presenting an
introduction to the pinch technology and two industrial applications of heat integration for
waste heat recovery in oil and gas business. Pinch technology, after almost three decades of
its emanation in the late seventies for a reason or another, is still the most widely used method
for energy integration in oil industry.
The chapter comes into two parts; the first part introduces some aspects of Pinch
technology in brief. Pinch technology is now well documented in several literatures and the
refernces 1 to 4 at the end of this chapter are only few main examples. In this part, authors
will show how authors can use pinch technology for energy utility targeting, selection of
utility mix and heat exchanger network synthesis using pinch design method [1, 2, 3 and 4].
The second part introduces two important applications for heat integration in oil industry [5].
The first application is showing the effect of heat integration on both energy consumption and
GHG emission reduction in an oil-gas separation facility, and in the second application an
evolutionary approach to crude distillation pre-heat train design is introduced.
Chapter 5 - Primary and secondary sludges are produced as a result of primary and
secondary wastewater treatment in municipal wastewater plant or pulp and paper mills.
Sludge disposal has become a worldwide problem for many reasons including rapidly
shrinking landfill space, increased environmental awareness, more stringent environmental
standards governing the disposal of sludge, and dewatering challenges. Unlike the primary
sludge, the secondary sludge as byproduct of the biological treatment is far more difficult to
dewater and to be disposed. Secondary sludge waste management issues are a continuing
challenge. This together with record high oil prices have contributed to a need to examine
methods of converting secondary sludge waste into energy. In this chapter, authors have
overviewed a variety of secondary sludge post treatment methods for energy recovery,
Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier
including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, direct liquefaction, supercritical water

oxidation (SCWO) and anaerobic digestion. A critical comparison between these methods is
presented with respect to their net energy efficiencies. The advantages and drawbacks of each
treatment option are also highlighted in this chapter.
Chapter 6 - Energy recovery from waste can follow several routes. The most common
one is waste direct combustion associated with conventional energy recovery in a steam
turbine cycle. The combustion can be applied directly to Municipal Solid Waste or can be
applied to a stream of selected waste obtained by means of mechanical sorting of Municipal
Solid Waste, using several technologies for the combustion, the most common of which is
mobile grate combustor.
Besides the direct combustion of waste, alternative possibilities for thermal treatment are
gasification and pyrolysis. These processes require being fed by a homogeneous combustible
fraction obtained by mechanical sorting and supply as output one or more combustible
streams, available for energy recovery.
When Municipal Solid Waste mechanical sorting is applied, besides the combustible
fraction stream, a humid fraction is also obtained, characterised by a high presence of organic
biodegradable fraction. At present the fate for this stream is biological aerobic stabilisation,
but another option, to push energy recovery also from this stream, is biological anaerobic
digestion, which can be applied through different technologies (wet and dry digestion).
Through this process a biogas with elevated content of methane can be produced and supplied
to engines for energy recovery.
The above-mentioned technologies can be combined in several schemes to optimise the
overall energy recovery. The combination of schemes will be analysed in this chapter in
reference to a study case characterised by an average waste material composition. The
comparison will be carried out using some indicators of the overall energy recovery for each
scheme.
Chapter 7 - Energy recovery from waste incineration has a double function as a waste
treatment method and a supplier of electricity and/or heat. Waste incineration thereby links
the systems of waste management and energy. This chapter addresses the importance of
taking this into consideration when e.g. making investment decisions or designing policy
instruments. The design of two policy instruments will be described as examples of the
conflicting goals in the two systems. A conflict is also that increased waste incineration can
decrease production of combined heat and power in the district heating systems. Since policy
instruments in Sweden are dependent on the common legislation of the European Union this
will be addressed, together with trading in waste and electricity and how this impacts waste
incineration in Sweden. Conflicts between the internal market in the European Union and
waste management goals are shown. When making investment decisions, various models are
often used as decision support tools. Some models for assessing waste incineration/
management are therefore described together with strengths and weaknesses when dealing
with the dual function of waste incineration.
Chapter 8 - The present work is found in the field of energy recovery in air conditioning
systems to promote energy saving and improve environmental quality. Experimental research
has been carried out whose aim is the characterization of combined recovery equipment,
consisting of a ceramic semi-indirect evaporative cooler and a heat pipe device to recover
energy at low temperature in air conditioning systems. For characterization purposes, a design
of experiment (DOE) and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied with the aim of
Preface
xi
better understanding the energy behaviour of the combined device. The combined system
built allows a feasible energy exchange between the supply airstream and the return one,
improving the operation in air-conditioning systems. It is a new alternative device for use as a
recovery system. The configuration chosen (crossed flow) is the most adequate from an
operational point of view. The characterization of the system was carried out by employing
experimental design methodology. A factorial design was performed by analysing how the
factors used affect the characteristics analyzed. The contributions of the single factors and
their interactions were presented by carrying out a variance analysis. The superiority of the
evaporative cooling device under the operating conditions was clearly shown. An estimation
of the energy saved by the combined system was carried out, showing the possibilities of
implementing this solution to save energy and also to improve the indoor air quality by means
of increasing the ventilation rates.
Chapter 9 - In this chapter, authors compare environmental and technological aspects of
some innovative energy recovery systems from industrial waste. The authors present the
results of a research study that authors are conducting on an Italian firm that produces
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) supports for waterproof membranes from plastic bottles. For
this firm (and all of the firms in the same industrial park), the waste represents only an
undesired cost rather than a potential energy source. The authors first compared a traditional
thermal waste treatment with a molecular dissociator and then with a specific gasifier. All
three technologies can be fed with basically every type of waste, and can produce electric
and/or thermal energy. In particular, the latter two produce syngas that can be burned after
depuration to produce energy. A cost-benefit analysis is then carried out to plan how the
whole industrial park can use the industrial waste to produce the energy it needs, with
economic and environmental benefits for all.
In: Energy Recovery

Editors: Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier
ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
BIOGAS RECOVERY FROM LANDFILLS

1
Sherien A. Elagroudy and 2Mostafa A. Warith*
Civil Engineering Department, Ain Shams University Univeristy,

13 El-Makreezy Street, Manshiett Elbakry, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt, 11341
2
Ryerson Polytechnic University, Civil Engineering Department,
350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, Canada, M5B 2K3,
ABSTRACT
Disposal of municipal wastes can produce emissions of most of the important
greenhouse gases (GHG). Solid wastes can be disposed of through landfilling, recycling,
incineration or waste-to-energy. This chapter will deal with emissions resulting from
landfilling of solid waste. The most important gas produced in this source category is
methane (CH4). Approximately 5-20 per cent (IPCC 1992) of annual global
anthropogenic CH4 produced and released into the atmosphere is a by-product of the
anaerobic decomposition of waste. A major source of this type of CH4 production is solid
waste disposal to land. In landfills, methanogenic bacteria break down organic matter in
the waste to produce CH4. In addition to CH4, solid waste disposal sites can also produce
substantial amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOC).
The gases produced in solid waste disposal sites, particularly CH4, can be a local
environmental hazard if precautions are not taken to prevent uncontrolled emissions or
migration into surrounding land. Landfill gas is known to be produced both in managed
landfill and open dump sites. Both are considered here as solid waste disposal sites
(SWDSs). Gas can migrate from SWDSs either laterally or by venting to atmosphere,
causing vegetation damage and unpleasant odors at low concentrations, while at
concentrations of 5-15 per cent in air, the gas may form explosive mixtures.
With the recognition of the formation of landfill gas and its associated hazards, and
the potential to utilize the energy content of the gas, the modern landfill site is designed
to trap the gases for flaring or use in energy recovery systems, particularly for the
*
J. Patrick A. Hettiaratchi, PhD, PEng, Professor of Environmental Engineering, Associate Head of Undergraduate
Studies, Department of Civil Engineering, and Center for Environmental Engineering Research & Education
(CEERE), University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, Tel. 403-220-5503; Fax. 403-282-7026,
jhettiar@ucalgary.ca

landfilling of biodegradable municipal solid waste in non-hazardous waste landfills. The
priority for control of the gases is to protect the environment and prevent unacceptable
risk to human health, and a landfill gas control system is therefore required. In addition,
control mechanisms are required to minimize the risk of migration of the gases out of the
site.
This chapter will describe the processes that result in gas generation from SWDSs
and the factors which affect the amount of CH4 produced. It will then describe two
methodologies for estimating CH4 emissions from SWDSs. One of these methods is a
default base method which all countries can use to estimate CH4 emissions from different
types of SWDSs. It is recommended that countries which have adequate data also
estimate their emissions using the second method presented. Finally, this section
discusses sources of uncertainty associated with any estimates of CH4 emissions from
SWDSs, in particular the availability and quality of data required.
I. INTRODUCTION
Throughout Europe and the United States, there is a strong reliance on disposing of waste
in landfills. Furthermore, in many developing countries, conditions for waste disposal are still
rudimentary. In 1997, for instance, 99% (around 90,000 tons per day) of Brazil's collected
waste was being landfilled or simply dumped. Each person in the United Staes generates
about 4.5 pounds of waste per day, which is nearly 1 ton per year. Again, most of this waste is
deposited in municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills. As MSW decomposes, it produces a
blend of several gases, including methane (about 50%).
Landfilling is the oldest and most widely practiced waste disposal option. Modern landfill
sites have developed from uncontrolled dumping sites to be an advanced treatment and
disposal option designed and managed as engineering projects. In addition, modern purposebuilt landfill sites normally incorporate a system for the extraction of landfill gas (arising
from the decomposition of biodegradable wastes), from which energy can be recovered. The
types of wastes suitable for landfilling include biodegradable wastes, aqueous liquids in
limited amounts, inert wastes, and certain special wastes that would not pose toxic threats.
Wastes that are generally considered unsuitable for landfilling include volatile liquids or
solvents, wastes that would introduce unacceptable contamination into the leachate, and
wastes that would interfere with the biological processes in a landfill site.
More recently, increasing attention has focused on the role of CH4 in global atmospheric
change. Methane from SWDSs contributes a significant proportion of annual global CH4
emissions, although the estimation is subject to a great deal of uncertainty. Estimates of
global CH4 emissions from SWDSs range from less than 20 to 70 Tg/yr (Bingemer and
Crutzen 1987; US EPA 1994), or about 5 per cent to 20 per cent of the total estimated
emissions of 375 Tg/yr (IPCC 1996) from anthropogenic sources globally.
There are eight sections in this chapter. Section 2 discusses environmental regulations as
they pertain to landfill gas emissions. Regulations addressed in this section include the
European Landfill Directive [1999/31/EC], Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) solid and hazardous waste management requirements, Clean Air Act (CAA)
requirements, and Clean Water Act (CWA) requirements associated with landfill emissions.
An overview of the different types of bioreactor landfills as a development to sanitary
landfills is provided in Section 3 along with bioreactor features and advantages. Section 4
provides a broad overview on Landfill gas (LFG) characteristics, composition, LFG

production and methods of enhancement, and gas yield. It also discusses gas-generation
mechanisms and gas-transport mechanisms and factors affecting both mechanisms.
Gases generated in the landfill will move throughout the mass of waste in addition to
movement or migration out of the site. Section 5 focuses on LFG movement and generation
and LFG monitoring programs. Landfill gas may form an explosive mixture when it
combines with air in certain proportions, LFG hazards including explosion, asphyxiation
hazards and odor are also discussed in this section.
Section 6 discusses LFG generation models. Several models are available for estimating the
LFG generation rate using site-specific input parameters. These models vary widely, not only in
the assumptions that they make, but also in their complexity, and in the amount of data they
require. The LandGEM model is one of these models and was developed by the US
Environmental Protection Agency to estimate landfill gas emissions and to determine regulatory
applicability to CAA requirements. There are other LFG emission models in use by industry
that also work very well. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology
for estimation of CH4 emissions from the landfills is based on First-Order decay (FOD) method.
These 2 models are explained in details in this section. LFG regression models using sitespecific data are also discussed in this section along with mathematical models.
Section 7 provides an overview of landfill gas energy recovery system. The energy recovery
technology is based around the gas collection system and the pre-treatment and power generation
technology. Each of those three systems is explained separately in details in this section.
Section 8 covers the Calgary biocell as a full-scale case study that is constructed in
Calgary, Canada. It is a unique facility where the three processes, anaerobic bioreactor,
aerobic bioreactor and mining are sequentially applied in one cell. The stages of operation of
the cell and the LFG data collected over 2 years from the cell are provided in this section.
Anaerobic decomposition of organic solid waste in the landfill environment produces
landfill gas (LFG). LFG mainly consists of methane and carbon dioxide, both of which are
odorless. Trace constituents of other volatiles, often malodorous or toxic gases, are also found
in LFG. LFG can migrate through soil into structures located on or near landfills. Since
methane presents a fire or explosive threat, LFG must be controlled to protect property, and
public health and safety. Also, many jurisdictions require landfill owners/operators to reduce
reactive organic gas emissions to improve regional air quality. Thus, engineered solutions are
needed to efficiently and safely monitor, collect, and process landfill gas. As noted, a positive
side to LFG control is energy recovery. Today's technology allows a landfill owner/operator
to recovery the energy in LFG while reducing gas emissions. Revenue from the sale of LFG
or electricity generated using LFG as a fuel can offset costs for landfill environmental
compliance and/or closure.
II. REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

This section discusses environmental regulations as they pertain to landfill gas emissions.
Regulations addressed in this section include the European Landfill Directive [1999/31/EC],
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) solid and hazardous waste management
requirements, Clean Air Act (CAA) requirements, and Clean Water Act (CWA) requirements
associated with landfill emissions. Many of the regulations discussed below apply to currently
operating or recently closed landfills and may not be appropriate for landfills that stopped
receiving wastes prior to 1987. It is important that personnel know the regulatory framework
under which the LFG control is being done (e.g., Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) remediation, RCRA Corrective Action, etc.) in
order to determine which, if any of the following requirements must be met.
The discussion of applicable regulations and legal requirements in this section is only
meant to make the reader aware of some of the many requirements that may potentially apply
to landfill gas emissions and disposal of condensate. This chapter is not intended to stand in
place of any applicable law, regulation, or standard and may not reflect the current standards
embodied in law and regulation. Statutes and regulations are the controlling rule of law and
should always be consulted to determine how they apply to a particular set of circumstances
to assure compliance before action is taken.
Regulations affecting LFG management are addressed under various legislations
including:
Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC

The RCRA which regulates solid and hazardous waste management such as the
landfill itself.
The CAA which regulates air emissions.
The CWA which regulates discharges of water such as LFG condensate and storm
water runoff.
A brief summary of these regulations applicable is presented in the following section.
A. U Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC

The EU Landfill Directive [1999/31/EC] became law on 16 July 1999 after a protracted
drafting process. It was published in the Official Journal of the European Communities on the
16th July 1999. Member States were required to bring into force the laws, regulations and
administrative provisions necessary to comply with the Landfill Directive not later than two
years after its entry into force i.e. the 16th July 2001.
The aim of the Directive is "by way of stringent operational and technical requirements
on the waste and landfills, to provide for measures, procedures and guidance to prevent, or
reduce as far as possible, negative effects on the environment, in particular the pollution of
surface water, groundwater, soil and air, and on the global environment, including the
greenhouse effect, as well as any resulting risk to human health, from landfilling of waste,
during the whole life-cycle of the landfill." (Waste Landfill Directive, 1999)
The Landfill Directive sets requirements for the authorization, design, operation, closure
and aftercare of landfills. The reduction of the biodegradable fraction of municipal waste
going for landfill disposal is given specific targets in the Landfill Directive. Some wastes may
no longer be accepted in landfills and only wastes that fulfill certain acceptance criteria may
be disposed of in the appropriate class of landfill. In addition to the Landfill Directive, the
Council Decision 2003/33/EC established the criteria and procedures for the acceptance of
waste in landfills (commonly referred to as Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC)).
The Directive encompasses the requirements of Articles 3 and 4 of 75/442/EEC (The
Framework Directive). It also covers the technical requirements for landfills covered by the
IPPC Directive (Council Directive 96/61/EC). The Directive has 19 Articles and 3 Annexes
covering General Requirements, WAC, and Control and Monitoring. Central to the Directive
is the requirement (Article 5) that all Member States shall introduce measures to reduce the
quantities of biodegradable material going to landfill, to 35% of 1995 levels by 2016. Up to 4
years' derogation from this is possible for countries currently landfilling more than 80% of
wastes. The Directive also requires Member States to set up a national strategy for the
implementation of these targets.
B. RCRA Regulations
Under RCRA, if LFG is emitted or condensate is treated and/or disposed of, RCRA
requirements may have to be met. Primary RCRA requirements pertaining to LFG emission
and condensate disposal are found in the following regulations:
40 CFR Part 258 [regulations for LFG emissions from MSW (non-hazardous)
landfills]
40 CFR Parts 260-261 [regulations for characterization and disposal of condensate]
40 CFR Part 262 [regulations pertaining to generator requirements]
40 CFR Part 268 [regulations for land disposal restrictions]
C. CAA Regulations
Since passage of the Federal CAA in 1970, many rules and regulations have been
adopted that could potentially affect LFG operations. The applicability of these rules and
regulations are governed by specific factors such as the implementation schedule of the rule,
size of the facility, the equipment and type of operations conducted at the site, and the
emissions from these operations. Personnel need to be familiar with the specific requirements
of each regulation prior to deciding whether or not the requirements apply to their project.
Potentially applicable CAA regulations include:
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) found at 40 CFR Part 60

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants found at 40 CFR 63
Title V Operating Permits found at 40 CFR Part 70
State and local air quality regulations
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed the Title V operating permit
program as a central mechanism to regulate emissions, monitoring data needs, compliance
schedules, fee payments, and other conditions associated with the issuance, compliance and
enforcement of operating permits. Personnel involved in designing LFG control systems
should ensure that the customer is made aware of calculated LFG emissions and what control
devices will be used to control them. This information is important to the customer who is
ultimately responsible for determining the need to obtain a Title V operating permit or to
revise an existing permit. Any questions regarding the need to obtain an operating permit for
the LFG control system should be discussed with the customer and the project team.
D. CWA Regulations
Under the CWA, if LFG condensate is disposed of by treatment and effluent discharge to
Waters of the United States, discharge permits may be required and effluent
concentrations/limits may be required to meet a state's water quality standards. Effluent
analyses required for all discharge permits can include:
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Ammonia
Temperature
pH
Flow
Response actions taken under CERCLA are not required to obtain discharge permits.
However, substantive requirements such as numerical discharge limits may still have to be
established and met at these sites, especially when condensate is discharged via a point source
to Waters of the U.S.
Other analyses may be required if other pollutants are expected to be present. If the
condensate is disposed of by indirect discharge through a publicly owned treatment works
(POTW), sewer effluent conditions will be imposed by the local POTW as regulated by local
ordinances or federal requirements.
III. SANITARY AND BIOREACTOR LANDFILLS

A. Development of Sanitary Landfills
In the past, a landfill often represented little more than an open hole or mash where refuse
was dumped. The refuse was often not covered properly, sometimes it was burned for volume
reduction, and there was little effort to control storm water runoff and downward migration of
water that had come into contact with the refuse (Barlaz 1997). With the implementation of
increasingly stringent regulations, landfills have become highly engineered facilities with
sophisticated containment systems, environmental monitoring, and improved operational
practices.
As a generality, a typical dry landfill has an impermeable bottom liner, the wastes are
delivered to the landfill, spread out, compacted and covered at the end of the day with a thin layer
of soil, until a planned depth is reached, then the waste is covered with an impermeable cap. The
environmental barriers such as landfill liners and covers exclude moisture that is essential to waste
biodegradation. Consequently, wastes are contained in a dry tomb and remain intact for long
periods of time ranging from 30 to 200 years, possibly in excess of the life of the landfill barriers
and covers. Liner failure could happen in conventional dry landfill sometime in future, which can
cause serious groundwater and surface water contamination (Warith 2003).
Nowadays, siting new landfills has been very difficult and costly not only because
landfills can threaten the environment, but also because the public opposition, this often
called the NIMBY, or not in my back yard, syndrome. Therefore, the condition appeals to
investigators to make efforts to make landfills more economically sound and environmentally
friendly (Stessel and Murphy 1992).
Today, the bioreactor landfill is one idea that has gained significant attention. A
bioreactor landfill is a sanitary landfill that uses enhanced microbiological processes to
transform and stabilize the readily and moderately decomposable organic waste constituents
within 5 to 10 years of bioreactor process implementation. The bioreactor landfill
significantly increases the extent of organic waste decomposition, conversion rates and
process effectiveness over what would otherwise occur within the landfill (Pacey et al. 1999).
The bioreactor landfill provides control and process optimization, primarily through the
addition of leachate or other liquid amendments, the addition of sewage sludge or other
amendments, temperature control, and nutrient supplementation (Reinhart et al. 2002).
Beyond that, bioreactor landfill operation may involve the addition of air. Based on waste
biodegradation mechanisms, different kinds of bioreactor landfills including anaerobic
bioreactors, aerobic bioreactors, and aerobic-anaerobic (hybrid) bioreactors have been
constructed and operated worldwide. According to the survey conducted by the Solid Waste
Association of North America (SWANA) in 1997, there were over 130 leachate recirculation
landfills in USA (Gou and Guzzone 1997; Reinhart et al. 2002).
Generally, there are four advantages for employing bioreactor landfill technology
comparing to conventional dry landfills: (1) contain and treat leachate, (2) rapidly recover air
space, (3) accelerate waste stabilization and avoid long-term monitoring and maintenance and
delay siting of a new landfill, and (4) make more potential benefits from increased methane
generation in anaerobic bioreactor landfill. For aerobic bioreactor landfill, there are three
other advantages: (1) significant increase in the biodegradation rate of the MSW over
anaerobic processes, (2) a reduction in the volume of leachate, and (3) significantly reduced
methane generation and anaerobic odors. However, Costs for continuous supply of air are
excessively high for municipal solid waste treatment (Hanashima, 1999).
B. Bioreactor Landfills
There are three types of bioreactor technology:
1. Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfills
2. Aerobic Bioreactor Landfills
3. Aerobic-Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfills
1. Anaerobic bioreactor landfills

The Anaerobic Bioreactor seeks to accelerate the degradation of waste by optimizing
conditions for anaerobic bacteria. In landfills, consortia of anaerobic bacteria are responsible
for the conversion of organic wastes into organic acids and ultimately into methane and
carbon dioxide. Anaerobic conditions develop naturally in nearly all landfills without any
intervention. The waste in typical landfills contains between 10 and 25 percent water. It is
generally accepted that to optimize anaerobic degradation moisture conditions at or near field
capacity, or about 35 to 45 percent moisture, are required. Moisture is typically added in the
form of leachate through a variety of delivery systems.
However, the amount of leachate produced at many sites is insufficient to achieve
optimal moisture conditions in the waste. Additional sources of moisture such as sewage
sludge, storm water, and other non-hazardous liquid wastes may therefore be necessary to
augment the leachate available for recirculation. As the moisture content of the waste
approaches optimal levels, the rate of waste degradation increases, this in turn leads to an
increase in the amount of landfill gas produced. Also observed is an increase in the density of
the waste. While the rate of gas production in an anaerobic bioreactor can be twice as high as
a normal landfill, the duration of gas production is significantly shorter. Because of this
accelerated production, gas collection systems at bioreactor landfills must be capable of
handling a higher peak volume but need do so for a shorter period of time. The anaerobic
biodegradation of MSW follows three sequenced biochemical reactions involving three
different groups of anaerobic bacteria which are: (1) Fermentative and hydrolystic bacteria,
(2) Acidogenic bacteria and (3) Methanogenic bacteria. In the anaerobic stage, there are four
steps involved in the bacteria groups to convert waste into biogas (CH4, CO2) as end products,
and organic acids as intermediate products. The four steps are hydrolysis, acidogenesis,
acetogenesis and methanogenesis (Jin, 2005).
Figure 1 shows a cut-away view of an anaerobic bioreactor with elevated levels of
ammonium in the leachate. Leachate is removed via pipes from the bottom of the landfill and
piped to an on-site biological leachate treatment facility. The treated leachate and other
liquids are then reinjected into the landfill. At the same time, gas generated by the
decomposing waste rises through the landfill, and is collected by pipes within the waste and
on top of the landfill. The landfill gas that is collected is used to generate energy.
Groundwater monitoring occurs at monitoring wells situated around the perimeter of the
landfill (U.S EPA 2004).
2. Aerobic bioreactor landfills

The Aerobic Bioreactor seeks to accelerate waste degradation by optimizing conditions
for aerobes. Aerobes are organisms that require oxygen for cellular respiration. In aerobic
respiration, energy is derived from organic molecules in a process that consumes oxygen and
produces carbon dioxide. Aerobes require sufficient water to function just as anaerobes do.
However, aerobic organisms can grow more quickly than anaerobes because aerobic
respiration is more efficient at generating energy than anaerobic respiration. One consequence
of this is that aerobic degradation can proceed faster than anaerobic degradation. Another
consequence is that aerobic respiration can generate large amounts of metabolic heat, which
requires significant quantities of water. In landfills aerobic activity is promoted through
injection of air or oxygen into the waste mass. It is also possible to apply a vacuum to the
waste mass and pull air in through a permeable cap. Liquids are typically added through
leachate recirculation, with the need for additional sources of moisture even more acute than
for anaerobic reactors. The aerobic process does not generate methane.
Figure 2 shows a cut-away view of an aerobic bioreactor. Leachate is removed from the
bottom layer of the landfill and piped to a liquids storage tank. From the tank, the leachate is
piped across the top layer, where it is released to filter down through the landfill to be
collected again. A blower forces air into the waste mass through vertical or horizontal wells
located in the top layer of the landfill. Groundwater monitoring occurs at wells situated
around the perimeter of the landfill (U.S EPA 2004).
Figure 1. Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)
Figure 2. Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)
10
3. Aerobic-anaerobic bioreactor landfills

The Aerobic-Anaerobic Bioreactor is designed to accelerate waste degradation by
combining attributes of the aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors. The objective of the sequential
aerobic-anaerobic treatment is to cause the rapid biodegradation of food and other easily
degradable waste in the aerobic stage in order to reduce the production of organic acids in the
anaerobic stage resulting in the earlier onset of methanogenesis.
In this system the uppermost lift or layer of waste is aerated, while the lift immediately
below it receives liquids. Landfill gas is extracted from each lift below the lift receiving
liquids. Horizontal wells that are installed in each lift during landfill construction are used
convey the air, liquids, and landfill gas. Figure 3 shows a cut-away view of an aerobicanaerobic bioreactor.
The principle advantage of the hybrid approach is that it combines the operational
simplicity of the anaerobic process with the treatment efficiency of the aerobic process.
Added benefits include an expanded potential for destruction of volatile organic compounds
in the waste mass.
C. Features Unique to Bioreactor Landfills

The bioreactor accelerates the decomposition and stabilization of waste. At a minimum,
leachate is injected into the bioreactor to stimulate the natural biodegradation process.
Bioreactors often need other liquids such as stormwater, wastewater, and wastewater
treatment plant sludge to supplement leachate to enhance the microbiological process by
purposeful control of the moisture content and differs from a landfill that simple recirculates
leachate for liquids management. Landfills that simply recirculate leachate may not
necessarily operate as optimized bioreactors.
Figure 3. Aerobic-Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)
11
Moisture content is the single most important factor that promotes the accelerated
decomposition. The bioreactor technology relies on maintaining optimal moisture content
near field capacity (approximately 35 to 65%) and adds liquids when it is necessary to
maintain that percentage. The moisture content, combined with the biological action of
naturally occurring microbes decomposes the waste. The microbes can be either aerobic or
anaerobic. A side effect of the bioreactor is that it produces landfill gas (LFG) such as
methane in an anaerobic unit at an earlier stage in the landfills life and at an overall much
higher rate of generation than traditional landfills.
D. Potential Advantages of Bioreactor Landfills

Decomposition and biological stabilization of the waste in a bioreactor landfill can occur
in a much shorter time frame than occurs in a traditional dry tomb landfill providing a
potential decrease in long-term environmental risks and landfill operating and post-closure
costs. Potential advantages of bioreactors include:
Decomposition and biological stabilization in years vs. decades in dry tombs

Lower waste toxicity and mobility due to both aerobic and anaerobic conditions
Reduced leachate disposal costs
A 15 to 30 percent gain in landfill space due to an increase in density of waste mass
Significant increased LFG generation that, when captured, can be used for energy use
onsite or sold
Reduced post-closure care
Research has shown that municipal solid waste can be rapidly degraded and made less
hazardous (due to degradation of organics and the sequestration of inorganics) by enhancing
and controlling the moisture within the landfill under aerobic and/or anaerobic conditions.
Leachate quality in a bioreactor rapidly improves which leads to reduced leachate disposal
costs. Landfill volume may also decrease with the recovered airspace offering landfill
operators an extension for the operating life of the landfill.
LFG emitted by a bioreactor landfill consists primarily of methane and carbon dioxide
plus lesser amounts of volatile organic chemicals and/or hazardous air pollutants. Research
indicates that the operation of a bioreactor may generate LFG earlier in the process and at a
higher rate than the traditional landfill. The bioreactor LFG is also generated over a shorter
period of time because the LFG emissions decline as the accelerated decomposition process
depletes the source waste faster than in a traditional landfill. The net result appears to be that
the bioreactor produces more LFG overall than the traditional landfill does.
Some studies indicate that the bioreactor increases the feasibility for cost effective LFG
recovery, which in turn would reduce fugitive emissions. This presents an opportunity for
beneficial reuse of bioreactor LFG in energy recovery projects. Currently, the use of LFG (in
traditional and bioreactor landfills) for energy applications is only about 10 percent of its potential
use. The US Department of Energy estimates that if the controlled bioreactor technology were
applied to 50 percent of the waste currently being landfilled, it could provide over 270 billion
cubic feet of methane a year, which is equivalent to one percent of US electrical needs.
12
IV. LANDFILL GAS (LFG)

This section covers LFG characteristics, composition, LFG production, and gas yield. It
also discusses gas-generation mechanisms and gas-transport mechanisms and factors
affecting both mechanisms.
A. Landfill Gas Characteristics

Landfill gas is typically a combination of methane, carbon dioxide, and nonmethanogenic organic compounds. Table 1 shows characteristics of some of the typical
components of landfill gas.
1. Density and viscosity

The density of LFG depends on the proportion of gas components present. For example, a
mixture of 10 percent hydrogen and 90 percent carbon dioxide, such as might be produced in
the first stage of anaerobic decomposition, will be heavier than air, while a mixture of 60
percent methane and 40 percent carbon dioxide, such as might be produced during the
methanogenic phase of decomposition, will be slightly lighter than air. Some typical values
for density and viscosity at 00C and atmospheric pressure are given in Table 2.
Table 1. Landfill Gas Characteristics
Constituent
Relative
Specific
Gravity
Concentration in
Landfill Gas
Air
NA
Methane
0.554
40-70%
Carbon Dioxide
1.529
30-60%
Hydrogen Sulfide
1.19
800 ppm
Water Vapor
0.62
100% Saturated
Benzene
2.8
30 ppm
Toluene
3.1
300 ppm
Organic Acids
Organosulphur
Compounds
GT 2
Traces
Forms explosive mixture with

methane
Explosive; LEL 5% in air; UEL
15% in air
Forms weak acid; Asphyxiant
Forms strong acid
Toxic: PEL = 10 STEL = 15
Forms acids with hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide
Flammable
Toxic: PEL 1.0 ppm STEL 5
ppm
Toxic: PEL 100 ppm STEL 150
ppm
Odorous
GT 1.5
50 ppm
Odorous
Notes
Source: US Army Corps of Engineers (2008)

LEL = lower explosive limit; UEL = upper explosive limit; STEL = short-term-exposure limit; PEL =
permissible exposure limit.
13
Table 2. Typical Values for Gas Density and Viscosity at (00C)

Gas
Air
Methane
Carbon Dioxide
50% CH4+ 50% CO2
60% CH4+ 40% CO2
Density (kg/m3)
1.29
0.72
1.9
1.35
1.19
Viscosity (Pa*s)
1.71 105
1.03 105
1.39 105
1.21 105
1.17 105
Source: US Army Corps of Engineers (2008)
2. Heat value content

During the methanogenic stage, LFG can be expected to have a heating value of 18.6
MJ/m3 under good conditions. This value is about half that of natural gas. The actual heating
value of the gas from a landfill is a function of the type age of the waste, the type of landfill
cover, and many other factors.
3. Non-methane organic compounds

If a landfill contains a significant amount of municipal solid waste, the gas produced will
consist of approximately 50 percent methane, 50 percent carbon dioxide, and trace amounts
of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC). The concentration of NMOC can range from
200 to 15,000 ppm according to research from the EPA. In the EPA study, ethane, toluene,
and methylene chloride were found at the highest concentrations in landfill gas with average
reported values of 143, 52, and 20 ppm, respectively. The most frequently detected
compounds reported were trichloroethene, benzene, and vinyl chloride. During the design
phase of a landfill closure, historical records or word of mouth information should be
obtained as to the type of wastes that were placed in the landfill and the potential for these
wastes to create off-gas emissions.
4. Water vapor
Gas created during the decomposition of organic compounds typically includes between
4 and 7 percent by volume water vapor. The actual water vapor content of LFG will depend
on the temperature and pressure within the landfill. Temperatures are typically elevated over
ambient during biological decomposition, increasing the evaporation of water into the LFG.
5. Others
Hydrogen is produced during waste decomposition, particularly during the initial
anaerobic conversion of mixed organic acids to acetic acid. Significant amounts of hydrogen
are later consumed in the formation of CH4. Hydrogen is flammable between 4 and 74
percent, by volume, in air. The presence of CO2 affects these ranges although little significant
change occurs near the lower limit of the range
14
B. Landfill Gas Composition

LFG is the product of microbiological decomposition of land-filled garbage. The
microorganisms turn complex organic compounds in garbage into methane, carbon dioxide,
and trace amounts of other compounds. The composition of landfill gas depends on the
activity of the bacteria involved, the available substrate and other factors. Landfill gases can
be classified into three groups: (1) major components which consist of methane and carbon
dioxide; (2) minor components which consist of ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide,
nitrogen, and carbon monoxide; and (3) trace compounds known as trace gases, mainly
volatile organic compounds (VOC) (Tchobanouglous et al. 1977). Table 3 shows the
composition of major and minor compounds in landfill gases, whereas Table 4 shows the
concentration of various VOC in landfill gases (Tchobanouglous et al. 1993).
Methane comprises about 50- 55% of LFG, while 40-45% of LFG is carbon dioxide.
Methane is the most reduced organic molecule. In other words, no further conversions to
simpler organic molecules are possible once methane has been produced. It is produced as an
end product of anaerobic metabolism. Methane is a short-lived GHG with an atmospheric
lifetime of approximately 12 years compared to over 100 years for carbon dioxide. It is 21
times more potent as a GHG, kilogram for kilogram, than carbon dioxide.
The balance of the input rate and the removal rate determines atmospheric concentrations
of GHG. There will be a greater impact by concentrating on methane in the medium-term
because it is short lived in the atmosphere and has a high global warming potential (GWP).
Some 60 percent of methane emissions come from anthropogenic sources, with around 40
percent from natural sources.
Over 550 trace gases have been identified to date, and doubtless more will yet be
discovered. The trace components have chemical or physical properties that differ
significantly from the bulk gases. Also, it is known that some of these trace components,
when present above threshold concentrations, cause physiological effects and thus have
potential health impacts. Just sixty two landfill gas trace substances were then more recently
identified within the landfill gas source-term as those from the list of 500, being likely to be
present at a significant concentration and to be worthy of further consideration.
Table 3. Typical Composition of Landfill Gas
Component
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulfides
Ammonia
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide
Trace constituents
(Source: Tchobanouglous et al., 1993)
Percent (volume basis)

45 65
40 60
25
1
01
1
0 0.2
0 0.2
0.01 0.6
15
C. Landfill Gas Yield

Methane yield is defined as the total amount of methane generated per unit weight (dry or
wet) of MSW (El-Fadel et al. 1996a). The methane yield is a function of waste composition.
Eleazer et al. (1997) found that the methane yield increased as cellulose and hemicelluose
content increased. The methane yield was reviewed by El-Fadel et al. (1996a). There are two
approaches for estimating this yield: theoretical and experimental
The Theoretical approach uses the stoichiometric and biodegradability methods to
estimate the gas yield. The stoichiometric method is based on several assumptions, such as
whether or not complete degradation of waste has occurred; the degradation product only
includes CH4 and CO2; the balance of substrates and nutrients is available at all times in all
places in the landfill, and no portion of the degraded matter is utilized into cell growth (Ham
1979). The following equation is commonly used to estimate the theoretical landfill gas yield:
.
b c 3d e
a b c 3d e
+ H 2O +
CH 4 +
C a H b Oc N d S e + a +
4 2 4 2
2 8 4 8 4
[1]
a b c 3d e
+ CO2 + d NH 3 + e H 2 S
+ +
2 8 4 8 4
Table 4. Typical Concentrations of VOCs Compounds in Landfills Gases
Concentration, ppbV (Part per billion per volume)
Median
Mean
Maximum
Acetone
0
6,838
240000
Benzene
932
2057
39000
Chlorobenzene
0
82
1640
Chloroform
0
245
12000
1,1-Dichloroethane
0
2801
36000
Dichloromethane
1150
25694
620000
1,1-Dichloroethene
0
130
4000
Diethylene chloride
0
2835
20000
trans-1,2-Dichloroethane
0
36
850
Ethylene dichloride
0
59
2100
Ethyl benzene
0
7334
87500
Methyl ethyl ketone
0
3092
130000
1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane
0
615
14500
Trichloroethylene
0
2079
32000
Toluene
8125
34907
280000
1, 1, 2, 2-Tetrachloroethane
0
246
16000
Tetrachloroethylene
260
5244
180000
Vinyl chloride
1150
3508
32000
Styrenes
0
1517
87000
Vinyl acetate
0
5663
240000
Xylenes
0
2651
38000
(Source: Tchobanouglous et al., 1993)
Compound
16

Table 5. Methane Yield Based on the Stoichiometric Method
Sources
Barlaz et al. (1989)
Ham et al. (1989)
El-Fadel et al. (1996)
Peer et al. (1993)
Methane (L/kg dry waste)

373 carbohydrate
274 protein
270
220-270
230-270
(Source: El-Fadel et al. 1997)
Using this method, the estimated yield of the landfill gas is 440 L/kg wet waste with a
composition of 53% methane and 46% CO2 (Ham 1979). El-Fadel et al. (1997) reported,
based on the stoichiometric method that the estimated methane yield is in the range of 220270 L/kg dry waste after complete decomposition. Table 5 summarizes the estimated methane
yield based on this method.
In the experimental approach, the landfill gas yield can be obtained from laboratory scale
studies. The amount of biogas produced by biodegradation of MSW can be measured in the
laboratory. The biodegradation of MSW can be controlled and enhanced by manipulating
environmental factors such as pH, temperature, moisture, nutrients, etc. The range of methane
yield from lab scale studies varies from no generation to 107 L CH4/kg dry waste.
D. LFG Emission
LFG emissions are governed by gas-generation mechanisms and gas-transport
mechanisms. The following paragraphs describe these mechanisms and the major factors
influencing gas generation and transport.
1. LFG Generation
1.1. LFG generation mechanisms
The three primary causes of LFG generation are volatilization, biological decomposition,
and chemical reactions.
Volatilization
Volatilization is due to the change of chemical phase equilibrium that exists within the
landfill. Organic compounds in the landfill volatilize until the equilibrium vapor
concentration is reached. This process is accelerated when biological activity increases the
temperature of the waste mass. The rate at which compounds volatilize depends on their
physical and chemical properties.
Biological decomposition
The rate and composition of landfill gas vary according to the stabilization stages of
MSW. Five main stages of degradation of biodegradable wastes have been identified
(Kjeldsen et al 2002; Waste Management Paper 26B, 1995; McBean et al 1995). Figure 4
17
shows the decomposition pathways of the major organic and inorganic components of
biodegradable wastes, and Figure 5 shows the process in more detail (Waste Management
Paper 26B, 1995). Throughout the process of degradation, because of the heterogeneous
nature of waste, all the different stages may be progressing simultaneously until all the waste
has reached stage five and stabilization of the landfill has been reached.
Figure 4. Major stages of waste degradation in landfills. Source: Waste Management Paper 26B, 1995.
18
Figure 5. Details of the stages of waste degradation in landfills. Source: Waste Management Paper 26B,
1995.
19
Stage I. Hydrolysis/aerobic degradation

The hydrolysis/aerobic degradation stage occurs under aerobic (in the presence of
oxygen) conditions. This occurs during the emplacement of the waste and for a period
thereafter which depends on the availability of oxygen in the trapped air within the waste. The
micro-organisms are of the aerobic type, that is, they require oxygen and they metabolise the
available oxygen and a proportion of the organic fraction of the waste to produce simpler
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, water and heat. The heat generated from the exothermic
degradation reaction can raise the temperature of the waste to up to 7090 C (McBean et al.
1995; Waste Management Paper 26B 1995). However, compacted waste achieves lower
temperatures due to the lower availability of oxygen. Water and carbon dioxide are the main
products, with carbon dioxide released as gas or absorbed into water to form carbonic acid,
which gives acidity to the leachate.
The aerobic stage lasts for only a matter of days or weeks depending on the availability of
oxygen for the process, which in turn depends on the amount of air trapped in the waste, the
degree of waste compaction and how quickly the waste is covered.
Stage II. Hydrolysis and fermentation
Stage I processes result in a depletion of oxygen in the mass of waste and a change to
anaerobic conditions. Different micro-organisms, and the facultative anaerobes, which can
tolerate reduced oxygen conditions, become dominant. Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are
hydrolysed to sugars which are then further decomposed to carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
ammonia and organic acids. Proteins decompose via deaminisation to form ammonia and also
carboxylic acids and carbon dioxide. The ammonia is derived largely from the deaminisation
of proteins, which also form carboxylic acids and carbon dioxide. The derived leachate
contains ammoniacal nitrogen in high concentration. The organic acids are mainly acetic acid,
but also propionic, butyric, lactic and formic acids and acid derivative products, and their
formation depends on the composition of the initial waste material. The temperatures in the
landfill drop to between 30 and 50 C during this stage. Gas concentrations in the waste
undergoing stage II decomposition may rise to levels of up to 80% carbon dioxide and 20%
hydrogen (Waste Management Paper 26, 1986; Waste Management Paper 26B, 1995).
Stage III. Acetogenesis
The organic acids formed in Stage II are converted by acetogen micro-organisms to
acetic acid, acetic acid derivatives, carbon dioxide and hydrogen under anaerobic conditions.
Other organisms convert carbohydrates directly to acetic acid in the presence of carbon
dioxide and hydrogen. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide levels begin to decrease throughout
Stage III. Low hydrogen levels promote the methane-generating micro-organisms, the
methanogens, which generate methane and carbon dioxide from the organic acids and their
derivatives generated in the earlier stages. The acidic conditions of the acetogenic stage
increase the solubility of metal ions and thus increase their concentration in the leachate. In
addition, organic acids, chloride ions, ammonium ions and phosphate ions, all in high
concentration in the leachate, readily form complexes with metal ions, causing further
increases in solubiliation of metal ions. Hydrogen sulphide may also be produced throughout
the anaerobic stages as the sulphate compounds in the waste are reduced to hydrogen sulphide
by sulphate-reducing micro-organisms (Christensen et al 1996). Metal sulphides may be a
20
reaction product of the hydrogen sulphide and metal ions in solution. The presence of the
organic acids generates a very acidic solution which can have a pH level of 4 or even less
(Moss 1997).
Stage IV. Methanogenesis
The methanogenesis stage is the main landfill gas generation stage, with the gas
composition of typical landfill gas generated at approximately 60% methane and 40% carbon
dioxide. The reactions are relatively slow and take many years for completion. The conditions
maintain the anaerobic, oxygen-depleted environment of Stages II and III. Low levels of
hydrogen are required to promote organisms, the methanogens, which generate carbon
dioxide and methane from the organic acids, and their derivatives such as acetates and
formates, generated in the earlier stages. Methane may also form from the direct microorganism conversion of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to form methane and water. Hydrogen
concentrations produced during Stages II and III therefore fall to low levels during this fourth
stage. There are two classes of microorganisms which are active in the methanogenic stage,
the mesophilic bacteria which are active in the temperature range 3035 C and the
thermophilic bacteria active in the range 4565 C. Therefore, landfill gas can be generated
during the methanogenic stage over a temperature range of 3065 C, with an optimum
temperature range of gas generation between 30 and 45 C. In fact, most landfill sites fall
within this temperature range with an average range for UK landfill sites of between 30 and
35 C. Where temperatures in the mass of waste drop significantly, for example, to below 15
C in cold weather in shallow sites, then the rate of biological degradation falls off. The
organic acids formed during Stages II and III are degraded by the methanogenic microorganisms, and as the acid concentration becomes depleted, the pH rises to about pH 78
during the methanogenesis stage. Ideal conditions for the methanogenic micro-organisms are
a pH range from 6.8 to 7.5, but there is some activity between pH 5 and pH 9. Stage IV is the
longest stage of waste degradation, but may not commence until 6 months to several years
after the waste is placed in the landfill, depending on the level of water content and water
circulation. Significant concentrations of methane are generated after between 3 and 12
months, depending on the development of the anaerobic micro-organisms and waste
degradation products. Landfill gas will continue to be generated for periods of between 15
years and 30 years after final deposition of the waste, depending on waste and site
characteristics (Landfill Gas Development Guidelines 1996). However, low levels of landfill
gas may be generated up to 100 years after waste emplacement.
Stage V. Oxidation
The final stage of waste degradation results from the end of the degradation reactions, as
the acids are used up in the production of the landfill gas methane and carbon dioxide. New
aerobic micro-organisms slowly replace the anaerobic forms and re-establish aerobic
conditions. Aerobic micro-organisms which convert residual methane to carbon dioxide and
water may become established.
Figure 6 shows the changes in composition of landfill gas and leachate as the five stages
of waste degradation progress with time. Initial formation of hydrogen and carbon dioxide in
the hydrolysis/aerobic degradation, hydrolysis and fermentation and acetogenesis stages is
followed by the main landfill gas generation stage, the methanogenesis stage. The
characteristic landfill gas composition is methane and carbon dioxide with other minor
21
components and water vapor. The final stages mark the end of the reaction and a return to
aerobic conditions. Hydrogen sulphide gas may also form, derived from sulphate-reducing
micro-organisms, in wastes with a high concentration of sulphate.
Figure 6. Changes in composition of LFG and leachate during stages of waste decomposition (modified
from Pohland and Harper, 1986)
1.2. Factors affecting LFG generation

Solid waste disposal sites are by nature heterogeneous. Microbiological investigations
into site characteristics have shown that there are considerable differences between different
SWDSs and even different regions within the same SWDS. This makes it very difficult to
extrapolate from observations on single SWDSs to predictions of global CH4 emissions.
Nevertheless, a better understanding of the factors thought to most significantly influence the
generation of CH4 from land disposal of solid waste can reduce the uncertainty associated
with emissions estimates.
1. Site characteristics
Landfill sites with waste depths exceeding 5m tend to develop anaerobic conditions and
greater quantities of landfill gas. Shallower sites allow air interchange and lower anaerobic
activity, and consequently lower landfill gas production. However, if the site is well capped,
anaerobic conditions will be created. Similarly, rapid covering of the waste will reduce the aerobic
phase, and since this is the increasing temperature phase, this will tend to keep waste temperatures
down. Also, rapid covering of the waste will reduce the chance of rainfall increasing the moisture
content of the waste, which in turn reduces the initial rate of biodegradation.
2. Waste characteristics
The major components of municipal solid waste include the biodegradable fraction, that
is, the paper and board, food and garden waste, and non-biodegradable components, plastics,
glass and textiles. The amount of gas produced will vary depending on the proportion of
biodegradable components in the waste. This fraction has been shown to vary depending on a
number of factors, for example, higher concentrations of garden waste are produced in spring
and autumn, and more industrially developed countries produce more paper. In addition, the
bacteria that break down the waste require small amounts of certain minerals such as calcium,
22
potassium and magnesium and other micronutrients. If these are present the bacteria thrive
and gas is produced rapidly. If they are lacking or if substances that inhibit bacterial growth
are present, gas production will proceed more slowly and in extreme circumstances may stall
completely. In addition, the composition of the organic components, that is, the proportion of
cellulose, proteins and lipids, will similarly influence the degradation pathway. The rate at
which gas is produced depends on the proportions of each type present in the waste.
Shredding or pulverisation of the waste prior to landfilling results in increased available
surface area and consequent increased homogeneity and increased rates of biological
degradation. The density or degree of compaction of the waste in the landfill will increase the
amount of biodegradable material available for degradation and therefore increase the
production of landfill gas per unit volume of void space in the landfill. Too high a degree of
compaction, however, may limit the percolation of water through the site, which is necessary
for the free flow of nutrients for the micro-organisms.
3. Age of the waste

Landfill gas production begins as soon as waste has been deposited, but anaerobic
methane production only occurs when all of the available oxygen has been absorbed. Peak
landfill gas production generally occurs about a year after deposit and thereafter gradually
declines. Significant gas production is generally completed within about 20 years of
deposition, but every site is different. Where gas production is slow, the period of significant
gas production may extend for 40 or 50 years. Also, older landfill sites have been shown to
contain lower proportions of biodegradable waste than modern sites due to the changing
nature of waste over the last few decades.
The pattern of gas production for an entire site is the sum of the performance of all of the
individual components of waste. Some will be rapidly enter the gas generation stage, others
will be slower, particularly where the period over which waste has been deposited, has been
many years. Similarly, the period of significant gas production will vary, and for an entire site
most often extends over several decades. Figure 7 below shows an idealised and fairly typical
sequence of LFG production, although actual durations will vary greatly site by site.
Figure 7. Variations in Rate of Landfill Gas Production with Time

Source: UK Department of Energy (1992)
23
4. Temperature
Similar to other microbial processes, the biodegradation rate of microorganisms involved
in the MSW decomposition is highly affected by temperature. Methane production increases
with an increase in temperature. The optimum temperature for methane production in
mesophilic waste decomposition is in the range of 30 to 40C, whereas 60 is the optimum
temperature for thermophilic waste decomposition (Ham et al. 1989; Barlaz et al. 1990).
Hartz et al. (1982) recommended that the optimum temperature for methane generation is in
the range of 36 to 41C. Ham and Barlaz (1989) concluded that gas production rates at 30, 35,
and 40C are much higher than rates at 20 and 25C.
Anaerobic bacteria produce only small amounts of heat and may not be able to maintain
the temperature of a shallow landfill when external temperatures fall so landfill gas
generation may show pronounced diurnal or seasonal variations. Likewise, waterlogged
landfills may not attain optimum temperatures because the bacteria do not generate sufficient
heat to raise the temperature of the excess water. Higher temperatures promote volatilisation
and chemical reactions within the waste so the trace gas component of landfill gas tends to
increase with higher landfill temperatures.
Chaiampo et al. (1996) have monitored the temperature changes with depth throughout a
20 m deep municipal solid waste landfill in Italy. They showed that the first 12m were in the
temperature range of 1015 C, but the temperature increased to 3540 C at the 35m depth
and to 4565 C in the 520 m depth region. They equated the temperature regions with the
mesophilic bacteria in the 15m range and thermophilic bacteria in the deeper layers.
5. Pressure
Atmospheric pressure can have a minor affect on the rate at which landfill gas is released
to the atmosphere. It can also influence the operation of gas extraction systems. A decrease in
barometric pressure results in a temporary increase in LFG flow and an increase in barometric
pressure will cause LFG flow to temporarily decrease. This is because the pressure within the
landfill changes at a slower rate than the atmosphere and a pressure gradient temporarily
develops between the inside and outside of the landfill until these pressures equalize.
6. Moisture content and movement
Moisture is essential for the activity of all microorganisms in the landfill. The moisture
content therefore is one of the most critical factors controlling the biodegradation of MSW.
Many researches have shown that the methane production rate increases by increasing the
moisture content of the MSW. Rees (1980) found from existing literature that by increasing the
water content from 25% to 60% (wt), the rate of gas production and the percentage of methane
in the gas are increased. Baldwin et al. (1998) studied the moisture content in three landfills
over 1-6 years and found that wastes with high moisture content are more quickly decomposed.
The increase in moisture content affects the limitation of oxygen diffusion from the atmosphere
into the landfill, the exchange of substrate, nutrients and microorganisms, and the dilution of
inhibitors and improved distribution of enzymes and microorganisms within the landfill (Klink
et al. 1982; Christensen et al. 1996). Furthermore, Klink et al. (1982) concluded that moisture
movement through the MSW increased the methane production rate from 25% to 50%,
compared to no movement of moisture at the same moisture content levels. Compaction of the
waste and the presence of layers of poorly permeable material such as clay used for covering
24
will tend to reduce gas production because they obstruct the passage of moisture. Leachate
recirculation back into the waste tends to increase the rate of gas production.
7. Atmospheric conditions
Atmospheric conditions affect the temperature, pressure, and moisture content within a
landfill. Landfill covers and liners help to isolate waste from atmospheric conditions by
limiting oxygen intrusion, limiting infiltration of precipitation, and buffering the effects of
temperature changes.
8. Oxygen concentration
The activity of anaerobic microorganisms is affected by the presence of oxygen. Thus,
the absence of free oxygen concentration in the landfill is required in order to grow and
degrade the MSW into methane and CO2. In reality, the oxygen that diffuses from the
atmosphere into the landfill is consumed by aerobic bacteria in the top layers of the landfill
(aerobic zone) (Warith 2003).
If oxygen is present, aerobic biodegradation will proceed rapidly and the resulting gas
will comprise mostly carbon dioxide. A few modern engineered landfills are designed to
function aerobically. However, in a typical engineered landfill where waste is quickly
compacted and covered, aerobic degradation only occurs until the entrained oxygen is used up
in newly deposited waste. Where oxygen is not available, the waste is broken down by
anaerobic bacteria that produce a classic landfill gas, containing roughly equal amounts of
methane and carbon dioxide. In uncontrolled dumps, where waste is left loose and
uncovered, breakdown of the waste may be almost entirely aerobic, and in such cases no
methane will be produced.
9. Hydrogen concentration
The fermentative and acidogenic bacteria produce hydrogen during the biodegradation of
MSW, while the methanogenic bacteria use the hydrogen as a substrate to produce methane.
Low partial pressure of hydrogen is required for the acidogenic processes (hydrogen
producing bacteria) and methanogenesis processes.
An increase in the partial pressure of hydrogen causes the generation of propionic and
butyric acids with no further conversion, resulting in an accumulation of volatile organic acids
which reduce the pH and inhibit the methanogenic bacteria. The conversion of propionic acid
requires a hydrogen pressure lower than 9x10-5 atmospheres (Christensen et al. 1989).
10. Precipitation
Precipitation dramatically affects the gas generation process by supplying water to the
process and by carrying dissolved O2 into the waste with the water. High rates of precipitation
may also flood sections of the landfill, which will obstruct gas flow. The amount of
precipitation that reaches the waste is highly dependent on the type of landfill cover system.
11. Density of the waste
The density of waste fills is highly variable. An estimate of waste density is often
required for estimating landfill gas generation rates. Several researchers reported density
values; Stecker, (1989) reported that MSW density values range from 474 to 711 Kg/m3,
25
Emcon Associates (1980) stated that MSW density is about 650 Kg/m3, a wider MSW density
range of 387 to 1662 Kg/m3 was suggested by Landva et al. (1990).
12. Nutrients and trace metals

Microorganisms in the landfill require various nutrients for their activity, such as nitrogen
and phosphorous, as well as traces of heavy metals like zinc, iron, copper, potassium,
calcium, cobalt and molybdenite. Rees (1980) and Christensen et al. (1996) found from
existing literature that all the necessary nutrients and traces of heavy metals are available in
most landfills, but heterogeneous insufficient mixing of the wastes may result in nutrient
limited environments. The optimal ratios needed in order to enhance the biodegradation are
100:0.44:0.08 for organic matter expressed as chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrogen and
phosphorous (McCarty 1964).
13. Acidity
The acidity of the landfill site influences the activity of the various microorganisms and
therefore determines the rate of biodegradation. The pH of leachate produced from a landfill
can have a significant effect on the stabilization of methane production. The pH of a typical
landfill site would initially be neutral, followed by acidic phases, Stages II and III, where
organic acids are produced from waste degradation by the acetogenic micro-organisms, and
the pH falls to as low as 4. The resultant organic acids provide the nutrients for the
methanogenic bacteria and as the acids are consumed, the pH rises. The fermentative and
acetogenic microorganisms have a wider range of pH compared to methanogenic bacteria.
The ideal methanogenic bacteria activity occurs in environmental conditions within a pH
range of 6.8 to 8.0 (Warith 2003). Any drop in the pH value below 6.8 will slow down the
activity and growth of methanogenic microorganisms. In a well-established methanogenic
media, if the methanogenic activity is inhibited by other factors [O2, H2, etc.], the conversion
of acetic acid to methane and CO2 decreases and leads to an accumulation of the acids,
thereby decreasing the pH which in turn may stop the generation of methane (Christensen et
al. 1996).
14. Inhibitors
There are a number of elements or compounds that can inhibit the biodegradation of
MSW (methane production) besides O2, H2, pH (acidity) and high concentrations of heavy
metals. These inhibitors are carbon dioxide, sulphate, and high concentrations of cations such
as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and ammonium. The CO2 acts as an inhibitor by
raising the redox potential which has an effect on the acetic acid conversion to methane
(Christensen et al. 1996).
Rees (1980) reported that high sulphate concentrations inhibit the methanogenic bacteria
for two reasons: reduction of SO42- to S2-, which is toxic; and competition for common
substrate between methanogenic and sulphate reducing bacteria.
These cations in low concentrations are required for biodegradation, but in high
concentrations they inhibit the methanogenic bacteria. To the authors knowledge, there have
been no studies to evaluate the impact of Chloride on the degradation of MSW.
26
2. LFG Transport
2.1. LFG transport mechanisms
Transport of landfill gas occurs by the two principal mechanisms of diffusion and
advection. Transport conditions both within the landfill and for the subsurface surrounding
the landfill must be considered. These transport mechanisms are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Diffusion Molecular diffusion occurs in a system when a concentration difference exists
between two different locations. Diffusive flow of gas is in the direction in which its
concentration decreases. The concentration of a volatile constituent in the LFG will almost
always be higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere, so the constituent will tend to
migrate to the atmosphere. Wind often serves to keep the surface concentration at or near
zero, which renews the concentration gradient between the surface and the interior of the
landfill and thus promotes the migration of vapors to the surface. Geomembranes in landfill
covers will significantly reduce diffusion because the geomembrane prevents gases from
diffusing to the atmosphere.
Specific compounds exhibit different diffusion coefficients. Diffusion coefficients are the
rate constants for this mode of transport and quantify how fast a particular compound will
diffuse. Published diffusion coefficients have been calculated using open paths between one
vapor region (concentration) and another. This type of test is not very representative of the
conditions found in a landfill. In landfills, gases must travel a tortuous path around all the
solids and liquids in its path; thus, the published diffusion coefficients must be used with care.
Advection. Advective flow occurs where a pressure gradient exists. The rate of gas
movement is generally orders of magnitude faster for advection than for diffusion. Gas will
flow from higher pressure to lower pressure regions. In a landfill, advective forces result from
the production of vapors from biodegradation processes, chemical reactions, compaction, or
an active LFG extraction system. Variations in water table elevations can create small
pressure gradients that either push gases out (rising tide) or draw gases in (falling tide).
Changes in barometric pressure at the surface can also have an impact on the advective flow
of gas.
2.2. Factors affecting LFG transport mechanisms

LFG transport is affected by the following factors:
Permeability. The permeability of waste has a large influence on gas flow rates and gas
recovery rates. Coarse-grain wastes exhibit large values of gas permeability and more
uniform gas flow patterns. By contrast, fine-grained and heterogeneous wastes are
characterized by small values of gas permeability and gas flow patterns that are not uniform
throughout the waste mass. Permeability of refuse is often reported in Darcys. One Darcy =
9.85109 cm2. Reported values for the apparent permeability of municipal solid waste are in
the range of 13 to 20 Darcys. Water competes with air to occupy pore space within the solid
matrix and ultimately reduces the effective porosity and ability of vapors to migrate through
27
the landfill due to a reduction in available air pathways. This reduction will also reduce the
rate of gas flow and decrease gas recovery rates.
Geologic Conditions. Geologic conditions must be determined to estimate the potential
for off-site migration of gas. Permeable strata such as sands, gravels, and weathered bedrock
provide a potential pathway for off-site migration, especially if these layers are overlain by a
layer of low permeability soil. Geologic investigations must be performed to determine the
potential for off-site migration. Additional attention must be given to areas where houses and
other structures are present to ensure off-site migration will not impact these structures.
Depth to Ground Water. The water table surface acts as a no-flow boundary for gas. As a
result, it is generally used to help estimate the thickness of the zone through which gas can
travel. A consistently high ground water table will significantly reduce the potential for offsite migration of gas. The depth to groundwater (as well as seasonal variations) also needs to
be evaluated during the design process to evaluate well construction requirements and the
potential for water table upwelling (i.e., the upward rise of the water table toward a vacuum
well screened in the unsaturated zone).
Man-Made Features. In some instances, underground utilities such as storm and sanitary
sewers or the backfill that surrounds these features may produce short-circuiting of airflow
associated with an active landfill gas collection system. As a result, airflow may be
concentrated along these features rather than within the landfill. Man-made features also
provide a potential pathway for the off-site migration of landfill gas.
Landfill Cover and Liner Systems. The components of many hazardous and solid waste
landfill cover systems consist of a vegetated surface component, a drainage layer, and a low
permeability layer composed of one or more of the following: geomembrane, geosynthetic
clay liner (GCL), or compacted clay. A geomembrane in the cover system will prevent the
intrusion of air into the waste. Therefore, a higher operating vacuum can be applied to the gas
collection system without the danger of overdrawing. Thus, the effective radius of influence
of each well is increased. Overdrawing occurs when oxygen from the atmosphere is pulled
into the landfills interior during the anaerobic phase.
Landfill liner systems consist of various combinations of low permeability layers and
leachate collection layers. The low permeability layers are created using natural low
permeability geologic formations, compacted clay, geomembranes, and geosynthetic clay
liners. Liner systems prevent the migration of LFG to the surrounding areas. Liner systems
also prevent gases in the surrounding geologic formations from being pulled into the LFG
collection system.
Barometric Pressure. The amount of gas escaping from a landfills surface changes as
barometric pressure changes. Gas generation within a landfill will result in a positive pressure
gradient from the inside to the outside of the landfill. For a passive LFG collection system,
increases in atmospheric pressure will cause a decrease in gas flow from a landfill because the
pressure differential between the inside and the outside has decreased. For an active gas
collection system, there is a higher probability of atmospheric air intrusion through the
landfill cover during periods when the barometric pressure is rising. The amount of air
28
intrusion will be greatly affected by the type of cover on the landfill. A landfill with a low
permeability (geomembrane) cover will be more resistant to air intrusion than a landfill with a
soil cover.
E. LFG Production Enhancement Methods

The biodegradation of MSW and LFG production in bioreactor landfills can be enhanced
through different methods. In all cases, the purpose is to control and manipulate the
influencing factors in a positive manner in order to accelerate the biodegradation of MSW and
increase the amount of LFG produced. There are many advantages to enhancing the
biodegradation of MSW, including more rapid waste stabilization and increased gas
production; lower leachate treatment costs through recirculation to the landfill; reduced length
and cost of post closure activities; and greater landfill airspace availability due to increased
settlement during the operation rather than the post closure stage, as is the case in
conventional landfills (Reinhart et al., 2002).
The technologies used to enhance the biodegradation of MSW are studied by San et al.
(2001), Laquidara et al. (1986), Chan et al. (2002), Chiemchaisri et al. (2002), Warith (2003),
Bae et al. (1998), Pacey (1989), Klink et al. (1982), Stegmann (1983), and reviewed by
Barlaz et al. (1990), Warith et al. (1998), Komilis et al. (1999a), Christensen et al. (1992),
Stegmann et al. (1996).
These technologies are leachate recycle, pH buffering, sludge addition, temperature
control, reduced waste particle size, improved cell design, daily cover and waste compaction,
and pre-treatment of MSW. They will all be discussed in the following sections.
1. Leachate recirculation
Leachate recirculation is the process by which the leachate collected at the base of the
landfill is recycled or reintroduced in the landfill in order to control the moisture content.
The advantages and impacts of leachate recirculation on the degradation of MSW were
covered by Barlaz et al. (1996), San et al. (2001), Ham et al. (1982, 1989), Baldwin et al.
(1998), Warith et al. (1998, 2002, 2003), Reinhart et al. (1996, 2002), and Sponza et al.
(2004). The advantages of leachate recirculation lay both in the rapid reduction of the organic
content present in the leachate itself which reduces the cost of treatment; and the potential
transformation of waste into energy, as it increases the rate of methane production.
Leachate recirculation provides optimum conditions for enhancing biodegradation by
increasing the moisture content and movement, and by distributing the nutrients throughout
the landfill. Both moisture content and moisture movement are necessary settings for bacteria
growth and the establishment of methanogenic conditions. They also provide better contact
between insoluble substrates, soluble nutrients and microorganisms (Klink et al., 1982).
Ham et al. (1982) and Baldwin et al. (1998) studied the effect of moisture content on the
biodegradation of MSW and concluded that moisture content has a positive effect on gas
production. Also, leachate recirculation treats the leachate through the landfill (in situ
treatment) because the organic compounds in the leachate are reduced with the recirculation
due to the biological activity within the landfill (Sponza et al., 2004).
29
Klink et al. (1982) found that the reactor with leachate recycle had 25-50% higher
methane production as compared to reactors having the same moisture content but without
leachate recirculation.
2. pH buffering
The methanogenic bacteria are sensitive to pH and could be inhibited by acidic
conditions. This understanding has led to adding buffer to the leachate prior to recycling it
back to the bioreactor landfill. Leachate recirculation with a buffering system to control the
pH causes a shorter acidogenic stage compared to leachate recirculation without a buffering
system (Komilis et al., 1999a).
In a study conducted by Warith (2002), the reactor with buffered and nutrients amended
recycled leachate resulted in the greatest reduction of COD concentration over time. Also, a
study by San et al. (2001) found that the highest degree of stabilization occurred in a reactor
with a four-time per week recirculation and pH control by addition of buffer. Ada et al.
(2005) studied the effect of alkalinity addition to leachate recycle on the degradation of MSW
in an anaerobic bioreactor. It was observed that lower COD, VFA concentrations and
BOD5/COD ratios were obtained in the bioreactors with alkalinity addition in comparison to
the bioreactor (control) without alkalinity addition.
Lab scale experiment results recommend the addition of buffer to leachate recycle,
especially in the acid generation phase, to maintain the pH at a neutral level. This helps to
establish a methanogenic condition.
3. Sludge addition
The effect of sludge addition on the MSW degradation is covered by Pacey (1989),
Leuschner (1982) and Warith (2002). They concluded that the addition of sewage sludge has
both a positive and a negative effect on the MSW biodegradation and methane generation.
The positive effect of sludge addition occurs if the methanogenic bacteria are already
established or the landfill environment is optimum (pH neutral) for methanogenic bacteria
(Christensen et al., 1992). This positive effect can be attributed to the following factors: 1)
sludge can be a source of nutrients and active methanogenic bacteria, and; 2) sludge increases
the moisture content.
The negative effect of sludge addition to fresh waste is attributed to the acid
accumulation that is associated with it which decreases the pH and inhibits the methanogenic
bacteria (Barlaz et al., 1990).
Rees (1980) and Leuschner (1982) found that the anaerobic digested sewage sludge is an
excellent source of microbial inoculum, whereas the septic tank sludge is a poor one. Also,
Komilis et al. (1999a) concluded that adding anaerobic digested sludge to MSW produces
three times more methane than adding primary sludge.
It appears that the addition of anaerobic digested sludge with buffering enhanced the
biodegradation and increased methane generation. Buffering controls the pH of the landfill
around neutral, allowing the methanogenic bacteria in the anaerobic sludge to acclimatize to
the landfill environment faster than without buffer addition.
The addition of old waste or ashes to new waste could improve biodegradation by
diluting the acids produced during the acidogenic stage, thereby enhancing the methane
formation stage. The percentage of ash should not exceed 10% in weight (Komilis et al.,
1999a).
30
4. Temperature control
The direct effect of temperature on bacteria activity could be manipulated to optimize the
decomposition of MSW in the bioreactor landfill. Thus, it is necessary to realize the
temperature constraints on individual microorganisms in order to control the activity of
bacteria and enhance waste stabilization.
Baldwin et al. (1998) investigated the effect of temperature on a large scale using two
different landfills, one located in Florida and the other in Wisconsin. The Florida landfill
(30C) had a more rapid decomposition compared to the Wisconsin landfill (22C). Kasali et
al. (1989) found that by increasing the temperature of MSW with a 60% w/w moisture
content from 18.7 to 30C caused a 2.6 times increase in the methanogenic rate, while a 7.8
times increase when the temperature rose from 18.7 to 40C. The methanogenic rate is
inhibited when the temperature is increased to 55C. Based on the experimental work, the
optimum temperature for enhancing the MSW biodegradation is in the range of 30-40C.
5. Reduced waste particle size
Shredding or reducing the particle size of MSW has several advantages, such as
providing more landfill space and greater MSW stabilization. The arguments for shredding
are: 1) it increases homogeneity and distribution of waste within the landfill, 2) it improves
the contact surface area of the waste, 3) it promotes better contact between the organic matter
and microorganisms (Christensen et al., 1992).
Ham et al. (1982) found that the shredding of waste increases the rate of decomposition
and methane production. Some authors (Buivid et al., 1981) concluded that refuse with 2.5 to
3.5 cm particle sizes produced 32% more methane than refuse with 1 to 1.5 cm particle sizes
in a period of 90 days. This is due to the fact that the smaller particle size increases the rate of
hydrolysis and acid formation which in turn decreases the pH and postpones the production of
methane.
Based on that, if the negative effect of smaller particle sizes in the initial stage of
biodegradation can be controlled (by adding buffer or pre-composting), shredding may
enhance the biodegradation process, since the hydrolysis is the rate-limiting step (Yildiz et al.,
2004; El-Fadel et al., 1996b; Pareek et al., 1999; Naranjo et al., 2004).
Sponza et al. (2005) reported that the shredding of MSW has a positive effect on the rate
of biological degradation in anaerobic bioreactors with leachate recycle. They compared three
types of reactors. The first reactor was loaded with raw waste, the second with shredded
waste, and the third with compacted waste. At the end of the experiments (57 days later), they
found that the reactor with waste shredding had the lowest COD and VFA concentrations and
the highest methane percentage.
6. Cell design, daily cover and compaction of waste
The enhancement of waste biodegradation in the landfill is also affected by the cell
thickness, daily cover and compaction of waste.
The cell thickness has an adverse effect on the biodegradation of waste. Ham et al. (1982)
found that the cell with a 2m deep lift produced higher leachate concentrations and took a
longer time to stabilize than the cell with a 1.2m deep lift. By doubling the cell depth from 1.2
to 2.4 m, the concentration of leachate and the stabilization time are doubled as well.
31
Similarly, the daily cover has a negative effect on the biodegradation of waste because it
decreases the O2 diffusion into the waste which in turn diminishes the composting rate. If a
low permeability soil is used as a daily cover, it could create a barrier and may impact
leachate distribution and landfill gas flow into the collection system. A soil cover more
permeable than the waste can direct leachate to the sides. Use of alternative covers that do not
create such barriers can reduce these effects. On the other hand, positive effects of daily cover
soil may be expected if the soil supplies buffer to the landfill (e.g. contain lime) (Christensen
et al., 1992).
The cell with soil cover has a higher leachate concentration than the cell without it.
Initially, the cell without cover produced a high leachate concentration, but it was followed by
a rapid decrease (Ham et al., 1982). It appears that the lack of daily cover enhances the
aerobic activity and prevents a long acidogenic stage. The short acidogenic period leads to the
rapid establishment of the methanogenic stage. The landfill should utilize thin lifts and the
daily cover should not be used immediately.
Likewise, waste compaction has an adverse effect on the biodegradation of waste in the
landfill. Ehring et al. (1980) found that cells with low-density waste have shorter periods of
high leachate concentration. This means that there is an enhancement in the acidogenic stage.
Rees et al. (1982) concluded that by increasing the waste density from 0.2 to 0.47 t/m3, there
was a decrease in gas production due to acid accumulation, which in turn decreased the pH
and inhibited the methanogenic bacteria.
Waste compaction causes sudden decrease in the void space of the waste which in turn
decreases the moisture content dramatically. On the other side, the effect of load caused from
subsequent waste layers, which is examined in this thesis, causes a gradual decrease in waste
voids in a way that does not affect waste biodegradation.
7. Pre-treatment
The objective of the pre-treatment of MSW is to enhance the acidogenic stage and
decrease the accumulation of organic acids. This method is based on the stabilization of part
of the waste through aerobic processes which will dilute the organic acids and cause a balance
between the acidic phase and the methanogenic bacteria. This method was studied by Ham et
al. (1982); Beker (1987); and Stegmann (1983) and was reviewed by Komilis et al. (1999b).
Ham et al. (1982), Beker (1987) and Stegmann (1983) found that by placing fresh waste
on top of the composted waste layer caused a shorter acidogenic stage and enhanced the
methanogenic stage. This is due to the fact that the composted layer acts as an anaerobic filter
which has the ability to treat leachate as it passes through. The composted bottom layer can
be prepared by the following procedure: a layer (1.5m-2m) of waste is placed without
compaction, so that the easy degradable material can be decomposed aerobically with
leachate recycle. The leachate concentration and the temperature of the waste can be used as
indicators for the progress of the aerobic process. After one year of the placement, the waste
layer is compacted and an additional layer of fresh waste can be added on top (Stegmann,
1983). The author suggested that efforts should be made to reduce the time required for
aerobic decomposition of the first layer by injecting air through perforated pipes.
32
V. LANDFILL GAS BEHAVIOUR

A. LFG Movement and Migration
Gases generated in the landfill will move throughout the mass of waste in addition to
movement or migration out of the site. The mechanism of gas movement is via gaseous
diffusion and advection or pressure gradient. That is, the gas moves from high to low gas
concentration regions or from high to low gas pressure regions (Kjeldsen et al 2002).
Movement of gas within the mass of waste is governed by the permeability of the waste,
overlying daily or intermittent cover, and the degree of compaction of the waste. Lateral
movement of the gases is caused by overlying low permeability layers such as the daily cover
and surface and sub-surface accumulations of water. Vertical movement of gas may occur
through natural settlement of the waste, between bales of waste if a baling system is used to
compact and bale the waste, or through layers of low permeability inert wastes such as
construction waste rubble. Where landfill gas extraction is practised to recover the gas for
energy use, the gas is collected in gas wells, and piped to the surface (Waste Management
Paper 27, 1994).
Fully contained landfill sites where, after completion, the landfill is capped with an
impermeable synthetic and natural containment system to prevent migration of landfill gas
out of the site and which have gas recovery systems in place, have low gas emission levels
(Mosher et al 1999). The capping liner system is also designed to prevent ingress of
precipitation. For landfill sites, where landfilling is still in operation and where the waste is
only partially covered by an impermeable layer, there are higher emissions of landfill gas.
Waste landfills are a source of volatile organic hydrocarbons, both to the site workers and to
the surrounding neighbourhood. The contribution of a range of chemicals identified in landfill
gas has been shown to be significant contributors to the toxic air pollutants in local
neighborhoods adjacent to landfill sites (Scheff et al 2001). Certain chemicals, including
chlorinated hydrocarbons, have been identified as being derived from landfill as the major
source. Additionally, other work has shown that chlorinated hydrocarbons are found in
landfill gas at concentrations which exceed occupational exposure levels (Allen et al 1997).
However, it is unlikely that long exposure to such levels would be experienced by landfill site
workers and even less likely for members of the public (Allen et al 1997).
Sub-surface gas migration out of the mass of waste into the surrounding environment
may occur from older sites, where containment was not practised, or through containment
sites, where significant leakage has occurred. In addition, leachate movement out of such sites
may cause later degradation to landfill gas. Migration of gas outside the site requires
migration pathways such as high-permeability geological strata, through caves, cavities,
cracks in the overlying capping layer and through man-made shafts, such as mine shafts and
service ducts, etc. Gas may migrate considerable distances from the boundaries of the site
through these possible pathways. It has been reported that changes in the major and trace
components of landfill gas occur during subsurface migration (Ward et al 1996). For
example, reduction in methane concentration occurs due to oxidation, and some alteration of
trace landfill gases occurs due to adsorption onto soil particles, oxidation, degradation,
condensation and dissolution.
33
B. Monitoring of LFG
The monitoring program for landfill gas at waste landfill sites is recommended to
determine whether landfill gas is causing a hazard to human health or the environment.
Monitoring takes place throughout the operation of the plant and for many years during the
post-closure period, until emission levels of methane and carbon dioxide are at
environmentally insignificant levels, typically below 1.0% by volume of methane and 1.5%
by volume of carbon dioxide. Monitoring takes place within the landfill and outside the site
boundary. The monitoring program, including the frequency of monitoring, will be dependent
on the age of the site, the type of waste and the gas collection and control measures installed.
Frequency between measurements will vary from weekly, monthly or even quarterly,
depending on site-specific characteristics. More frequent monitoring may be required where
migration of gas is suspected. Monitoring techniques for landfill gas include, for example,
surface monitoring, sub-surface probes, gas monitoring wells, and boreholes. Surface
monitoring with portable instruments is mainly used to detect the presence of gas leaks
throughout the site. Sub-surface monitoring using gas probes is used to monitor gas
production and migration at depths of between 1 and 10m in the mass of waste and in the
surrounding environment. The probes may be left for long periods of time to monitor and map
the production of gas from the site throughout site operation and post-closure. The probes are
constructed of steel and plastic pipe, consisting of a porous lower section and a gas transfer
pipe which transfers the gas to the surface, where the gas sample is taken for analysis. Gas
monitoring well and boreholes consist of a porous plastic casing in direct contact with the
waste or geological strata. Probes or tubes may be permanently installed. They are installed
within the mass of waste and in the surrounding environment.
Gas sample analysis may take the form of portable instruments for gas analysis or
laboratory-based analysis. Portable analyzers may be simple devices, such as gas indicator
tubes, which produce a color change to indicate a concentration of a particular gas in a
sample. The gas is drawn through the tube on-site and an immediate indication of gas
concentration is obtained. The method is, however, subject to error. More sophisticated
instruments are available, such as infra-red gas analyzers and flame ionization detectors,
which would normally be housed in a portable laboratory or at the analytical laboratory. The
gas sample is piped directly to the analyzer or else a sample of the gas is taken in suitable
sealable containers, such as Teflon bags or glass sample tubes and the sample is then
transferred to the instrument for analysis. The most accurate and reliable technique for gas
analysis is gas chromatography. A sample of the gas is taken in a suitable container to the
laboratory for analysis. The gas chromatograph can separate out individual gas components
and provide an accurate analysis, even at trace concentrations.
C. LFG Hazards
1. LFG explosion hazard
Landfill gas may form an explosive mixture when it combines with air in certain
proportions. The following conditions must be met for landfill gas to pose an explosion
hazard:
34
Gas production. A landfill must be producing gas, and this gas must contain
chemicals that are present at explosive levels.
Gas migration. The gas must be able to migrate from the landfill. Underground
pipes or natural subsurface geology may provide migration pathways for landfill gas.
Gas collection and treatment systems reduce the amount of gas that is able to escape
from the landfill.
Gas collection in a confined space. The gas must collect in a confined space to a
concentration at which it could potentially explode. A confined space might be a
manhole, a subsurface space, a utility room in a home, or a basement. The
concentration at which a gas has the potential to explode is defined in terms of its
lower and upper explosive limits (LEL and UEL). The concentration level at which
gas has the potential to explode is called the explosive limit. The LEL and UEL are
measures of the percent of a gas in the air by volume. At concentrations below its
LEL and above its UEL, a gas is not explosive. However, an explosion hazard may
exist if a gas is present in the air between the LEL and UEL and an ignition source is
present.
Methane is the constituent of landfill gas that is likely to pose the greatest explosion
hazard. Methane is explosive between its LEL of 5% by volume and its UEL of 15% by
volume. Because methane concentrations within the landfill are typically 50% (much higher
than its UEL), methane is unlikely to explode within the landfill boundaries. As methane
migrates and is diluted, however, the methane gas mixture may be at explosive levels.
Table 6. Potential Explosion Hazards from Common Landfill Gas Components
Component
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Oxygen
Ammonia
NMOC
Hydrogen sulfide
Potential to pose an explosion hazard

Methane is highly explosive when mixed with air at a volume between its LEL
of 5% and its UEL of 15%. At concentrations below 5% and above 15%,
methane is not explosive. At some landfills, methane can be produced at
sufficient quantities to collect in the landfill or nearby structures at explosive
levels.
Carbon dioxide is not flammable or explosive.
Nitrogen dioxide is not flammable or explosive.
Oxygen is not flammable, but is necessary to support explosions.
Ammonia is flammable. Its LEL is 15% and its UEL is 28%. However,
ammonia is unlikely to collect at a concentration high enough to pose an
explosion hazard.
Potential explosion hazards vary by chemical. For example, the LEL of
benzene is 1.2% and its UEL is 7.8%. However, benzene and other NMOC
alone are unlikely to collect at concentrations high enough to pose explosion
hazards.
Hydrogen sulfide is flammable. Its LEL is 4% and its UEL is 44%. However,
in most landfills, hydrogen sulfide is unlikely to collect at a concentration high
Enough to pose an explosion hazard.
Source: Cheremisinoff 2003
Also, oxygen is a key component for creating an explosion, but the biological processes
that produce methane require an anaerobic, or oxygen-depleted, environment. At the surface of
the landfill, enough oxygen is present to support an explosion, but the methane gas usually
35
diffuses into the ambient air to concentrations below the 5% LEL. In order to pose an explosion
hazard, methane must migrate from the landfill and be present between its LEL and UEL.
Other landfill gas constituents (e.g., ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and NMOC) are
flammable. However, because they are unlikely to be present at concentrations above their
LELs, they rarely pose explosion hazards as individual gases. For example, benzene (an
NMOC that may be found in landfill gas) is explosive between its LEL of 1.2% and UEL of
7.8%. However, benzene concentrations in landfill gas are very unlikely to reach these levels.
If benzene were detected in landfill gas at a concentration of 2 ppb (or 0.0000002% of the air
by volume), then benzene would have to collect in a closed space at a concentration 6 million
times greater than the concentration found in the landfill gas to cause an explosion hazard.
Table 6 provides a summary of the potential explosion hazards posed by the important
constituents of landfill gas. Methane is the most likely landfill gas constituent to pose an
explosion hazard. Other flammable landfill gas constituents are unlikely to be present at
concentrations high enough to pose an explosion hazard. However, the flammable NMOC do
contribute to total explosive hazard when combined with methane in a confined space.
2. LFG asphyxiation hazard

Landfill gas poses an asphyxiation hazard only if it collects in an enclosed space (e.g., a
basement or utility corridor) at concentrations high enough to displace existing air and create
an oxygen-deficient environment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) defines an oxygen-deficient environment as one that has less than 19.5% oxygen by
volume. Ambient air contains approximately 21% oxygen by volume. Health effects
associated with oxygen deficient environments are described in Table 7. Any of the gases that
make up landfill gas can, either individually or in combination, create an asphyxiation hazard
if they are present at levels sufficient to create an oxygen-deficient environment.
Table 7. Health Effects from Oxygen-Deficient Environments
Oxygen Concentration
21%
17%
14 to 16%
6 to 10%
Less than 6%
Health Effects
Normal ambient air oxygen concentration
Deteriorated night vision (not noticeable until a
normal oxygen concentration is restored), increased
breathing volume, and accelerated heartbeat
Increased breathing volume, accelerated heartbeat,
very poor muscular coordination, rapid fatigue, and
intermittent respiration
Nausea, vomiting, inability to perform, and
unconsciousness
Spasmatic breathing, convulsive movements, and
death in minutes
Source: Cheremisinoff 2003
Carbon dioxide, which comprises 40% to 60% of landfill gas, may pose specific
asphyxiation hazard concerns. Because it is denser than air, carbon dioxide that has escaped
from a landfill and collected in a confined space, such as a basement or an underground utility
corridor, may remain in the area for hours or days after the area has been opened to the air
36
(e.g., after a manhole cover has been removed or a basement door opened). Carbon dioxide is
colorless and odorless and therefore not readily detectable. Carbon dioxide concentrations of
10% or more can cause unconsciousness or death. Lower concentrations may cause headache,
sweating, rapid breathing, and increased heartbeat, shortness of breath, dizziness, mental
depression, visual disturbances, and shaking. The seriousness of these symptoms depends on
the concentration and duration of exposure. The response to carbon dioxide inhalation varies
greatly even in healthy normal individuals.
In assessing the public health issues of migrating landfill gas, environmental health
professionals should investigate the presence of buried utility lines and storm sewers on or
adjacent to the landfill. These structures not only provide a pathway for migrating gases, but
also pose a special asphyxiation problem for utility workers who fail to follow confined space
entry procedures prescribed by OSHA. On-site or adjacent residences and commercial
buildings with basements or insulated (or sealed) crawl spaces should also be investigated for
potential asphyxiation hazards.
3. Landfill odors
Landfill odors often prompt complaints from community members. People may also have
concerns about health effects associated with these odors and other emissions coming from
the landfill. People in communities near landfills are often concerned about odors emitted
from landfills. They say that these odors are a source of undesirable health effects or
symptoms, such as headaches and nausea. At low-level concentrationstypically associated
with landfill gas it is unclear whether it is the constituent itself or its odors that trigger a
response. Typically, these effects fade when the odor can no longer be detected. Landfill gas
odors are produced by bacterial or chemical processes and can emanate from both active and
closed landfills. These odors can migrate to the surrounding community. Potential sources of
landfill odors include sulfides, ammonia, and certain NMOC, if present at concentrations that
are high enough. Landfill odors may also be produced by the disposal of certain types of
wastes, such as manures and fermented grains. The following are major landfill gases
generated:
Sulfides. Hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, and mercaptans are the three most common
sulfides responsible for landfill odors. These gases produce a very strong rotten-egg smell
even at very low concentrations. Of these three sulfides, hydrogen sulfide is emitted from
landfills at the highest rates and concentrations. Humans are extremely sensitive to hydrogen
sulfide odors and can smell such odors at concentrations as low as 0.5 to 1 part per billion
(ppb). At levels approaching 50 ppb, people can find the odor offensive. Average
concentrations in ambient air range from 0.11 to 0.33 ppb. According to information collected
by the Connecticut Department of Health, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in ambient
air around a landfill is usually close to 15 ppb.
Ammonia. Ammonia is another odorous landfill gas that is produced by the
decomposition of organic matter in the landfill. Ammonia is common in the environment and
an important compound for maintaining plant and animal life. People are exposed daily to
low levels of ammonia in the environment from the natural breakdown of manure and dead
plants and animals. Because ammonia is commonly used as a household cleaner, most people
are familiar with its distinct smell. Humans are much less sensitive to the odor of ammonia
37
than they are to sulfide odors. The odor threshold for ammonia is between 28,000 and 50,000
ppb. Landfill gas has been reported to contain between 1,000,000 and 10,000,000 ppb of
ammonia, or 0.1% to 1% ammonia by volume. Concentrations in ambient air at or near the landfill
site are expected to be much lower.
NMOC. Some NMOC, such as vinyl chloride and hydrocarbons, may also cause odors.
In general, however, NMOC are emitted at very low (trace) concentrations and are unlikely to
pose a severe odor problem.
Odor control technologies prevent odor-causing gases from leaving the landfill. Installing
a landfill cover will prevent odors from newly deposited waste or from gases produced during
bacterial decomposition. Covering a landfill daily with soil can help reduce odors from newly
deposited wastes. More extensive covers are installed at landfill closure to prevent moisture
from infiltrating the refuse and encouraging bacterial growth and decomposition. Vegetative
growth on the landfill cover also reduces odors. Flaring is another technique that can
eliminate landfill gas odors by thermally destroying the odor-causing gases. Venting landfill
gas through a filter is another technology used to reduce odors. Landfill gas is collected and
vented through a filter of bacterial slime. As long as oxygen is present, bacteria will
decompose landfill gas under aerobic conditions, producing carbon dioxide and water.
VI. MODELING OF METHANE GAS GENERATION

AND EMISSION FROM LANDFILLS
A. General
Several models are available for estimating the LFG generation rate using site-specific
input parameters. These models vary widely, not only in the assumptions that they make, but
also in their complexity, and in the amount of data they require. The LandGEM model is one
of these models and was developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency to estimate
landfill gas emissions and to determine regulatory applicability to CAA requirements. There
are other LFG emission models in use by industry that also work very well. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology for estimation of CH4
emissions from the landfills is based on First-Order decay (FOD) method. Regardless of what
model is used, the accuracy of the inputs drives the results and given the level of uncertainty,
it makes estimating landfill emissions very difficult.
Estimates of the amount of landfill gas generated throughout the lifetime of the landfill
site are highly variable with estimates of between 39 to 500 m3/tonne (McBean et al 1995).
For the estimation of landfill gas throughout the lifetime of a site for the assessment of energy
recovery from landfill gas utilization, values of between 150 and 250m3/tonne are typically
used (Loening 2003). Annual rates of gas production have been estimated for a typical
municipal solid waste landfill at between 6 and 8m3/tonne/year but much higher rates of over
25m3/tonne/year have been recorded (Characterization of 100 UK landfill sites 1995). This
allows the potential amount of energy which could be generated from the site, knowing that
undiluted landfill gas can have a calorific value of between 15 and 21 MJ/m3, compared to the
calorific value of natural gas at about 37 MJ/m3 (Waste Management Paper 27, 1994). The
38
calorific value of the gas depends on the percentage composition of combustible gases such as
methane, and non-combustible gases such as carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon dioxide
results in reduced flame temperatures and burning rates, a narrower range of flame stability
and thus lower combustion efficiency (Qin et al 2001). The carbon dioxide is also regarded as
inert, in that it does not combust and therefore does not contribute to the energy content of
the landfill gas.
B. U.S.E.P.A. Model - Landgem

1. Model description
The landfill gas emission model (LandGEM) developed by US EPA provides an
automated estimation tool for estimation of landfill gas emissions from municipal solid waste
MSW landfills (http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/products.htmlsoftware).
The model is based on a first order decomposition rate equation to estimate annual
emissions over a specified time period, described as follows:
1
n
M kt
QCH 4 = kLo i e ij
10
i =1 j = 0.1
(1)
Where,
QCH 4
Annual Methane generation in the year of the calculation (m3/year)
Mi
Mass of waste accepted in the year I (Mg)
L0
k
j
i
n
Potential methane generation capacity of the waste (m3/Mg)
Methane generation rate (per year)
Waste type category (index)
=
=
1Year
(year of the calculation)- (initial year of waste acceptance)
Age of the jth section of waste mass M i accepted in the ith year (decimal
tij
years, e.g., 3.2 years)
1.1. Input Parameters

Main Input parameters required for LandGEM are as follows:
Annual Waste acceptance rate during the operation of the landfill (tons/year)
Start year and end year of the landfill operations
Assumed values of methane generation rate ( k ) and methane generation potential
( L0 )
NMOC concentration and methane content in landfill gas
39
LandGEM is considered a screening tool the better the input data, the better the
estimates. The Input parameters in the model are described below in more details:
Methane generation potential (L0)

The methane generation potential is the total amount of methane that a unit mass of
refuse will produce given enough time. It depends upon the composition of the waste. Values
of Lo can vary widely and are difficult to estimate for a particular landfill. As per IPCC
(1996), the values of Lo may range from less than 100 to over 200m3/Mg.
Methane generation rate (k)
The k value is indicative of the fraction of the waste which undergoes decomposition in
the given year to produce methane. The k value for the given mass is actually related to its
half life time period of decay:
k = ln 2
t1/ 2
(2)
Where, half life is the time taken by the degradable organic carbon in the waste to decay
to half of its initial mass.
This value is affected by a number of factors including the waste composition, climatic
conditions at the site, characteristics of the disposal site, waste disposal practices etc.
The most rapid rates (k = 0.2) are associated with high moisture conditions and rapidly
degradable material such as food waste. The slower decay rates (k = 0.02) are associated with
dry site conditions and slowly degradable waste such as wood or paper. IPCC (2006) has
provided default k values as dry and wet values for various types of waste depending upon the
climatic conditions.
There are two options to use the value of k for estimation of gas potential: Bulk waste
option in which single value of k is chosen for the entire waste and Waste composition option
in which k value for each component of waste stream is considered for calculations.
LandGEM has bulk waste option for k.
C. IPCC-First Order Decay (FOD) Model

1. Model description
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology for estimation of
CH4 emissions from the landfills is based on FOD method. This method assumes that the
degradable organic carbon (DOC) in the waste decays slowly throughout a few decades,
during which CH4 and CO2 are formed. If conditions are constant, the rate of CH4 formation
depends solely on the amount of carbon remaining in the waste. Therefore, the CH4 emissions
from the waste deposited in a landfill are highest in the first few years after closure and then
gradually start reducing.
The FOD model developed by IPCC (2006) has been widely adapted for calculation of
methane emissions from the landfills. Same model has been used by United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in its Tool to determine methane
40
emissions avoided from dumping waste at a solid waste disposal site to award Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) benefits to a particular landfill closure project.
As per the tool, the amount of methane that is generated each year ( BECH 4, SWDS , y ), (t
CO2e) is calculated for each year y, using the following equation:
BECH 4,SWDS , y = j (1 - f ) GWPCH 4 (1 - OX )
y
MCF
W j, x DOC j (1 - e
- kj
) e
16
F DOC f
12
(3)
- k j ( y - x )
x =1 j
Where:
BECH 4,SWDS , y
Methane emissions avoided during the year y from preventing

waste disposal at the solid waste disposal site (SWDS) during
the period from the start of the project activity to the end of the
year y (tCO2e)
Model correction factor to account for model uncertainties
GWPCH 4
OX
F
DOC f
=
=
Fraction of methane captured at the SWDS and flared,

combusted or used in another manner
Global Warming Potential (GWP) of methane, valid for the
relevant commitment period
Oxidation factor (reflecting the amount of methane from
SWDS that is oxidised in the soil or other material covering
the waste
Fraction of methane in the SWDS gas (volume fraction)
Fraction of degradable organic carbon (DOC) that can
decompose
Methane correction factor
Amount of organic waste type j prevented from disposal in the
SWDS in the year x (tons)
Fraction of degradable organic carbon (by weight) in the waste
type j
MCF
W j ,x
DOC j
kj
Decay rate for the waste type j

Year during the crediting period: x runs from the first year of
the first crediting period (x = 1) to the year y for which
avoided emissions are calculated (x = y)
Year for which methane emissions are calculated
1.1. Input Parameters

The input parameters used in the FOD model are more or less similar to the LandGEM
model except that IPCC has attempted to make the projections for methane emissions more
realistic by incorporating various correction factors to the equation.
41
The values for correction factors used in the model are mostly default values suggested
by IPCC, as mentioned below:
Degradable Organic Carbon ( DOC j )

Degradable organic carbon is the fraction of the organic carbon present in the waste that
will degrade under anaerobic conditions. However, only fraction of the DOC is decomposable
in nature ( DOC f ). Hence, decomposable degradable organic carbon by mass ( DDOCm )
is:
DDOCm = W DOC DOC f MCF
(4)
Where, W is the mass of the waste deposited in the landfill in the given year and MCF is
the methane correction factor for aerobic decomposition of waste.
The relationship between Methane generation potential ( L0 ) used in LandGEM and
DDOCm , as described in IPCC (2006), is:
L0 = DDOC m F
16
12
(5)
Where, F = CH4 concentration in LFG and 16/12 is the ratio of molecular weight of CH4
and Carbon.
MSW contains different types of waste namely food waste, garden waste, paper, wood,
textiles, plastics etc. Different waste types contain different amount of degradable organic
carbon (DOC). As per IPCC FOD model, waste composition of MSW is classified into six
categories as shown in Table 8.
Decay rate/methane generation rate ( k j )

As already mentioned in the previous section, IPCC has mentioned two alternatives to
use the value of k for estimation of gas potential. In this model, the waste composition option
is used where degradation of different types of waste is assumed to be independent of each
other. IPCC 2006 has recommended default k values for different waste categories dependent
upon the location of the landfill site and its climatic conditions as shown in Table 9.
Table 8. IPCC Default DOC Value (In Fraction) For Different Waste Type
Type of Waste
Wood and wood products, A
Pulp, paper and cardboard, B
Food, food waste, beverages and tobacco, C
Textiles, D
Garden, yard and park waste, E
Glass, plastic, metal other inert, F
Source: IPCC, 2006
DOCj
0.430
0.400
0.150
0.240
0.200
0
42

Table 9. IPCC Default of K Used in IPCC in IPCC FOD Modeling
Type of Waste
Wood and wood products, A
Pulp, paper and cardboard, B
Food, food waste, beverages and tobacco, C
Textiles, D
Garden, yard and park waste, E
Glass, plastic, metal other inert, F
K
0.035
0.07
0.40
0.07
0.17
0
Source: IPCC, 2006
D. Regression Models
The EPA Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory (AEERL) began a research
program in 1990 with the goal of improving global landfill methane emission estimates. Part
of this program was a field study to gather information that was used to develop an empirical
model of methane emissions. Twenty-one US landfills with gas recovery systems were
included in the study. Site-specific information included average methane recovery rate,
landfill size, refuse mass, average age of the refuse, and climate. A correlation analysis
showed that refuse mass was positively linearly correlated with landfill depth, volume, area,
and well depth. Regression analysis of the methane recovery rate on depth, refuse mass, and
volume was significant, but depth was the best predictive variable (R2 = 0.53). Refuse mass
was nearly as good (R2 = 0.5). None of the climate variables (precipitation, average
temperature, dew point) correlated well with the methane recovery rate. Much of the
variability in methane recovery remains unexplained, and is likely due to between-site
differences in landfill construction, operation, and refuse composition. A model for global
landfill emissions estimation was proposed based on this data. A simple model correlating
refuse mass to methane recovery with a zero intercept was developed:
Qmethane = 4.52 w
(6)
Where;
3
Qmethane = Methane flow rate (m /min)
w = mass of refuse (Mg)

E- Theoretical Models
The theoretical CH4 generation capacity ( L0 ) can be determined by a stoichiometric
method that is based on a gross empirical formula representing the chemical composition of
the waste. If a waste contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur (represented by
CaHbOcNdSe), its decomposition to gas is shown as:
Ca H b Oc N d Se vCH 4 + wCO2 + xN 2 + yNH 3 + zH 2 S + humus
(7)
43
However, this type of model is of limited use because it provides an estimate of the total
amount of gas generated and does not provide information on the rate of generation. It also
requires knowledge of the chemical composition of the waste.
F. Other Models
El-Fadel et al. (1996b) developed a mathematical model to simulate the biodegradation of
solid waste and biogas generation in a sanitary landfill. The model was based on bio-kinetic
equations describing the microbial processes, time dependent transport and generation of gas
and heat. The biodegradation process occurred in three stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis and
methanogenesis. They assumed hydrolysis to be the rate limiting step in the biodegradation
process and was represented by first order kinetics. Monod kinetics were used to simulate the
growth rate of acidogenic and methanogenic biomass. The effect of pH inhibition on the
methanogenic growth rate was also included. In El-Fadel et al. (1997) several runs were
performed to assess the model sensitivity to the hydrolysis rate constant, the kinetics constant
of acidogenic and methanogenic biomass (, kd, ks) and initial carbon concentrations (solid,
aqueous, acetic acid, acidogenic and methanogenic). They concluded that the hydrolysis rate
is the most important parameter in gas generation in landfills. Gas generation showed greater
sensitivity to the methanogenic kinetics than to the acidogenic kinetics, and the initial
concentrations of acetic acid and methanogenic biomass had a more important impact on gas
generation than aqueous and acidogenic biomass.
In El-Fadel et al. (1996c) the model was used to simulate data from the Mountain View
controlled landfill. The results of the model showed good agreement with the field data. They
concluded that the model could be used to predict the rate and total production of biogases in
landfills.
Al-Yousfi et al. (1998) developed a numerical (PITTLEACH) model to predict the
leachate quality and quantity and biogas generation from municipal solid waste, for both
single pass and leachate recirculation. The model consisted of four phases. In the first phase,
the water budget method was used to estimate the net percolation rate of water flow into the
waste layer. In the second phase, leachate generation and transport rates were estimated by
using the theory of moisture flow through unsaturated porous media. The third step was to
simulate the anaerobic process involved in landfill stabilization, including hydrolysis, acid
formation and methane fermentation. In the fourth phase, the effect of acids on the pH was
modeled. The model was calibrated with experiments done by Pohland et al. (1992) and Yari
(1986). The model results were close to the experimental results for both scenarios (single
pass and leachate recirculation).
Pareek et al. (1999) developed a mathematical model to predict the methane and carbon
dioxide production from landfill reactors operated under sulfate reducing and methane
producing conditions. The model was based on biochemical processes responsible for the
degradation of solid waste in landfills. These processes were hydrolysis, acidogenesis,
methanogenesis and sulfidogenesis. Hydrolysis was assumed to be the rate limiting step in the
process and followed first order reaction, whereas the Monod kinetics were applied for the
growth of acidogenic and methanogenic bacteria. A multiplicative model was applied to
estimate the growth rate of the sulfidogenic bacteria. The values of kinetics required were
taken from the literature. The model was calibrated with four experiments run for 700 days.
44
The simulated methane production was in good agreement with the measured values in all
reactors, but the carbon dioxide production was not so accurate in the sulfate reducing
reactors for the first 100 days. They concluded that the moisture factor and initial
concentration of biomass and acetate were important factors in controlling the microbial
growth rates and methane production.
Suk et al. (2000) proposed a numerical model to predict the change in leachate
concentration and gas production by microbial activity in landfills. The model included gas
and water flows, interphase mass transfer of solids and water phase solutes, microbial growth
and death, and aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. The model was applied to measure gas
composition and leachate qualities of the experiments done by Lee (1997). The results of the
model matched the experimental data.
Haarstick et al. (2001) developed a mathematical model to simulate the biodegradation of
organic wastes (easily and slowly degraded), biogas generation and heat release. The model
was based on physical, chemical, thermodynamic and microbial processes occurring in
landfills. The biodegradation of organic waste was assumed to follow three biochemical
reactions: hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis in which Monod kinetics were used
for all of them. The specific growth rate was considered to be effected by inhibition terms
included substrate limiting, inhibitory substrate, temperature, and pH.
max f 1 (s ) f 2 ( s ) f 3 (T ) f 4 ( pH )
(8)
Where;
si : Inhibition term for substrate limiting

K si + si
K Ii : Inhibition term for inhibitory substrate
f 2 ( s) =
K si + si
f 3 (T ) = exp (k (T Topt )) : Inhibition term for influence of temperature
f1 ( s ) =
f 4 ( pH ) =
K pH
K pH + I pH
: Inhibition term for influence of pH
The temperature effect is taken into account in the hydrolysis rate constant, and in the
acidogenic and methanogenic bacteria kinetics. The effect of pH on the biodegradation rate is
also taken into account by including an inhibition term in the maximum growth rate and
expressed as non competitive inhibition. The kinetics required for the model were obtained
from the literature. The model was not calibrated with real data.
Naranjo et al. (2004) modified the model of Haarstrick et al. (2001) by assuming the
hydrolysis followed first order kinetics. The model was calibrated with experiments. They
used the model to simulate the effect of temperature and water content on acetate and
methane production. The model showed results similar to the experiments. They concluded
that temperature had an impact on the growth and activity of bacteria and that an increase in
water content enhanced methane production.
45
Zacharof et al. (2004) developed a mathematical model to simulate the hydrological and
biochemical processes taking place in solid waste landfills. They used a statistical velocity
model to represent the water flow through the waste. The waste biodegradation was assumed
to follow three steps: hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis; and employed a
simplified methodology for the rate of biodegradation to reduce the parameter required. The
model was used to simulate case studies. Sensitive analysis showed uncertain results. They
found the model was sensitive to depth of waste, infiltration rate, waste heterogeneity and
biodegradation rate constants. In the end, they concluded that the model could be used as a
tool for modeling landfill processes and that further improvements were required to assess the
models performance.
Yildiz et al. (2004) proposed a mathematical model to simulate the landfill leachate
behavior, distribution of moisture through the landfill, and methane production. They
assumed that landfills consisted of cells and that each cell consisted of several layers. Also,
they considered each layer as a completely mixed reactor having uniformly distributed solid
wastes, moisture, gases and microorganisms. The model was based on the governing
equations that describe leachate production, solubilization of inorganic and organic matter,
degradation of soluble organic matter, the growth of acidogenic and methanogenic
microorganisms, and their inhibition by acetic acid, and change in pH over time. The
solubilization of inorganic solid waste was assumed to have followed zero order kinetics,
whereas the solubilization of organic solid waste was assumed to be a function of the
concentration difference in leachate and microbial activity. The growth rate of acidogenic and
methanogenic microorganisms were described by the Monod model, and it included an
inhibition terms for acetic acid and pH. The model was solved by the fourth order RungeKulta method and calibrated with real landfill data from the Keele Valley landfill. The values
of the kinetics required for the model were determined by using a trial and error procedure
with the data obtained from the landfill. These values were then compared with the literature.
There was good agreement between the predicted and observed results from the Keele Valley
landfill. They concluded that the model had the potential to be used during the design of the
landfills to estimate the quality and quantity of leachate and methane production for different
operation conditions.
White et al. (2003, 2004) developed a mathematical model to simulate solid waste
biodegradation and gas generation in landfills. The model included biochemical degradation
of solid waste, and transport of leachate and gas. The biodegradation part was based on the
model proposed by Young (1989) and El-Fadel et al. (1996a) and occurred in three stages:
hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis. The Monod kinetics were used to simulate the
growth rate of biomass in all stages. The moisture content and effect of pH inhibition on the
biomass growth rates were included in the model. The required kinetics for the model were
obtained from the literature. The model was used to simulate case studies but was not
calibrated with real data. They concluded that it could be used for laboratory and field tests to
investigate the geotechnical and hydrogeological properties of biodegrading solid waste.
46
VII. LANDFILL GAS ENERGY SYSTEMS

With the recognition of the formation of landfill gas and its associated hazards, and the
potential to utilize the energy content of the gas, the modern landfill site is designed to trap
the gases for flaring or use in energy recovery systems, particularly for the landfilling of
biodegradable municipal solid waste in non-hazardous waste landfills. The priority for control
of the gases is to protect the environment and prevent unacceptable risk to human health, and
a landfill gas control system is therefore required. In addition, control mechanisms are
required to minimize the risk of migration of the gases out of the site.
Figure 8 shows a schematic diagram of a landfill gas energy recovery project. The energy
recovery technology is based around the gas collection system and the pre-treatment and
power generation technology. Each of those three systems is explained separately in details.
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of a landfill gas energy recovery scheme. Source: Brown and Maunder
1994.
A. LFG Collection System

Once gases are produced under the landfill surface, they generally move away from the
landfill. Gases tend to expand and fill the available space, so that they move, or "migrate,"
through the limited pore spaces within the refuse and soils covering the landfill. The natural
tendency of landfill gases that are lighter than air, such as methane, is to move upward,
usually through the landfill surface. Upward movement of landfill gas can be inhibited by
densely compacted waste or landfill cover material (e.g., by daily soil cover and caps). When
upward movement is inhibited, the gas tends to migrate horizontally to other areas within the
landfill or to areas outside the landfill, where it can resume its upward path. Basically, the
gases follow the path of least resistance. Some gases, such as carbon dioxide, are denser than
air and will collect in subsurface areas, such as utility corridors. Three main factors influence
47
the migration of landfill gases: diffusion (concentration), pressure, and permeability. Gases
can travel off-site and into neighboring buildings, posing indoor air quality threats such as
odors or exposures to inhalation hazards, or even fire and explosion. For these reasons gas
control is needed.
There are three types of systems used to control landfill gas migration (Tchobanoglous
and OLeary 1994; McBean et al 1995; Pescod 199193; Waste Management Paper 26B,
1995; Waste Management Paper 27, 1994): passive venting; physical barriers; pumping
extraction systems.
Passive venting
Passive systems use existing variations in landfill pressure and gas concentrations to vent
landfill gas into the atmosphere or a control system. Passive venting systems are only
recommended for old sites in the late stages of gas generation where gas generation rates are
low, or where inert wastes are landfilled and similarly low or negligible rates of gas
generation are found. The passive venting pit consists of a highly permeable vent of gravel
material encased in a geotextile fabric to prevent ingress of fine material and reduction of
permeability. The gases flow up the highly permeable layer, and vent passively into the
atmosphere through a permeable capping layer of sand and granular soil or crushed stone.
The vent may also be constructed of granular material but with a central perforated plastic
pipe, the pipe venting directly to the atmosphere. Construction of the passive venting system
may be as emplacement of the waste proceeds or afterwards by drilling or excavation into the
mass of waste. Typically the vents are placed at intervals of between 20 and 50 m and to
depths ranging from 50% to 90% of the waste thickness. If groundwater is encountered within
the waste, wells end at the groundwater table. Other designs of passive gas venting systems
include trenches, which are excavated into or at the boundary of the waste. The trench is lined
at the outer edge with a low-permeability barrier and the trench is filled with highpermeability gravel, or perforated pipes are used to vent the migrating gas to the surface
(Waste Management Paper 26B, 1995; Waste Management Paper 27, 1994).
Physical barriers
Physical barriers use low-permeability barriers of, for example, flexible polymeric
geomembranes, bentonite cement or clay, to contain and restrict the gas migration. Whilst
these barriers might form part of a leachate containment system, they are less effective in
containing gas. Coefficients of permeability for gas containment are required to be lower than
109 m/s. Efficiencies of barriers are improved if they are combined with a means of
removing the gas by either passive venting or pumped extraction.
Pumping extraction systems
Pumping extraction systems pump the gas out of the landfill. The gas migrates to gas pits
or wells, within the waste, which consist of highly permeable gravel, stones or rubble with a
central perforated plastic pipe. The gases pass through the high-permeability vent to a plain
imperforated pipe which draws the gases through to the pump. Leachate vapor may also be
pumped out with the gas, which has high moisture content, and therefore a leachate
condensation trap is required. Figure 9 shows a typical pumping extraction well. The gas
pumped to the surface is either flared by self-sustaining combustion or the use of a support
48
fuel, utilized in an energy recovery system, or if the gas concentrations are sufficiently low,
discharged to the atmosphere.
Figure 9. Typical combined leachate and landfill gas collection well. Source: Waste Management Paper
26B, 1995.
49
B. LFG Pretreatment System

A condensate removal system is required, since the gas is at temperatures above ambient
and is saturated with water vapour and organic vapours. As the gas cools the water vapour
condenses to form water in the pipe, which reduces the efficiency of gas collection and
transport. The condensate system used to remove the water vapour consists of baffled or
expansion chambers which cool and condense the water. Condensate systems both below and
above ground may be required to de-water the gas. A filter would also be included to remove
fine particulate material from the gas flow. The gas is then compressed and possibly passed to
a pre-treatment section if a greater degree of clean-up is required, for example, to remove
corrosive trace gases and vapor from the gas stream. Such possible pre-treatments may
include further filtration, gas chilling to condense certain constituents, absorption and
adsorption systems to scrub the gases, and other gas clean-up systems such as membranes and
molecular sieves to remove trace contaminants. A large proportion of the landfill gas consists
of carbon dioxide which is non-combustible and therefore reduces the overall calorific value
of the gas. Therefore, for utilization systems requiring a high specification gas or a high
calorific value, then clean-up systems to remove carbon dioxide may be required. Such
systems include water scrubbing, absorption on zeolites and membrane separation and are
expensive to install and maintain (Brown and Maunder 1994; Stegmann 1996).
C. LFG Utilization System

1. Combustion technologies (Flaring Practices) LFG flaring
Combustion is the most common technique for controlling and treating landfill gas.
Combustion technologies such as flares, incinerators, boilers, gas turbines, and internal
combustion engines thermally destroy the compounds in landfill gas. Over 98% destruction of
organic compounds is typically achieved. Methane is converted to carbon dioxide, resulting in
a large greenhouse gas impact reduction. Combustion or flaring is most efficient when the
landfill gas contains at least 20% methane by volume. At this methane concentration, the
landfill gas will readily form a combustible mixture with ambient air, so that only an ignition
source is needed for operation. At landfills with less than 20% methane by volume,
supplemental fuel (e.g., natural gas) is required to operate flares, greatly increasing operating
costs. When combustion is used, two different types of flares can be chosen: open or enclosed
flares.
1.1. Open flame flares
Open flame flares (e.g., candle or pipe flares), the simplest flaring technology, consist of
a pipe through which the gas is pumped, a pilot light to spark the gas, and a means to regulate
the gas flow. The simplicity of the design and operation of an open flame flare is an
advantage of this technology. Disadvantages include inefficient combustion, aesthetic
complaints, and monitoring difficulties. Sometimes, open flame flares are partially covered to
hide the flame from view and improve monitoring accuracy.
50
1.2. Enclosed flame flares

Enclosed flame flares are more complex and expensive than open flame flares.
Nevertheless, most flares designed today are enclosed, because this design eliminates some of
the disadvantages associated with open flame flares. Enclosed flame flares consist of multiple
burners enclosed within fire- resistant walls that extend above the flame. Unlike open flame
flares, the amount of gas and air entering an enclosed flame flare can be controlled, making
combustion more reliable and more efficient.
1.3. Other enclosed combustion technologies
Other enclosed combustion technologies such as boilers, process heaters, gas turbines,
and internal combustion engines can be used not only to efficiently destroy organic
compounds in landfill gas, but also to generate useful energy or electricity, as described later
in this chapter. In addition to flaring, the other options for dealing with landfill gas (once
collected) are as follows:
boilers for making thermal energy

Internal combustion engine for generating electricity
Gas turbine for generating electricity
Fuel cell for generating electricity
Conversion of the methane to methyl alcohol
There are limited data comparing emissions from landfill gas flares to energy producing
combustion devices (which includes boilers, turbines and internal combustion engines).
According to very limited data in a USEPA 1995 report, carbon monoxide and NOx emissions
are highest from internal combustion engines and lowest from boilers. Flares and gas turbines
are somewhere in the middle.
Flaring of landfill gas is done either in a candle flare or a shrouded flare. A candle flare is
an open air flame. With such, there is no reliable means to monitor for dioxins or other toxic
emissions. Shrouded flares involve enclosing the flame in an insulated cylindrical shroud
which can be anywhere from 5 to 18 m tall. While dioxins can be tested for in such flares, it is
possible that enclosing the flare will keep the post combustion temperature in dioxinformation range, resulting in increased dioxin emissions. Essentially, this is a loose-loose
situation. Most shrouded landfill gas flares have exit temperatures of around 7600C, well
above the dioxin formation range (which end around 4000C). In such cases, dioxins will be
formed in midair as the exhaust hits the cooler background air after leaving the stack.
Dioxin emissions data are also very sparse. Flares are known to generate more dioxin
than internal combustion engines or boiler mufflers. There is high variability in dioxin
emissions from landfill gas burners (based on composition of waste dumped and also on the
combustion technology - internal combustion engines are much more variable). Burning
landfill gas is dirtier than burning natural gas. Whether using an internal combustion engine
or a gas turbine, burning landfill gas to produce energy emits more pollution per kilowatt hour
than natural gas does.
Some public concerns have been raised about whether the combustion of landfill gas may
create toxic chemicals. Combustion can create acid gases such as SO2 and NOx. The generation
of dioxins has also been questioned. EPA investigated the issue of dioxin formation and
51
concluded that the existing data from several landfills did not provide evidence showing
significant dioxin formation during landfill gas combustion. Because of the potential imminent
health threat from other components of landfill gas, landfill gas destruction in a properly
designed and operated control device, such as a flare or energy recovery unit, is preferable to
uncontrolled release of landfill gas. Scientists continue to review new information on byproduct emissions from landfill gas control devices as it becomes available.
Boilers
Boilers are among the cheapest options. They produce thermal energy or heat, not
electricity. Boilers are generally less sensitive to landfill gas contaminants and therefore
require fewer cleanups than other alternatives. Boilers have the lowest NOx and carbon
monoxide emissions of the combustion technologies. Landfill gas use in boilers brings in the
issue of piping the gas to local industries. While boilers themselves may not require much
cleanup of the gas, the pipelines do require some cleanup, since corrosive compounds in the
gas (particularly the acids and hydrogen sulfide -- H2S) can damage the pipelines. Among the
concerns with this option are the integrity of the pipeline, liability issues, and the economic
support of neighboring polluting industries which might use the gas.
Internal Combustion Engines
Internal combustion engines are the dirtiest technology for burning landfill gas. They
emit the most carbon monoxide and NOx and they may be the largest dioxin source of the
available technologies.
Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are somewhere in the middle in terms of carbon monoxide and NOx
emissions. There isn't enough data on dioxin emissions from landfill gas turbines to provide
an extensive comparison.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are the most expensive technology, and they are still largely experimental. EPA
describes fuel cells as "potentially one of the cleanest energy conversion technologies
available." In order not to poison the fuel cells, halogenated contaminants must first be
removed and destroyed, for example by pyrolysis.
Conversion of Methane to Methyl Alchol
One option is to convert the methane recovered from landfills into methyl alcohol or
methanol. Other novel ideas include converting the carbon dioxide in landfill gas to dry ice
for sale to industry.
2. Non-combustion technologies
Non-combustion technologies were developed in the 1990s as an alternative to
combustion, which produces compounds that contribute to smog, including nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter. Non combustion technologies fall into
two groups: energy recovery technologies and gas-to-product conversion technologies.
Regardless of which non combustion technology is used, the landfill gas must first undergo
52
pretreatment to remove impurities such as water, NMOC, and carbon dioxide. Numerous
pretreatment methods are available to address the impurities of concern for a specific landfill.
After pretreatment, the purified landfill gas is treated by non combustion technology options.
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the Calgary Biocell
2.1. Energy recovery technologies

Energy recovery technologies use landfill gas to produce energy directly. Currently, the
phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is the only commercially available non-combustion energy
recovery technology. Other types of fuel cells (molten carbonate, solid oxide, and solid
polymer) are still under development. The PAFC system consists of landfill gas collection
and pretreatment, a fuel cell processing system, fuel cell stacks, and a power conditioning
system. Several chemical reactions occur within this system to create water, electricity, heat,
and waste gases. The waste gases are destroyed in a flare.
2.2. Gas to product conversion technologies
Gas-to-product conversion technologies focus on converting landfill gas into commercial
products, such as compressed natural gas, methanol, purified carbon dioxide and methane, or
liquefied natural gas. The processes used to produce each of these products vary, but each
includes landfill gas collection, pretreatment and chemical reactions and/ or purification
techniques. Some of the processes use flares to destroy gaseous wastes.
Non-combustion energy recovery systems are not used as widely as combustion based
systems. Fuel cells are a promising new technology for producing energy from landfill gas
that does not involve combustion. This technology has been demonstrated and in the future
may become more economically competitive with other options. One option that does not
involve combustion of landfill gas at or near the landfill is purifying the landfill gas to remove
constituents other than methane, producing a high British thermal unit (Btu) gas that can be
sold as pipeline quality natural gas. Although the high-Btu gas is eventually combusted, it
53
would not contribute to any emissions near the landfill. Another option is using compressed
landfill gas as a vehicle fuel.
Both combustion and non-combustion energy recovery systems have three basic
components: (1) a gas collection system; (2) a gas processing, treatment, and conversion
system; and (3) a means to transport the gas or final product to the user. Gas is collected from
the landfill by the use of active vents. It is then transported to a central point for processing.
Processing requirements vary, depending on the gas composition and the intended use, but
typically include a series of chemical reactions or filters to remove impurities. For direct use
of landfill gas in boilers, minimal treatment is required. For landfill gas injection into a
natural gas pipeline, extensive treatment is necessary to remove carbon dioxide. At a
minimum, the gas is filtered to remove any particles and water that may be suspended in the
gas stream.
VIII. CASE STUDY: CALGARY BIOCELL PROJECT

A. Introduction
Although landfill disposal is an integral part of waste management, most people identify
sanitary landfills as a key factor in the mis-management of finite resources and as a source of
greenhouse gas emissions. This situation arose because modem landfills have evolved from
open dumping of solid waste. Since 1960s, engineers and scientists have attempted to rectify
the problems with open dumps, targeting groundwater contamination by landfill leachate
and waste related aesthetic issues. More recently, attempts have been made to address the
landfill gas issues, including the contribution of landfills towards the global carbon budget
and potentially global warming. The reactive approach followed by landfill engineers has
created collateral problems. For example, the current traditional approach of waste landfilling,
namely the dry-tomb landfilling approach, solves the problem of groundwater contamination
but is counterproductive because of the slow production and atmospheric release of methane
(CH4), and loss of resources (e.g. material and space).
So far, the general approach towards solving the solid waste problem has been mostly
piece meal and reactive. Landfills are considered a liability requiring solutions for individual
landfill problems. This reactive approach has ignored the positive aspects of solid waste
including the inherent resource value of the waste. The pessimistic view of waste is waste is
a liability and requires high level of resources to manage but the optimistic view of waste is
waste is a resource in the wrong place and wrong time.
Recent advances in sanitary landfill technology research have indicated that the operation
of landfills as bioreactors (Reinhart and Townsend, 1998) could be viable. Waste entombment
in a conventional landfill slows down the process of biodegradation by minimizing moisture
entry, whereas, bioreactors speed up the biodegradation process by controlled input of
moisture (i.e., by leachate recirculation) and increased cycling of nutrients and bacterial
populations (Reinhart and Townsend, 1998). The operation of traditional entombed
landfills for the sole purpose of controlling groundwater contamination is not sustainable, and
could be counterproductive because of the slow production and atmospheric release of CH4
and loss of resources (e.g. material and space).
54
The biocell concept involves the operation of a landfill cell as an anaerobic bioreactor
with leachate recirculation to recover the full energy potential of biomass waste. In a second
stage, the biocell is operated in the aerobic mode to produce stable organic material, that can
be used as low-quality compost or refuse derived fuel (RDF). The input of air and operation
of the cell as an aerobic bioreactor (Stessel and Murphy, 1992) enhances waste decomposition
to a level where it could be mined in a third stage for compost/RDF and space recovery, thus
making the landfill operation sustainable. Instead of operating the entombed waste cell as a
long-term storage facility, the biocell converts the cell into a waste processing facility. The
biocell is a novel and holistic approach; with energy recovery, landfill gas emission control,
groundwater contamination control, and resource/space recovery as direct benefits. This
approach has the potential to revolutionize management of waste in Canada, and in other
countries, both developed and developing.
B. The Calgary Biocell: Background and Construction Phase

In dry-tomb type sanitary landfills, the preferred landfilling option in the United States,
the underlying principle has been to prevent saturation of the waste in order to reduce the
potential for leachate generation and leaking into the sub-surface and groundwater aquifers.
In a bioreactor landfill, leachate is re-circulated to maintain high waste moisture content. Data
compiled by Rees and Grainger (1982) from lysimeter studies suggest the rate of gas
production increases exponentially as the water content of the waste is increased. At the
Brogborough landfill in the United Kingdom, addition of water to test cells containing 15,000
tonnes of waste was found to increase the rate of gas production by 8 m3/tonne/yr than that of
a control cell (Knox and Gronow, 1995).
There are three different types of bioreactor landfills corresponding to the operational
processes involved, aerobic, anaerobic, and hybrid (aerobic-anaerobic) as discussed in
Section 2. The primary difference between the aerobic and anaerobic is that, in anaerobic
bioreactors, a key objective is to enhance the generation of landfill gas, containing methane
and carbon dioxide, under anaerobic conditions, by minimizing oxygen infiltration, whereas,
in aerobic bioreactors, the objective is to maintain aerobic conditions by introducing oxygen
into the waste mass.
The Calgary biocell is a unique facility where the three processes, anaerobic bioreactor,
aerobic bioreactor and mining are sequentially applied in one cell. The Calgary biocell is a
full-scale facility, which covers an area of 100 m x 100 m with a waste footprint of 85 m x 85
m and a maximum height of 18 m. The schematic diagram of the biocell is presented in
Figure 10. The base of the biocell is 50m x 50m, and it extends 10 m below the ground
surface. The shape of the biocell is a pyramidal square frustum increasing sectional area with
side slope of 3H : 1V up to ground level. The bottom liner/leachate collection systems are
used to minimize groundwater contamination and maximize recovery of leachate. The biocell
received 43,000 tonnes of residential (high in organics) and selected commercial wastes, with
the resulting feedstock placed in three lifts of 5-6 m each. Collected leachate is re-circulated
after ensuring the quality is acceptable. A pipe system was added to re-circulate the collected
leachate. Re-circulation of leachate adds the much needed moisture and transfer bacteria from
well-inoculated waste to freshly deposited waste, thus accelerating the establishment of
microbial community. The biocell is instrumented to gather moisture, temperature and
55
settlement data. The leachate composition is analyzed on a regular basis. A gas collection
system is installed for landfill gas collection and emission control. The produced biogas is
collected using this gas collection system comprised of a combination of vertical wells and
horizontal trenches. The collected bio-gas is used to produce electrical energy. This gas
collection system will also be used to pump air into the waste matrix during the second stage
aerobic operation to accelerate biological degradation. A low permeable final biocover was
installed to prevent gas escape from the top surface prior to extraction of biogas. Gas/energy
recovery has commenced after filling and construction of the final cover.
CO2
emissions
CH4 & CO2

emissions
Commercial
recovery
Oxidation in
landfill bio-cover
(Methanotrophs)
Final bio-cover
CH4 & CO2
Solid waste-3rd lift (8 m)
generation
GL
GL
2nd Intermediate thin

biocover (30 cm)
Solid waste-2nd lift (5 m)
CH4 & CO2

generation
1st Intermediate thin

biocover (30 cm)
Solid waste-1st lift (5m)
CH4 & CO2

generation
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the Calgary Biocell
The biocell is located at the Shepard landfill owned and operated by the City of Calgary,
Canada. Construction of the biocell started in the summer of 2004. The biocell started
receiving domestic municipal solid waste in April 2005. The 1st intermediate cover consisted
of a mixture of partly stabilized leaf compost and soil (6:4 wet weight) and was placed in July
2005 over the 1st lift, with a depth of 5 m. Similarly, a 2nd intermediate cover of tree branch
mulch was placed in December 2005 over the 2nd lift which was also 5 m in depth. A mixture
of stabilized compost and tree mulch (9:1 wet weight) was placed in an area of 10m x 10m in
the northwest quadrant. The thickness of both intermediate covers ranged from 30 to 40 cm.
The placement of the third and final lift of waste commenced during the third week of
January 2006. The materials for the landfill final cover and leachate collection system were
selected to facilitate convenient excavation, and to recover, and to reuse all components of the
biocell. The biocell reached its final design elevations by April 2006 and was capped initially
with a 0.5 m biocover, a granular medium to support methanotrophic bacteria that oxidize
methane to carbon dioxoide without producing harmful by-products. The construction was
completed in summer 2006 and operation started in September 2006 with gas recovery. The
Calgary biocell pilot project used real-time instrumentation to measure settlement during the
56
construction phase of the biocell. The field data during construction stage was presented in
Hunte et al, 2007. According to Hunte et al. (2007) the settlement trend follows the waste
filling operation. In addition, based on the load cell data, Hunte et al. (2007) back calculated
the average unit weight of waste and also the compression index, two useful parameters of
settlement models and found to be consistent with values reported in literature.
C. Operation of the Calgary Biocell

The biocell operational plan is illustrated in Figure 11. The operation of each stage is
described below.
Stage of Landfill
Stage I: Anaerobic Bio-Reactor
Stage II: Enhanced Aerobic Reactor
Stage III: Mining, Recycling, and Recovery
Total Expected Life Span of the Biocell
Timeline
5 to 7 years
1 to 2 years
to 1 year
6 to 12 years
Figure 11. Operational Plan of the Calgary Biocell
1. Biocell stage 1: Anaerobic decomposition with gas extraction

In a waste cell, the biodegradation rate and landfill gas production depends on
temperature, moisture content, nutrient and organic content in the waste. The higher the
organic content, higher will be the gas production. In a conventional dry-tomb sanitary
landfill, it may take as long as 50 to 100 years to degrade the majority of biodegradable
organics (Crawford and Smith, 1985). In the biocell, such degradation will occur within a ten
year time period.
Although the concept of bioreactor landfilling is relatively new, a number of
demonstration anaerobic bioreactors are underway in Northern America and Europe
(Hettiaratchi, 2006). Crow Wing County Landfill (CWC) located in north central Minnesota
was started in 1998 and accepted 50,000 tonnes of waste annually in an area of 5.7 hectares
(14.1 acres). Four million gallons of treated and untreated leachate were injected to waste via
57
horizontal laterals, working face spray; and spray on yard waste composting over
intermediate cover (USEPA, 2007). Burlington County bioreactor in northwest New Jersey
had full scale leachate and liquid recirculation from 2002 to 2005 in a 4 hectare (10 acre) area
accepting about one million tonnes of MSW.
The New River Regional bioreactor was a research bioreactor in Union County, north
central Florida. It had about one million tonnes of waste in-place in an existing 5.07 hectare
(10-acre) area. Leachate was re-circulated into an existing interim capped landfill with an
exposed membrane cover. Volume of leachate re-circulated was about 24,600 m3 (6.5 million
gallons) to date (USEPA, 2007). Salem County bioreactor in southwest New Jersey is another
anaerobic bioreactor with about 2 hectare (5-acre) area. Leachate re-circulated from storage
tank and force main to subsurface horizontal injection trenches has been performed since
2000. The rate of moisture addition is about 0.167 m3/tonne (44 gallons/tonne) waste
(USEPA, 2007).
Indicators of waste stabilization in these bioreactor landfills include settlement and gas
production. The airspace at CWC landfill had been monitored using airspace factor (AUF)
calculations. The cell was constructed in 1991 and recirculation began in 1998. Accordingly,
the pre- and post-recirculation AUF was 595 kg/m3 (1004 lb/yd3) and 795 kg/m3 (1,341
lb/yd3) respectively. In addition, CWC installed four settlement plates in 2000 and 2001 at the
waste level of two of the horizontal laterals. Data indicates that about 20% settlement has
occurred within 5 years (USEPA, 2007). Burlington County landfill bioreactor measures
quarterly settlement surveys with settlement plates and annual air photography surveys for
topographic comparisons. Substantial settlement over the last 4 years of operation was
observed increasing the effective density from 500 kg/ m3 (840 lb/yd3) to over 720 kg/ m3
(1,200 lb/yd3) (USEPA, 2007). The New River Regional Landfill measured the settlement
with GPS coordinates on the landfill surface with settlement of each nested vertical injection
well. The depth of settlement was the greatest at the injection well and declined with radial
distance from the well up to 15 m (50 ft) away and then leveled off. The data also showed a
distinct linear relationship between total settlement and the amount of moisture added
(USEPA 2007). The Salem County bioreactor showed a settlement rate of about 1.5 m (5 ft)
per year, which was greater than the rate observed before leachate re-circulation commenced
(USEPA 2007). Landfill gas was passively vented at Crow Wing County Landfill and
concentrations of methane had been as high as 60%.
At the Calgary biocell, the end of stage 1 will be determined using a combination of
settlement and gas generation readings. The gas production rate from October 2006 to
September 2008 is shown on Figure 12. The initial gas production rate was low, indicating
the microorganism acclimation stage. After leachate recirculation was initiated, the gas
production rate increased four-fold to 254 m3/h (150 cfm). Thereafter, the gas production rate
decreased gradually and reached a steady state flow rate of 170 m3/h (100 cfm) throughout
the winter months. The Calgary Biocell received 43,000 tonnes of waste over a period of
about one year. The methane generation potential, calculated from waste composition data, is
120 m3/tonne of solid waste. Hence, in October 2006 the theoretical gas generation rate at the
Biocell should be approximately 282 m3/h (166cfm) which is very close to the field measured
value of 254 m3/h (150cfm) reported in Figure 12.
58
900,000
Methane generated (m3/month)
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Oct-06
Jan-07
Apr-07
Aug-07
Monthly methane Generation
Nov-07
Feb-08
Cumulative methane
Jun-08
Sep-08
Scholl Canyon
Figure 12. Comparison of Gas Production Data at the Biocell and a Conventional Landfill
For comparison purposes, the Figure 12 includes the cumulative methane generation
curve for a landfill cell containing 43,000 tonnes of waste and operated as a dry-tomb sanitary
landfill. The Scholl Canyon model was used to generate this curve using the parameter
values; k = 0.023 yr-1 and Lo = 116.7 m3/tonne. The parameter values are those proposed by
Environment Canada for a typical sanitary landfill in the province of Alberta. Evidently, the
gas production at the biocell is more than 400% higher than that of a dry tomb type sanitary
landfill of similar size and configuration located in Calgary, Alberta.
2. Biocell stage 2: Aerobic decomposition

Once methane production decreases to a critical level, the next stage of biocell will
initiate, that is to use aerobic degradation to rapidly decompose the remaining organic waste.
Since aerobic degradation occurs at a high rate, this stage may take only a year or two to
complete.
To convert from anaerobic to aerobic conditions, air has to be introduced to the biocell
and maintained to enhance the rate of waste decomposition (Stessel and Murphy, 1992;
Hettiaratchi, 2006). The aerobic bioreactor concept was first proposed by Merz and Stone
(1962) and there are more than 20 operating aerobic bioreactors in North America. The gas
extraction system used during the anaerobic stage will be used to pump air into the landfill to
create aerobic conditions, which accelerates and completes biological degradation or organic
waste. The recirculation of appropriately adjusted leachate for aerobic degradation is also
required for the same reason stated in the first stage of operation. Towards the end of aerobic
decomposition, periodic testing of waste from boreholes and the analysis of the leachate
would ensure complete biodegradation.
The Calgary biocell is not the first to propose the use of aerobic treatment of waste in a
waste cell. Williamson County bioreactor in central Tennessee is one of the existing aerobic
59
bioreactors. This bioreactor landfill contains about 70,000 tonnes of waste in a cell of area
2.85 hectares (7 acres). Leachate, storm water, and air were injected into vertical risers with
force main and header from storage tank that were retro-fitted for the closed landfill. The
operation started in June 2000 and approximately 3,785 m3 (one million gallons) of leachate
has been re-circulated (USEPA 2007). Two other aerobic landfills are in operation in Georgia
(the Columbia County landfill) and in Atlanta (a privately operated bioreactor). For each
aerobic landfill system, the air injection comprises of air compressor and piping connected to
vertical air injection wells. Leachate collected in holding tanks at each site was pumped back
into each aerobic system through a leachate recirculation system installed on top of the
intermediate cap. The air injection rates were 56 m3/min and 100 m3/min for the Columbia
County Landfill and Atlanta Landfill, respectively (Hudgings and Harper, 1999).
Monthly topographic surveys of Williamson County Landfill bioreactor surface were
performed to detect settlement across the site. An initial survey of the landfill bioreactor
surface was conducted in January 2000, several months prior to the start-up of the landfill
bioreactor as a baseline. Results of settlement as of April 2005 show a 0.53-meter to 1.2meter drop in the surface elevations since the landfill bioreactor operations began. The
comparisons of the April 2005 elevations with the original survey in January 2000 show a
5.1% to 10.7% decrease in waste height over a 59-month period of operation (USEPA 2007).
The study conducted in Georgia is interesting since it was conducted after landfills went
through anaerobic process first. It was observed that the average settlement was 4.5% and the
greatest settlement was 9% at Columbia County Landfill and 10% at Atlanta Landfill. The
methane generation was reduced to 50% for the Columbia County Landfill and 50 to 90% for
the Atlanta Landfill after aeration started. The operation of each system was also a dynamic
process. It was observed in some areas that the decay process would revert back to anaerobic
once temperatures decreased and that the air would make its way to other nearby areas,
thereby repeating the process. Also, if too much leachate was applied in the aerobic areas,
there would be an insufficient amount of oxygen for the bacteria and reverted the decay
process back to anaerobic. Conversely, if too little leachate was applied, waste mass
temperatures would tend to rise into the thermophillic range (40 to 700C). In several cases, it
was also observed that air could provide a cooling effect on the waste mass temperatures
above 600C or increase temperatures that were below 200C, provided sufficient moisture was
applied (Hudgins, 1998; Hudgins and Harper, 1999).
Partially degraded waste has produced difficulties in post mining attempts. Therefore,
before moving to the mining step, it is essential to ensure that most of the organic waste is
decomposed before mining commences.
3. Biocell stage 3: Mining for recovery of useful/recyclable products

Mining will ensure recovery of space and various products (Murphy, 1993; Zee et al.,
2003). Recycling a biocell involves a series of activities that includes excavation of cell,
separating, sorting, and processing of recyclables. Separation of waste based on size can be
performed through the use of various types of screens (trammel, vibrating, rotating, and disc).
Once recovered, the recyclables can be crushed, bailed or shredded for the convenience of
transportation.
Usually, the excavated waste is stockpiled and fed to a shaker with sieves to separate the
leftover organic waste. The organics that passes through 1 cm 5 cm sieve size can be used
as compost in agricultural applications or as refuse derived fuel (RDF). The collected non-
60
biodegradable fraction will be sent to an automatic sorting unit through a feeding belt with a
magnetic drum installed on the belt to remove the ferrous metals. The automatic sorting unit
will sort through air flotation the light materials such as plastic, and non-degraded packaging
wastes from heavier materials such as glass and aluminum based on weight difference. The
mixed plastic waste could be shredded into small pieces for further processing.
The majority of the compost-like product resulting from biodegradation is expected to be
used as soil conditioner with various agricultural applications. Thermoplastics, such as PETE,
PVC, and HDPE, soften when heated and can be recycled and remolded. Cullet, the industrial
term for the furnace-ready scrap glass, is one of the most important ingredients of the glass
manufacturing process. Cullet requires less energy to melt compared to sand since it already
contains additives and can reduce furnace temperature. Recycled paper has many applications
in newspaper industry and packaging. Other than these versatile uses, recyclables can be used
as feedstock for a number of products, such as plastic lumber park benches or decks made
from plastic milk jugs or soda bottles. Also, cardboard containers such as juice boxes and
plastics have been used to produce construction materials (El Hagger, 2005).
Even with enhanced biodegradation and recycling processes described above, there will
be some residual waste which are non-recoverable, but with high calorific value. These
wastes may include plastics, textiles, rubber, waste wood, and a number of other organic
waste types. These can be used to produce refuse derived fuel (RDF) and co-incinerated in
cement kilns.
D. Summary and Conclusions

There are four main problems with landfill operation, namely aesthetic issues,
ground/surface water contamination with leachate, emission of landfill gases, and extensive
space requirements. Over the last three decades, the design and operation of sanitary landfills
have managed to solve, to a large extent, the first three problems. However, the fourth
problem has not been adequately addressed. The biocell is a concept proposed to solve all
four problems at the same time. The biocell approach involves sequential operation of a
landfill cell to produce methane gas during the first stage of anaerobic degradation, in-situ
composting within the cell footprint during aerobic degradation in the second stage and
landfill mining for resources and space recovery in a third stage. The resources that can be
recovered include compost-like material and recyclables such as plastics, metal, and glass.
Non-recovered waste but with high energy content can be used as refuse derived fuel. The
practice of this approach will no longer require the need to allocate valuable land for new
landfills on an on-going basis and hence will revolutionize the management of municipal
solid waste.
REFERENCES
Ada, O. N. & Sponza, D. T. (2005). Effect of alkalinity on the performance of a simulated
landfill bioreactor digesting organic solid wastes. Chemosphere, 59(6), 871-879.
Allen, R., Matthew, Braithwaite, Alan, & Hills, C. Chris, (1997). Trace organic compounds in
landfill gas at seven U.K. waste disposal sites Environ. Sci. Technol., 31(4), 1054-1061.
61
Al-Yousfi, B. & Pohland, F. (1998). Strategies for simulation, design and management of
solid wastes disposal sites as landfill bioreactors. Practice Periodical of Hazardous,
Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management, 2(1), 13- 21.
Bae, J. H., Cho, K. W., Lee, S. J., Bum, B. S. & Yoon, B. H. (1998). Effects of leachate
recycle and anaerobic digester sludge recycle on the methane production from solid
wastes. Water Science and Technology, 38(2), 159-168.
Baldwin, T., Stinson, J. & Ham, R. K. (1998). Decomposition of specific materials buried
within sanitary landfills. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 124(12), 1193-1202.
Barlaz, M. A. (1997). Microbial studies of landfills and anaerobic refuse decomposition. In
Manual of Environmental Microbiology, 541-557, C. J. Hurst, (ed), American Society for
Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
Barlaz, M. A., Bonner, B. A. & Calvert, P. P. (1996). Evaluation of the Anaerobic
Biodegradability of Radiolabeled Test Materials in a Laboratory-Scale Simulated
Landfill, Institute for Scientific Research, ASTM, Phil. PA.
Barlaz, M. A., Ham, R. K. & Schaefer, D. M. (1990). Methane production from municipal
refuse - a review of enhancement techniques and microbial dynamics. Critical Reviews in
Environmental Control, 19(6), 557-584.
Beker, I. D. (1987). Control of acid degradation. In: Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R. and
Stegmann, R. (eds). Proceeding Sardinia 87, First International landfill Symposium.
Vol. 2, Cagliari, Italy: CISA. 1-22. Cited in Komilis et al., (1999a)
Brown, K. A. & Maunder, D. H. (1994). Exploitation of landfill gas: A UK perspective,
Water Science and Technology, 30, 143151.
Buivid, M. et al. (1981). Fuel gas enhancement by controlled landfilling of municipal solid
waste. Resour. Recovery Conserv., 6, 3. Cited in Barlaz et al., (1990)
Chaiampo, F., Conti, R. & Cometto, D. (1996). Morphological characterization of MSW
landfills, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 17, 3745.
Chan, G. Y. S., Chu, L. M. & Wong, M. H. (2002). Effects of leachate recirculation on biogas
production from landfill co-disposal of municipal solid waste, sewage sludge and marine
sediment. Environmental Pollution, 118(3), 393-399.
Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2003). Handbook of solid waste management and waste minimization
technologies. Butterworth-Heinemann, USA.
Chiemchaisri, C., Chiemchaisri, W., Nonthapund, U. & Sittichoktam, S. (2002). Acceleration
of solid waste biodegradation in tropical landfill using bioreactor landfill, concept, 5th
Asian Symposium on Academic Activities for Waste Management, Sep. 2002 Kuala
Lumpur.
Christensen, T. H. & Kjeldsen, P. (1989). Basic biochemical process in landfills. Sanitary
landfilling: Process, Technology and Environmental Impact, Eds. Christensen, T.H.,
Cossu, R. and Stegmann, R., Academic press, London UK, 29-49.
Christensen, T. H., Kjeldsen, P. & Stegmann, R. (1992) . Effects of landfill management
procedures on landfill stabilization and leachate and gas quality. Landfilling of waste:
Leachate edited by Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R. and Stegmann, R, Elsevier Applied
Science, 6, London and New York, 119-137.
Christensen, T. H., Kjeldsen, P. & Lindhardt, B. (1996). Gas generating processes in
landfills. In, Landfilling of Waste: Biogas, Christensen, T. H., Cossu, R., & Stegman, R.
(Eds.), E & FN Spon, London.
62
Council Directive 96/61/EC (1996). Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Official
Journal, L257, Brussels.
Crawford, J. F. & Smith, P. G. (1985). Landfill Technology. London: Butterworth
El Haggar, S. (2005). Rural and Developing Country Solutions. Environmental Solutions, N.
L. Nemerow and F. J. Agardy, Editors, Elsevier Acad. Press, Chapter 13, 313- 400.
Eleazer, W. E., Odle, W. S., Wang, Y. S. & Barlaz, M. A. (1997). Biodegradability of
municipal solid waste components in laboratory-scale landfills. Environmental Science &
Technology, 31(3), 911-917.
ElFadel, M., Findikakis, A. N. & Leckie, J. O. (1996a). Estimating and enhancing methane
yield from municipal solid waste. Hazardous Waste & Hazardous Materials, 13(3), 309331.
ElFadel, M., Findikakis, A. N. & Leckie, J. O. (1996b). Numerical modelling of generation
and transport of gas and heat in landfills. 1. Model formulation. Waste Management &
Research, 14(5), 483-504.
ElFadel, M., Findikakis, A. N. & Leckie, J. O. (1996c). Numerical modelling of generation
and transport of gas and heat in sanitary landfills. 2. Model application. Waste
Management & Research, 14(6), 537-551.
ElFadel, M., Findikakis, A. N. & Leckie, J. O. (1997). Numerical modelling of generation
and transport of gas and heat in sanitary landfills. 2. Sensitivity analysis. Waste
Management & Research, 14(6), 537-551.
Emcon Associates (1980). Methane Generation and Recovery from Landfills. Ann Arbor
Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
EU Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April (1999) on the Landfill of Waste. Official
Journal L182, 16 July 1999, p1-19
Gou, B. & Guzzone, B. (1997). State survey on leachate recirculation and landfill
bioreactors. SWANA, Silver Springs, Maryland, USA.
Haarstrick, A., Hempel, D. C., Ostermann, L., Ahrens, H. & Dinkler, D. (2001). Modelling of
the biodegradation of organic matter in municipal landfills. Waste Management &
Research, 19(4), 320-331.
Ham, R. K. (1979). Predicting gas generation from landfills. Waste age, November, 50-58
Ham, R. K. & Bookter, T. J. (1982). Decomposition of solid-waste in test lysimeters. Journal
of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, 108(6), 1147-1170.
Ham, R. K. & M. A. Barlaz, (1989). Measurement and prediction of landfill gas quality and
quantity, in sanitary landfilling: process technology and environmental impact,
Christensen, T.H., R. Cossu and R. Stegmann, Eds., Academic Press, Orlando, FL: 155.
Hanashima, M. (1999). Pollution control and stabilization process by semi-aerobic landfill
type; the Fukuoka method. Proceedings of Sardinia 99-7th International Waste
Management and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari. Italy. 1999.
Hartz, K. E., Klink, R. E. & Ham, R. K. (1982). Temperature effects - methane generation
from landfill samples. Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division-ASCE, 108(4),
629-638.
Hettiaratchi, J. P. A. (2006). Bio-Cell Project. (www.eng.ucalgary.ca/resrch_civil/bio-cellproject/Hettiaratchi-bio-cell-project.htm)
Hudgins, M. P. & March, J. (1998). In-Situ municipal solid waste composting using an
aerobic landfill system. Oral Presentation to Conference Attendees Composting in the
Southeast, Sept. 1998
63
Hudgins, M. & Harper, S. (1999). Operational characteristics of two aerobic landfill systems.
Proceedings of the 7th International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium in
Sardinia, Italy.
Hunte, C., Hettiaratchi, P., Meegoda, N. J. & Hettiarachchi, C. H., (2007). Settlement of
bioreactor landfills during filling operation. ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication
#152, GeoDenver2007, ISBN # 0784408971
Jin, H. (2005). Decomposition of high organic and moisture content municipal solid waste in
bioreactor landfills. M.Sc. Thesis, Ryerson Polytechnic University, Ontario, Canada.
Kjeldsen, P., Barlaz, M. A., Rooker A. P., Baun, A., Ledin, A. & Christensen, T. H. (2002).
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 297336.
Klink, R. E. & Ham, R. K. (1982). Effects of moisture movement on methane production in
solid-waste landfill samples. Resources and Conservation, 8(1), 29-41.
Knox, K. & Gronow, J. R. (1995). Pilot scale study of denitrification and contaminant
flushing during prolonged leachate recirculation. Proceedings Sardinia '95, Fifth
International Landfill Symposium, S.Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy.
Komilis, D. P., Ham, R. K. & Stegmann, R. (1999a). The effect of landfill design and
operation practices on waste degradation behavior: A review. Waste Management &
Research, 17(1), 20-26.
Komilis, D. P., Ham, R. K. & Stegmann, R. (1999b). The effect of municipal solid waste
pretreatment on landfill behavior: A literature review. Waste Management & Research,
17(1), 10-19.
Landfill Gas Development Guidelines. (1996). Energy technology support unit. Department
of Trade and Industry, HMSO, London.
Landva, Arvid O. & Clark, Jack I., (1990). Geotechnics of Waste Fill. Geotechnics of Waste
Fill Theory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA
Laquidara, M. J., Leuschner, A. P. & Wise, D. L. (1986). Procedure for determining potential
gas quantities in an existing sanitary-landfill. Water Science and Technology, 18(12),
151-162.
Lee, N. H. (1997). Development of landfill gas control and utilization technologies. Rep. No.
EPA/ 9-3-4, Seoul.
Leuschner A. (1982). Enhancement of degradation: Laboratory-scale experiments. In sanitary
landfilling process, Technology and Environmental Impact, Christensen, T.H., Cossu R.
and Stegmann R. eds, Academic Press, London, UK, 83- 102.
Loening A. (2003). Predictions and projections; looking at the power generation potential of
landfill gas, Waste Management World. International Solid Waste Association,
Copenhagen, November December.
McBean E. A., Rovers F. A. & Farquhar, G. J. (1995). Solid waste landfill engineering and
design. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
McCarty, P. L. (1964). Anaerobic waste treatment fundamentals. Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4. Public
works, 95 (9), 107-12, (10), 123-6, (11), 91-4, (12), 95-9. Cited in Christensen et al.,
(1989).
Merz, R. C. & Stone, R. (1962). Landfill settlement rates. Public Works, 93(9), 103-106, 210212
Mora-Naranjo, N., Meima, J. A., Haarstrick, A. & Hempel, D. C. (2004). Modelling and
experimental investigation of environmental influences on the acetate and methane
formation in solid waste. Waste Management, 24(8), 763-773.
64
Mosher, B. W., Czepiel, P. M., Harriss, R. C., Shorter, J. H., Kolb, C. E., McManus, J. B.,
Allwine, E. & Lamb, B. K. (1999). Methane emissions at nine landfill sites in the
northeastern United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(12), 20882094.
Moss, H. (1997). Dynamotive Technologies. UK Ltd, Bedford.
Murphy, R. J. (1993). Optimization of landfill mining, Technical Report, Center for Solid and
Hazardous Waste Management and the Collier County Government of Naples, Florida.
Pacey, J. (1989). Enhancement of degradation: large-scale experiments, In sanitary landfilling
process, technology and environmental impact, Christensen, T.H., Cossu R. and
Stegmann R. eds, Academic Press, London, UK, 103- 119.
Pacey, J., Augenstein, D., Mork, R., Reinhart, D. & Yazdani, R. (1999). The bioreactor
landfill: an innovation in solid waste management. SWANA, Silver Springs, Maryland.
Pareek, S., Matsui, S., Kim, S. K. & Shimizu, Y. (1999). Mathematical modeling and
simulation of methane gas production in simulated landfill column reactors under
sulfidogenic and methanogenic environments. Water Science and Technology, 39(7),
235-242.
Pescod, M. B. (Ed.) 199193. Urban Solid Waste Management. World Health Organization,
Copenhagen.
Pohland, F. G. (1992). Assessment of solid waste and remaining stabilization potential after
exposure to leachate recirculation at a municipal landfill. Prepared for Post, Buckley,
Schuh & Jernigan, Inc. Project No. 07-584.18. Cited in Al-Yousfi et al. (1998).
Qin, W., Egolfopoulos, F. N. & Tsotsis, T. T. (2001). Fundamental and environmental aspects
of landfill gas utilization for power generation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 82,
157172.
Rees, J. F. (1980). The fate of carbon-compounds in the landfill disposal of organic-matter.
Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 30(4), 161-175.
Rees, J. F. & Grainger, J. M. (1982). Rubbish dump or fermenter? Prospects for the control of
refuse fermentation to methane in landfills. Process Biochemistry, 17(6), 41-44, 1982
Reinhart, D. R. & AlYousfi, A. B. (1996). The impact of leachate recirculation on municipal
solid waste landfill operating characteristics. Waste Management & Research, 14(4),
337-346.
Reinhart, D. R. & Townsend, T. G. (1998). Landfill bioreactor design and operation, Lewis
Publisher, New York
Reinhart, D. R., McCreanor, P. T. & Townsend, T. (2002). The bioreactor landfill: Its status
and future. Waste Management & Research, 20(2), 172-186.
San, I. & Onay, T. T. (2001). Impact of various leachate recirculation regimes on municipal
solid waste degradation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 87(1-3), 259-271.
Scheff, P., Casten, C., Ruesch, P. & Friedl, M. (2001). In, Environmental Health Risk,
Fajzieva D. and Brebbie C.A. (Eds.), WIT Press, Southampton UK.
Sponza, D. T. & Agdag, O. N. (2004). Impact of leachate recirculation and recirculation
volume on stabilization of municipal solid wastes in simulated anaerobic bioreactors.
Process Biochemistry, 39(12), 2157-2165.
Sponza, D. T. & Agdag, O. N. (2005). Effects of shredding of wastes on the treatment of
municipal solid wastes (MSWs) in simulated anaerobic recycled reactors. Enzyme and
Microbial Technology, 36(1), 25-33.
Stecker, P. (1989). Active landfill gas recovery systems. University of Wisconsin Sanitary
Landfill Leachate and Gas Management Seminar, Madison, WI, December 4-7, 1989.
65
Stegmann, R. (1983). New aspects on enhancing biological processes in sanitary landfill.

Waste Management and Research, 1(1), 201- 211.
Stegmann, R. (1996). Landfill gas utilisation: An overview. In, Landfilling of Waste: Biogas.
T. H. Christensen, R. Cossu, & R. Stegmann (Eds.), E & FN Spon, London.
Stessel, R. I. & Murphy, R. J. (1992). A lysimeter study of the aerobic landfill concept. Waste
Management and Research, 10, 485-503.
Suk, H., Lee, K. K. & Lee, C. H. (2000). Biologically reactive multispecies transport in
sanitary landfill. Journal of Environmental Engineering-ASCE, 126(5), 419-427.
Tchobanoglous, G. & OLeary, P. R. (1994). Landfilling. In Handbook of Solid Waste
Management, F. Kreith, (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. & Vigil, S. (1993). Integrated solid waste management,
Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Chapter
11, pp. 361-540.
Tchobanouglous, G. et al. (1977). Solid wastes: engineering principles and management
issues. New York: McGraw-Hill.
UK Department of Energy (1992). Practical landfill gas flow monitoring, report by Gibb
Environmental Sciences, Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), Report Ref: ETSU B
1317, 30pp
US Army Corps of Engineers (2008). Landfill off-gas collection and treatment systems. EM
1110-1-4016 http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs.
USEPA (2007). Bioreactor Performance. Office of Solid Waste, Municipal and Industrial
Solid Waste Management Division, EPA530-R-07-007.
Ward, R. S., Williams, G. M. & Hills, C. C. (1996). Changes in major and trace components
of landfill gas during subsurface migration, Waste Management and Research, 14,
243-261.
Warith, M. (2002). Bioreactor landfills: Experimental and field results. Waste Management,
22(1), 7-17.
Warith, M. A. (2003). Solid waste management: New trends in landfill design. Emirates
Journal of Engineering Research, 8(1), 61-70.
Warith, M. & Sharma, R. (1998). Technical review of methods to enhance biological
degradation in sanitary landfill. Water Quality. Res. J. Canada, 33(3), 417-437.
Waste Landfill Directive. (1999). Council Directive 1999/31/EC, L 182/1, 26.4.1999. Landfill
of Waste Official Journal of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium.
Waste Management Paper 26. (1986). Landfilling Wastes. HMSO, London.
Waste Management Paper 26B. (1995). Landfill design, construction and operational
practice. Department of the Environment, HMSO, London.
Waste Management Paper 27. (1994). Landfill Gas. Department of the Environment, HMSO,
London.
White, J., Ren, Q. & Robinson, J. (2003). A framework to contain a spatially distributed
model of the degradation of solid waste in landfills. Waste Management and Research
21, 330- 345.
White, J., Robinson, J. & Ren, Q. C. (2004). Modelling the biochemical degradation of solid
waste in landfills. Waste Management, 24(3), 227-240.
Yari, S. (1986). Fate of selected organic priority pollutants during the methane phase of
landfill stabilization. MS. Thesis, Georgia Inst. of Technology.
66
Yildiz, E. D., Unlu, K. & Rowe, R. K. (2004). Modelling leachate quality and quantity in
municipal solid waste landfills. Waste Management & Research, 22(2), 78-92.
Young, A. (1989). Mathematical-modeling of landfill degradation. Journal of Chemical
Technology and Biotechnology, 46(3), 189-208.
Zacharof, A. I. & Butler, A. P. (2004). Stochastic modelling of landfill leachate and biogas
production incorporating waste heterogeneity. model formulation and uncertainty
analysis. Waste Management, 24(5), 453-462.
Zee, D. J. van der, Achterkamp, M. C. & de Visser, B. J. (2003). Assessing the opportunities
of landfill mining. Research Report 03B39, University of Groningen, Research Institute
SOM (Systems, Organizations and Management)
NOTATIONS
The following symbols are used in this chapter:
(AEERL):
BECH 4,SWDS , y :
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory

Methane emissions avoided during the year y from preventing waste
DOC f :
disposal at the solid waste disposal site during the period from the
start of the project activity to the end of the year y (tCO2e)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Clean Air Act
Clean Development Mechanism
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Clean Water Act
Crow Wing County Landfill
Degradable Organic Carbon
Fraction of degradable organic carbon (DOC) that can decompose
(EPA):
(EU):
f:
Environmental Protection Agency

European Union
Fraction of methane captured and flared, combusted or used in
(BOD):
(CAA):
(CDM):
(CERCLA):
(CH4):
(CO2):
(COD):
(CWA):
(CWC):
(DOC):
GWPCH 4 :
another manner
Fraction of methane in the SWDS gas (volume fraction)
First Order Decay
GreenHouse Gases
Global Warming Potential
Global Warming Potential (GWP) of methane, valid for the relevant
(HDPE):
(H2S):
commitment period
High Density Polyethylene
Hydrogen Sulfide
F:
(FOD):
(GHG):
(GWP):
i:
67
(IPCC):
k:
1Year
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Methane generation rate (per year)
kj:
Decay rate for the waste type j
j:
L0 :
Potential methane generation capacity of the waste (m3/Mg)
(LFG):
Mi :
Landfill Gas
Mass of waste accepted in the year I (Mg)
MCF:
(MSW):
n:
(NIMBY):
(NMOC):
(NMVOC):
(NSPS):
(OSHA):
OX:
(PAFC):
(POTW):
QCH 4 :
Methane correction factor for aerobic decomposition of waste

Municipal Solid Waste
(year of the calculation)- (initial year of waste acceptance)
Not in My Back Yard
Non-Methane Organic Compounds
Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds.
New Source Performance Standards
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Oxidation factor (reflecting the amount of methane that is oxidized
in the soil or other material covering the waste
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Publicly Owned Treatment Works
Annual Methane generation in the year of the calculation (m3/year)
Qmethane :
Methane flow rate (m3/min)
(RCRA):
(RDF):
(SWANA):
(SWDSs):
tij :
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Refuse Derived Fuel
Solid Waste Association of North America
Solid Waste Disposal Sites
Age of the jth section of waste mass M i accepted in the ith year
(TOC):
(TSS):
(UNFCC):
(VOC):
w:
W:
(WAC):
x:
y:
Total Organic Carbon

Total Suspended Solids
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Volatile Organic Compounds
Mass of refuse (Mg)
Mass of the waste deposited in the landfill
Waste Acceptance Criteria
Year during the crediting period: x runs from the first year of the
first crediting period (x = 1) to the year y for which avoided
emissions are calculated (x = y)
Year for which methane emissions are calculated
Model correction factor to account for model uncertainties
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 2
LANDFILL GAS: GENERATION

MODELS AND ENERGY RECOVERY
Lidia Lombardi
Dipartimento di Energetica Sergio Stecco
Universit degli Studi di Firenze
Via Santa Marta, 3, 50139 Firenze, Italy
ABSTRACT
In this chapter different landfill gas production mathematical models have been
analysed, implemented and compared among themselves and with data collected from
existing landfills. These models will be presented in the chapter. One of these models has
been selected for application to some study cases. The selected model is based on firstorder decay equation and considers as basic inputs the years of landfill operation, the
amount of municipal solid waste landfilled per year, the municipal solid waste
component characterisation and biodegradability. Three different behaviours, in reference
to biodegradation rate, have been considered dividing the material categories into rapidly,
moderately and slowly biodegradable. The model has been used to predict the landfill gas
production of a case-study landfill in order to properly size the energy recovery system.
In particular, reciprocating engines were considered for energy recovery purposes. The
landfill gas energy recovery by means of reciprocating engines is a quite widespread
practice in modern landfills, but the energy recovery system definition and sizing, also in
reference to its economic convenience, is a crucial and tricky issue. For this reason, the
selection of an appropriate combination of engines has been carried out with the aim of
obtaining the maximum profits from selling the produced electric energy. The obtained
configuration for energy recovery was evaluated also from an energetic and
environmental point of view, estimating the overall contribution to Greenhouse Effect
from escaped landfill gas, collected and combusted landfill gas and recovered electric
energy avoided emissions.
Further, in order to investigate the management possibilities to enhance energy
recovery, the behaviour of a landfill where leachate is recirculated was observed,
recording a more concentrated landfill gas production in a shorter time than in
Tel. +39 055 4796349; Fax +39 055 4796342; lidia.lombardi@pin.unifi.it
70
Lidia Lombardi
conventional landfills - and reproduced by means of adapting the landfill gas production
model. The landfill gas production and energy recovery for the conventional landfill and
the landfill with leachate recirculation were compared from different points of view:
economic evaluation, energy conversion and environmental impact. The economic
analysis showed that the specific disposal cost is lower for the landfill with leachate
recirculation with respect to the conventional landfill. Moreover, the landfill with
leachate recirculation shows better indicator values both for the overall energy
conversion efficiency and for Greenhouse Effect specific emission.
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy recovery from landfill gas (LFG) is strongly recommended as a means to reduce
the environmental impact, in terms of Greenhouse Effect (GHE), arising from landfills
containing biodegradable wastes (Lombardi et al., 2006). As a matter of fact, biodegradable
organic matter contained in Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) is degraded by anaerobic
biological processes in landfills giving place to a LFG, which is approximately composed of
50% methane and 50% carbon dioxide. Hence the LFG has two main features: it is composed
of two of the main Greenhouse gases and it has a not negligible heating value (approximately
16.000-17.000 kJ/Nm3).
Simple flare combustion of LFG allows reducing landfill GHE contribution converting
methane to carbon dioxide, since Global Warming Potential (GWP) of methane is twenty-one
times larger (on mass basis) than GWP of carbon dioxide. When LFG is combusted with
energy recovery, both thermal and electric energy can be delivered and landfill GHE is
further reduced, considering the avoided emissions from conventional sources of energy, in
place of which LFG is exploited.
The proper design of LFG collection and energy recovery system needs to be based on an
adequate LFG production estimation during the landfill operation and post-closure phases,
this can be done through LFG production modelling.
2. LANDFILL GAS CHARACTERISTICS

AND GENERATION MECHANISMS
LFG is composed of a number of gases that are present in large amounts (the principal
gases) and a number of gases that are present in very small amounts (the trace gases). The
principal gases are produced from the decomposition of the organic fraction of municipal
solid waste (OFMSW) and they include mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), but
also ammonia (NH3), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) can be present.
Trace constituents mainly belong to the VOCs family. The typical percentage composition of
LFG is reported in Table 1.
The generation of LFG takes place in different steps. At the beginning, as OFMSW is
placed in the landfill, it undergoes microbial decomposition in aerobic conditions, because
certain amount of air is trapped within the waste (phase I). When oxygen is depleted,
anaerobic conditions begin to develop and after a transition phase (phase II), during which the
oxidation/reduction potential decreases, the acid phase (phase III) starts, consisting in
71
hydrolysis of higher molecular mass compounds into compounds suitable for use by
microorganisms as a source of energy and cell carbon, followed by the acidogenesis of the
previous formed compounds to produce lower-molecular mass intermediate compounds, as
typified mainly by acetic acid (CH3COOH). Carbon dioxide is the principal gas generated in
this phase. Small amounts of hydrogen gas will also be produced.
Table 1. Typical composition of LFG (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)
Component
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon monoxide
Percent
(dry volume basis)
45-60
40-60
2-5
0,1-1,0
0-0,2
Component
Sulfides, disulfides,
mercaptans, etc.
Ammonia
Hydrogen
Trace constituents
Percent
(dry volume basis)
0-1,0
0,1-1,0
0-0,2
0,01-0,6
The microorganisms involved in this conversion, described collectively as

nonmethanogenic, consist of facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria. In the following
phase the methane fermentation phase (phase IV) a second group of microorganisms, which
convert the acetic acid and the hydrogen to methane and carbon dioxide, becomes more
predominant. The microorganisms responsible for this phase are strict anaerobes and are
called methanogenic. In this phase both methane and acid formation proceed simultaneously,
although the rate of acid formation is considerably reduced. Finally the last phase the
maturation phase (phase V) occurs when almost all the readily available biodegradable
organic material has been converted. The rate of LFG generation decreases significantly
because most of the available nutrients have been previously removed and the remaining
substrates are slowly biodegradable.
The duration of the individual phases in the production of LFG will vary depending on
the distribution of the organic components in the landfill, the availability of nutrients, the
moisture content of waste, moisture routing through the landfill and the degree of initial
compaction.
Figure 1. Generalised phases in the generation of LFG (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993).
72
Lidia Lombardi
3. MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR LANDFILL GAS

PRODUCTION PREDICTION
Mathematical models for LFG production prediction are tools used to estimate, along the
time, gas or methane production from a given amount of waste starting from some input data
supplied by the model user.
In technical literature several models have been proposed (EMCON, 1980) (Boyle, 1976)
(Ham, 1979) (Halvadakis, 1983) (Findikakis, 1988) (Christensen et al., 1996) (Swarbrick and
Lethlean, 1995) (Young, 1995) (Bonori et al., 2001) in order to both estimate the potential
amount of LFG that can be produced from a given amount of waste and forecasting the
temporal evolution of LFG production.
The models proposed in literature can be classified into: empirical models, stoichiometric
models, biochemical models and ecological models.
Empirical models are based on black box approach, correlating input, related to typology
of landfilled waste, and output related to LFG production, in reference to collected data from
existing landfills and experimental data. These kind of models are very site and data specific.
Stoichiometric models are based on a global stoichiometric reaction, in which the
reactant is waste, represented by an empirical chemical formula, and the products include
methane and carbon dioxide. Stoichiometric models differ in the selected stoichiometric
reaction, in waste components considered and whether they include or not cellular growth.
Obtainable results are generally overestimated, since actual biodegradation efficiency is not
taken into account.
Biochemical models are based on biodegradable substrate removal equations, using more
or less complex kinetics, considering more or less substrates and including or not the
parameters influencing the degradation (temperature, moisture, compaction, etc).
Ecological models describes the dynamic coexistence of the different bacterial
populations which compete in the waste degradation. Actually these are the only models
which are able to highlight nutrients imbalances and substrate characteristics, but their
application is quite complex due to the non homogeneous characteristics of landfills and
moreover it is too onerous in the frame of LFG collection and recovery.
However, quite often the proposed models are a mixing of different elements, mainly
using a stoichiometric sub-model which uses waste composition as input, supplying the
amount of biodegradable compounds as output, and a biochemical-kinetic sub-model which
supplies the evolution during the time of LFG from biodegradable compounds, on the basis of
some parameters as temperature, moisture, etc.
In this chapter the attention is focused on four previously proposed models which are: the
Triangular model (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993; Bonori et al., 2001); the Scholl Canyon
equation model (Department of the Army U.S., 1995); the LandGEM model (EPA, 2005) and
a modified version of first order decay model (Van Zanten and Scheepers 1995).
The Triangular Model

In the triangular model, a linear growth of the LFG production rate is assumed until it
reaches a peak after which a linear decrement starts (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993), as shown in
73
Figure 2. In the original version, LFG production is assumed to start at the end of the first
year of full landfill operation and to finish after a finite time tend. The area under the triangle is
equal to one half the base (which represents the time during which LFG production lasts)
times the altitude (which represents the peak rate of LFG production), therefore, the total
amount of LFG produced from an amount Ri of waste placed in landfill at year i is equal to:
Ri L0 =
1
(tend ,i t0,i ) QLFG ,max,i
2
(1)
LFG production rate [m3 /year]
where:
L0 = waste potential gas production [m3/t]
tend,i = time during which gas production takes place [year]
t0,i = time at which LFG production starts for waste placed at year i [year]
QLFG,i,max = maximum gas production rate [m3/(t year)]
Ri = amount of waste placed in landfill at year i [t]
Q LFG smax
year
t end - t 0
Figure 2. Triangular distribution of LFG production rate.
The triangular model, in the original version (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993), considers two
different behaviours in biodegradation rate, distinguishing waste components in rapidly
biodegradable, which are degraded within five years or less, and slowly biodegradable, which
require up to fifty years for degradation. For each of the two categories a triangular LFG
production distribution is assumed, characterised by a different peak rate time. The total rate
of LFG production from a landfill operated for a given time is obtained graphically as
shown in Figure 3 - by summing the LFG produced from the rapidly and slowly
biodegradable portions of waste deposited each year.
In the present chapter, as it will be described later, the Triangular model has been applied
considering three different behaviours in biodegradation rate, distinguishing waste
components in rapidly, moderately and slowly biodegradable.
74
Lidia Lombardi
Figure 3.. Graphical representation of LFG production over a five-year period from the rapidly and
slowly decomposable organic materials in landfill (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993).
Analytically, the LFG production rate in the Triangular model can be described as a
function of time as it follows:
QLFG ,t ,i = 0, t i t 0,i
growing phase : QLFG ,t ,i = QLFG ,max,i
t i t 0 ,i
t max,i t 0,i
decreasing phase : QLFG ,t ,i = QLFG ,max,i
, t 0,i t i t max,i
t max,i t i
t end ,i t max,i
, t max,i t i t end ,i
(2)
QLFG ,t ,i = 0, t i t end ,i
where:
QLFG,t,i = LFG production rate at year t for waste placed at year i [m3/(t year)]
tmax,i = time at which LFG production reaches the peak for waste placed at year i [year]
In order to estimate the current emissions from waste placed in all years, Equation 1 and
Equation 2 can be solved for all values of Ri and the results summed:
QLFG ,t =
LFG ,t ,i
i =initial year
(3)
75
First Order Decay Model: The Scholl Canyon Equation

The Scholl Canyon Model is a model which assumes that LFG generation is a function of
first-order kinetics. This model ignores the first two stages of bacterial activity and is simply
based on the observed characteristics of substrate-limited bacterial growth. The LFG
production rate is assumed to be at its peak upon initial placement after a negligible lag time
in the original version - during which anaerobic conditions are established and decreases
exponentially (first-order decay) as the organic content of the waste is consumed (Department
of the Army U.S., 1995). Average annual placement rates are used, and the time
measurements are in years. The model equation takes the form:
(4)
QLFG = Ravg L0 (e kc e kT )
where:
QLFG= LFG generation rate at time T [m3/year]
L0= waste potential LFG generation capacity [m3/t]
Ravg = average annual acceptance rate of waste [t/year]
k = LFG generation rate constant [1/year]
c = time since landfill closure [year] (c = 0 for active landfills)
T = time since initial waste placement [year]
To allow for variances in annual acceptance rates, the derivative of Equation 4 with
respect to the time can be used to estimate LFG generation from waste landfilled in a single
year (Ri) (IPCC, 1996). In this equation, the variable T is replaced with t-i, which represents
the number of years the waste has been in the landfill. The resulting equation thus becomes:
(5)
QLFG ,t ,i = L0 k Ri e k ( t i )
QLFG,t,i = the amount of LFG generated in the current year (t) by the waste Ri [m3/year]
Ri = amount of waste disposed in year i [t/year]
i = the year of waste placement [year]
t = current year [year]
In order to estimate the current emissions from waste placed in all years, Equation 5 can
be solved for all values of Ri and the results summed:
QLFG ,t =
i = initial year
QLFG ,t ,i =
R L
i
i = initial year
k e k (t i )
(6)
Lag time due to the establishment of anaerobic conditions could also be incorporated into
the model by replacing t by t + lag time. The lag time before which anaerobic conditions
are established may range from two-hundred days to several years (Department of the Army
U.S., 1995):
76
Lidia Lombardi
QLFG , t , i = Ri L0 k e k ( t i lag )
(7)
lag = time to reach anaerobic conditions [year]
Software Application of First Order Decay Model: Landgem

U.S. EPA developed LandGEM (Landfill Gas Emissions Model), which is a software for
quantifying LFG emissions, based on the application of Scholl Canyon model in the form of
equation (6) (EPA, 2005).
The required inputs for estimating the amount of generated LFG are: design capacity of
the landfill; amount of waste in place or the annual acceptance rate; the LFG generation rate
constant k and LFG generation potential L0; the number of years of waste acceptance. Default
values for k and L0 can be used or site-specific values can be introduced. The software can be
operated under the Windows environment. Graphs and reports of estimated gas emissions can
be produced.
Modified First Order Model

A modified version of the first order decay model assumes that LFG generation is
initially low and then rises to a maximum before declining exponentially. The equation of this
model is represented by Equation 8 (Van Zanten and Scheepers, 1995):
QLFG ,t ,i = Ri Lo
k+s
(1 e s ( t ilag ) )k e k ( t ilag )
s
(8)
where
s = rise phase LFG generation rate constant [1/year]
4. THE ESTIMATION OF K AND L0 IN THE MODELS

The tricky parameters for the first order models are the gas generation rate constant (k)
and the waste potential LFG generation capacity (L0).
The potential for LFG generation capacity, usually expressed as the volume of gas per
mass of waste, can be estimated based on theoretical prediction, laboratory experiments or
actual gas production data. At present, there is no method for determining gas potential that is
without fault (Reinhart and Faour, 2005).
Experimental procedure to evaluate the gas potential has been developed (biochemical
methane potential - ASTM Method E1196-92), which determines the methane yield of an
organic material during its anaerobic decomposition by a mixed microbial flora in a defined
medium. Such a procedure has been modified for solid waste (Owens and Chynoweth, 1992),
so biochemical methane potential values are available for various waste fractions. Hence on
77
the basis of waste component characterization, L0 can be calculated as weighted average of

biochemical methane potential values.
Actual gas production data have been collected from lysimeters, pilot-scale cells, and
full-scale landfills. However, the drawback of utilizing these data is that they reflect gas
recovered, not gas generated. Gas recovery efficiency is believed to be far less than 100% and
depends on many factors such as the presence and integrity of a cover and the type and
quality of the gas collection system. The presence of cracks and fissures will reduce
collection efficiency. In addition, these studies rarely last sufficiently long to actually reach
the point of total gas production. Further, other data necessary, such as waste mass and actual
dates of placement, for determining methane potential may not be available (Reinhart and
Faour, 2005).
Theoretical predictions are based on the chemical composition of the waste and would
give absolute maximum gas potential. In reality, gas generation would never reach this
potential due to the inaccessibility of some waste, the inability to biodegrade all organic
wastes, and the likely production of other non-methane carbon compounds other than carbon
dioxide. Consequently, theoretical gas potential must be adjusted by a biodegradability factor,
also based on various assumptions (Reinhart and Faour, 2005).
The first-order rate constant, k, controls the rate of decline of the first-order model and,
consequently, the period of LFG generation predicted by the model. As the value of k
increases, the duration of LFG production declines. It would be expected that as conditions
within a landfill are optimized with respect to waste degradation (i.e., moisture content,
temperature, biodegradability of the waste, etc.), k would increase, assuming that L0 remains
the same (Reinhart and Faour, 2005).
In the present chapter both L0 and k have been estimated on theoretical basis, in reference
to a component characterization of the waste, specific for the analysed site and reported in
Table 2, using a stoichiometric based approach. For each material component the chemical
composition, the moisture and the biodegradability coefficients reported in Table 2 have been
assumed (Tchobanoglous,1993).
On the basis of component characterisation of waste, chemical composition of each
component and biodegradability of each component it is possible to describe the
biodegradable fraction, with reference to the unit mass of waste, by the generic formula
CaHbOcNdSe. In calculating the biodegradable fraction, it was also considered that not all the
biodegradable fraction is available for being converted to LFG according to an efficiency
depending on the landfill body temperature as it follows (Tabasaran, 1982):
Biodegradable fraction availability = 0,014 Temp + 0,28
(9)
where Temp is the landfill body temperature expressed in C. Assuming a landfill body
temperature of 35C the biodegradable fraction availability results 0,77.
The biodegradation process of the organic biodegradable fraction to form the LFG can be
described by the global stoichiometric reaction (Tchobanoglous,1993):
C a H b Oc N d S e + w H 2 O x CH 4 + y CO2 + z NH 3 + k H 2 S
(10)
Table 2. Waste component characterisation for the study case site and assumed values for chemical composition,
moisture and biodegradability
Organic fraction
Paper and cardboard
Plastics
Textile
Pruning scrap
Wood
Glass and inert
Metals
Sewage sludge
Component
characterization %
17,53%
32,20%
16,83%
6,20%
2,46%
6,31%
10,61%
3,86%
4,00%
C
%SS
28,70%
44,40%
70,50%
39,60%
45,50%
49,50%
0,50%
0,50%
47,07%
H
%SS
3,10%
4,40%
11,50%
6,50%
8,70%
6,00%
0,10%
0,60%
6,74%
O
%SS
29,20%
40,90%
11,30%
25,30%
20,10%
42,70%
0,40%
4,30%
26,43%
N
%SS
1,90%
0,10%
0,90%
5,60%
1,80%
0,20%
0,10%
0,10%
5,97%
S
%SS
0,60%
0,30%
0,90%
0,70%
0,20%
0,10%
0,00%
0,00%
2,24%
Inert
%SS
36,50%
9,90%
4,90%
22,30%
23,70%
1,50%
98,90%
94,50%
11,54%
Moisture
%
70,00%
5,50%
2,00%
10,00%
60,00%
20,00%
2,00%
3,00%
70%
Biodegradability
%
82%
50%
0%
54%
60%
72%
0%
0%
57,5%
Table 3. Values assumed for gas generation rate constant, rise phase gas generation rate constant (for modified first order model),
potential gas generation capacity and lag time of materials with different biodegradation velocity
k [1/year] k [1/year]
Rapidly biodegradable
fractions
Moderately biodegradable
fractions
Organic fraction
Pruning scrap
Paper and cardboard

Textile
Slowly biodegradable fractions Wood
Sewage sludge
* input to LandGEM
0,36
0,15
0,07
L0 [Nm3/t]
13,44
Calculated as
weighted
29,54
average*
0,139
29,69
L0 [Nm3/t]
Calculated as
weighted
average*
24,59
Lag Time [year]
s [1/year]
0,3
1,155
0,346
0,231
79
Applying the stoichiometric balance to the reaction above it is possible to obtain the
stoichiometric coefficients w, x, y, z and k as a function of a, b, c, d, e:
4a b 2c + 3d + 2e
C a H bOc N d S e +
H 2O
4
4a + b 2c 3d 2e
4a b + 2c + 3d + 2e
CH 4 +
CO2 + dNH 3 + eH 2 S
8
8
(11)
Hence, total number of dry kilomoles of LFG will be:
LFG kmol ,dry = x + y + z + k =
4a + b 2c 3d 2e 4a b + 2c + 3d + 2e
+
+ d + e = a + d + e [kmol
8
8
(12)
In order to consider the presence of water vapour in the LFG it has been assumed that the
gas is saturated with water vapour. From the total number of kilomoles it is then possible to
calculate the potential gas generation capacity (L0):
L0 [ Nm
] = LFGmol [kmol ] 22,414[ Nm

]
t
t
kmol
(13)
Actually, the different components of waste undergo biodegradation according to

different degradation rates. The different behaviours have been considered distinguishing the
materials in rapidly, moderately and slowly biodegradable, according to (EMCON, 1980).
After a literature review (Nutting, 2001) (US-EPA, 1995) (IGES, 2000) (Metcalf and Eddy
(1991) (Baldwin et al., 1998) (Hartz et al., 1982) (Warith and Sharma, 1998) (Lifshits and
Galueva, 1997) (McBean et al., 2005) (Christensen et al., 1996), different values for LFG
generation rate constant have been assumed for each class of materials with different
biodegradation velocity, as reported in Table 3.
Also the potential LFG generation capacities (L0) for each class of material with different
biodegradation velocity were calculated separately (calculated values are reported in Table 3)
in order to apply the models when this is allowed by the model itself in order to proceed
with separate calculations and adding up the three contributions of LFG production.
From Equation 11 it is, also, possible to calculate LFG composition, which, in this case,
results: CH4 48,23%; CO2 47,95%; NH3 3,39%; H2S 0,42 %. The composition is assumed
not to change during the time.
5. APPLICATION OF THE MODELS TO A STUDY CASE

The above described models with the exception of LandGEM have been implemented
using a calculation worksheet. In reference to Scholl Canyon model, LandGEM and modified
first order model the input data consisted in: amount of waste landfilled yearly; potential LFG
80
Lidia Lombardi
generation capacity; LFG generation rate constant. In the case of Scholl Canyon model and
modified first order model, calculation have been performed separately for group of waste
components with different biodegradation velocity, using values for potential LFG generation
capacity and LFG generation rate constant reported in Table 3. Also, for these two models, a
lag time was considered, as reported in Table 3.
Concerning the modified first order model, assumed values for the rise phase gas
generation rate constant (s) are reported in Table 3 (Youcai et al., 2002).
The LandGEM model does not offer the possibility of considering different velocities of
biodegradation for different materials, hence single average values were introduced for
potential gas generation capacity and gas generation rate constant, as reported in Table 3. It is
not possible to introduce lag time in the software.
The amount of waste landfilled yearly is reported in Table 4. The analysed site is a
landfill for non-hazardous waste with an overall capacity of about 3.700.000 m3 located in
central Italy. Values until seventh year are real data collected on-site, while values between
after eighth year are assumed according to the hypothesis of filling up the site authorised
capacity within the ninth year (last year of operation).
Table 4. Amount of waste landfilled yearly in the analysed site
Year
Waste [t]
Year
Waste [t]
1
2
3
4
5
6
171.929
263.606
260.453
315.214
246.159
259.896
7
8
9
10
11
278.634
240.000
240.000
240.000
240.000
The triangular model requires as inputs: amount of waste landfilled yearly; maximum gas
production rate (QLFG,max); time at which gas production starts (t0); time at which the peak rate
of gas production occurs (tmax); time at which gas production finishes (tend).
The maximum gas production rate (QLFG,max) was obtained from the total amount of
produced LFG i.e. potential gas generation capacity (L0) used for the other models, from
equation (1) according to:
QLFG ,max =
2 L0
t end t 0
(14)
Also in this model calculations have been performed separately for group of waste
components with different biodegradation velocity, adding up the results to obtain overall
LFG production. Assumed values for start time, peak rate time, end time and maximum LFG
production rate for each group of waste components with different biodegradation velocity,
are summarised in Table 5.
The results obtained applying the different models, according to the assumed inputs, are
shown in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7. Figure 8 shows the comparison of results obtained from the
different applied models.
81
Table 5. Assumed input parameters for Triangular model

Rapidly biodegradable
fractions
0
1,92
9,63
2,78
t0 [year]
tmax [year]
tend [year]
QLFG,max [Nm3/t]
Moderately biodegradable
fractions
0
4,62
23,10
2,55
Slowly biodegradable
fractions
0
9,90
49,51
1,19
1,2E+07
1,0E+07
Nm3
8,0E+06
6,0E+06
4,0E+06
2,0E+06
0,0E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
Year
Rapidly biodegradable fractions

Slowly biodegradable fractions
Moderately biodegradable fractions
Figure 4. Results of LFG production, for each group of waste components with different biodegradation
velocity, obtained by the application of Scholl Canyon model.
Results obtained from the different models have been compared with the data of collected
LFG at the landfill site during three years of operation, which are reported in Table 6. For the
analysed landfill site, the estimation escaped LFG from the landfill surface, is available from
a measuring campaign previously carried out, by means of the accumulation chamber method
(Cardellini et al., 2003) (Brjesson et al., 2000) (Raco et al., 2005) during the sixth year of
operation. The specific carbon dioxide emission resulting from those previous measurements
is 350 g/(m2 day). Assuming a composition of LFG of 50% CH4 and 50% CO2 and an
overall landfill surface of about 90.000 m2 (at sixth year), the amount escaped LFG is about
11.713.862 Nm3 in the sixth year. This allows the estimation of the LFG collection efficiency,
as shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Collected LFG data, estimated escaped LFG at the studied landfill site
and estimated collection efficiency
Year
5
6
7
Collected LFG [Nm3]

7.500.000
7.707.818
11.500.000
Escaped LFG [Nm3]

11.713.862
-
Estimated collection efficiency [%]

40
-
82
Lidia Lombardi
1,2E+07
1,0E+07
Nm3
8,0E+06
6,0E+06
4,0E+06
2,0E+06
0,0E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
Year

velocity, obtained by the application of modified first order model.
1,20E+07
1,00E+07
Nm3
8,00E+06
6,00E+06
4,00E+06
2,00E+06
0,00E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
Year
Figure 6. Results of overall LFG production, obtained by the application of LandGEM model.
81
83
1,20E+07
1,00E+07
Nm3
8,00E+06
6,00E+06
4,00E+06
2,00E+06
0,00E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
Year
46

51
56
61
66
71
76
81
velocity, obtained by the application of Triangular model.
2,50E+07
2,00E+07
Nm3
1,50E+07
1,00E+07
5,00E+06
0,00E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
Year
Scholl Canyon
Modified first order
Triangular
LandGEM
Figure 8. Comparison of results obtained from the different applied models.
Applying the estimated collection efficiency to the model results, it is possible to estimate
the collected LFG from the model results and compare it with the collected LFG measured
data available for the fifth, sixth and seventh year, as shown in Figure 9.
From a first look at Figure 9, it is evident that the model which fits better the measured
data, at least in the years for which data are available, is the Scholl Canyon one. For these
reasons the selected model is the Scholl Canyon one.
84
Lidia Lombardi
2,50E+07
2,00E+07
Nm3
1,50E+07
1,00E+07
5,00E+06
0,00E+00
5
Year
Measured collected landfill gas

Triangular - collected
LandGEM - collected
Scholl Canyon - collected

Modified first order - collected
Figure 9. Comparison of results obtained from the different applied models with the data of collected
LFG.
6. ENERGY RECOVERY
The selected Scholl Canyon model has been used to predict the LFG production for the
case-study landfill in order to properly size the energy recovery system along the time. In
particular, reciprocating engines were considered for energy recovery purpose. The LFG
energy recovery by means of reciprocating engines is a quite wide spread practice in modern
landfills, but the energy recovery system definition and sizing, also in reference to its
economic convenience, is a crucial and tricky issue.
For this reason, the selection of the engine configuration along the time has been carried
out with the aim of obtaining the maximum profits from selling the produced electric energy.
It has been assumed that no LFG collection takes place until the fifth year included, then
the assumed collection efficiency coefficient is equal to 40% for the sixth and seventh years,
and 60% for the following years (on the basis of the designed improved collection network in
the specific plant).
Several sizes of engine have been considered with reference to existing Jenbacher
engines (kWe 143, kWe 330, kWe 511, kWe 625, kWe 836, kWe 1048, kWe 1413, kWe
1698). The amount of potential electric energy has been calculated according to:
EE = el LHV LFG VLFG

where:
EE = electric energy [kW]
el = engine electric energy conversion efficiency
VLFG = LFG flow rate [Nm3/h]
LHVLFG = LFG low heating value [kWh/Nm3]
(12)
85
The values of engine maximum LFG flow rate and energy conversion efficiency were
retrieved from Jenbacher engine technical forms. Energy conversion efficiency was
considered dependant on the engine load (i.e. decreasing when load decreases) according to
the indications on Jenbacher engine technical forms.
On the basis of the LFG collected yearly, obtained from the Scholl Canyon model, it is
possible to estimate the appropriate size and number of reciprocating engines required every
year for the LFG exploitation, considering as constraints the maximum load (i.e. maximum
LFG flow rate) for each engine and 90.000 hours as maximum amount of operating hours for
each engine (about ten years).
As a matter of fact, during the energy recovery time, different combinations of engine
sizes and numbers can be adopted to exploit the LFG: the selection of the final combination,
was carried out with the aim of maximising the profits coming from the balance of energy
system investment and maintenance costs and electric energy selling earnings.
Assuming the energy recovery to start at the sixth year of landfill operation and to finish
in year thirty-eight, a combination of engines which maximises the profit was found, based on
the use of one 143 kWe engine, three 625 kWe engines and two 1413 kWe engines,
distributed as shown in Figure 10.
3,00E+07
625 kWe
625 kWe
625 kWe
1413 kWe
1413 kWe
2,50E+07
143 kWe
143 kWe
2,00E+07
1,50E+07
1,00E+07
5,00E+06
0,00E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
Year
Recovered EE [kWh]
Produced LFG [Nm3]
Collected LFG [Nm3]
Figure 10. Results of produced LFG, collected LFG and recovered electric energy, with the indication
of the time during which engines have been used.
The economic evaluation was carried out considering the depreciation annual cost for the
engine investment (considering 6,5% interest rate and 10 years investment time), the
maintenance costs (assumed 0,03 /kWh for programmed maintenance plus 3% for non
programmed maintenance), the earnings for electric energy (EE) selling assuming a selling
price equal to 0,13 /kWh (considering an engine availability of 88%). Table 7 reports the
engine costs. Results in terms of produced EE, overall costs and earnings are reported in
Table 8.
86
Lidia Lombardi
The obtained configuration for energy recovery was evaluated also from an
environmental point of view, estimating the overall GHE produced, considering the
contribution due to the presence of both carbon dioxide and methane in the escaped LFG and
considering the contribution due to carbon dioxide (originally present in LFG and obtained
from methane combustion) in collected and combusted LFG.
Moreover, it is possible to consider that the amount of electric energy produced by the
engines fed with LFG, is no more produced by conventional energy system, this term can be
considered as an avoided effect of GHE emissions and then subtracted from the overall
balance. Being the specific emission of about 0,551 kg of equivalent CO2/kWh for electric
energy production (with reference to the Italian situation (ENEL, 1999)) the overall avoided
effect can be calculated. Table 9 summarises the above mentioned contributions.
Table 7. Investment costs and depreciation cost for the selected engines
Engine size
kWe 143
kWe 625
kWe 1413
Engine
cost []
252.000
377.000
689.300
Additional
cost []
282.500
282.500
282.500
Total investment
cost []
534.500
659.500
971.800
Depreciation
[/year]
74.351
91.740
135.182
Table 8. Costs and earnings for the LFG energy recovery system
Produced EE [kWh]
Total produced EE [kWh]
EE selling earnings []
Engine costs + maintenance costs []
Net profit []
Total net profit []
kWe143
6.513.868
188.678.178
846.803
751.249
95.553
17.997.791
kWe625
42.315.774
kWe1413
139.652.646
5.501.051
2.927.351
2.573.700
18.154.844
2.826.306
15.328.538
Table 9. Contributions to GHE during the landfill life time

GHE from escaped LFG [tCO2eq]
GHE from collected LFG [tCO2eq]
Total produced GHE [tCO2eq]
Avoided GHE form EE production [tCO2eq]
Net produced GHE [tCO2eq]
1.221.175
234.839
1.456.014
- 103.962
1.352.052
The simple collection and combustion of LFG (for example by means of flaring) offers
the possibility of reducing GHE with respect to uncontrolled emission of all LFG to
atmosphere (in that case the GHE production would be 2.199.035 tCO2eq and the reduction by
means of collection and combustion is about 34%). When EE is produced the contribution of
avoided GHE allows a further decrease of about 7%. From an energetic point of view, it is
possible to calculate an overall energy conversion efficiency, dividing the amount of
generated electric energy (Table 8) by the energy content of the LFG (considering the
87
calculated content of methane) generated in the landfill life time (both collected and non).
The value of the overall energy conversion efficiency results about 15%.
In order to highlight the contribution to natural resources conservation, and in particular
to saved conventional fossil fuels, the EE production from this renewable source allows to
save about 40.599 TEP (ton of equivalent petrol) (assuming an average energy conversion
efficiency of 37% for conventional plants).
7. MANAGEMENT OPTION TO IMPROVE ENERGY RECOVERY

The Scholl Canyon equation based model has been applied to a second study case in
order to evaluate the possibility of improving energy recovery from LFG by means of
leachate recirculation (Corti et al., 2005). The practice of leachate recirculation has been
studied in several laboratory cells, pilot cells and real landfills highlighting its beneficial
effects on the waste biodegradation process (Reinhart and Townsend, 1998).
In the present chapter, the aim is to highlight the behaviour differences between a landfill
where leachate recirculation takes place and a conventional landfill, by means of adapting the
Scholl Canyon equation based model previously described.
In order to define the different parameters to be used to describe a conventional landfill
and a landfill where leachate is recirculated, the above described model has been applied to
simulate the behaviour of an existing reference landfill, where MSW are deposited, in the two
periods in which it was operated without leachate recirculation and with leachate
recirculation. In order to do this, measured data from a landfill where leachate recirculation
takes place were considered and the Scholl Canyon equation based model was built around
data and inputs referred to the analysed landfill - reported in Table 10 and Table 11.
Table 10. Chemical composition of waste component fractions and their humidity,
biodegradability and biodegradation rate category
Material
Organic
matter
Paper and
cardboard
Plastics
Textiles
Pruning
scrap
Wood
Glass and
inert
Metals
Inert
Humidity
Biode
Grada
bility
Biode
Gradation
rate
28,70%
3,10%
29,20%
1,90%
0,60%
36,50%
70,00%
82%
Rapid
44,40%
4,40%
40,90%
0,10%
0,30%
9,90%
5,50%
50%
Moderate
70,50%
39,60%
11,50%
6,50%
11,30%
25,30%
0,90%
5,60%
0,90%
0,70%
4,90%
22,30%
2,00%
10,00%
0%
54%
Slow
45,50%
8,70%
20,10%
1,80%
0,20%
23,70%
60,00%
60%
Rapid
49,50%
6,00%
42,70%
0,20%
0,10%
1,50%
20,00%
72%
Slow
0,50%
0,10%
0,40%
0,10%
0,00%
98,90%
2,00%
0%
0,50%
0,60%
4,30%
0,10%
0,00%
94,50%
3,00%
0%
88
Lidia Lombardi
Table 11. Waste component characterisation, input parameters for Scholl Canyon
model and amount of MSW landfilled yearly in the analysed site
Material
Organic matter
Paper and cardboard
Plastics
Textiles
Pruning scrap
Wood
Glass and inert
Metals
Mass composition [%]

15,97
20,47
19,54
23,05
4,37
4,38
9,53
2,69
Lag time [year]

0,3
1
5
0,3
5
-
K[1/year]
0,69
0,14
0,05
0,69
0,05
-
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
MWS [t]
9.883
94.308
80.600
47.311
49.598
36.544
25.020
28.413
The application of the previously described Scholl Canyon equation based model,
applying a LFG collection efficiency of 0,75, supplied the results shown in Figure 11, which
are compared with the real data collected at the existing reference landfill. As a matter of fact
the model fits the real data properly in the period before starting the leachate recirculation
(the third year), but it fails after leachate recirculation starts. So, in order to fit the real data
after the third year, it is necessary to introduce a proportional coefficient between reaction
rate for a conventional landfill and a landfill with leachate recirculation, defined as reported
in Equation 13. It has been assumed that the LFG generation potential remains the same in the
case of presence or absence of leachate recirculation.
k CV = k LR
where, kCV = LFG generation rate constant for the conventional landfill [1/year]
kLR = LFG generation rate constant for the landfill with leachate recirculation [1/year]
Figure 11. Comparison of model results and collected data for the existing reference landfill.
(13)
89
With a value of in the range of 2-2,5, it is possible to obtain quite good accordance
between real data, after the recirculation beginning, and model results, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Model results applying different coefficients.
Further, the modified model has been applied to a hypothetical study case - characterised
by the waste component characterisation and amount of MSW yearly landfilled reported in
Table 12 - in order to understand the behaviour differences between a conventional landfill
and a landfill with leachate recirculation.
Table 12. Waste component characterisation and yearly landfilled amount
for the hypothetical study case
Material
Organic matter
Paper and cardboard
Plastics
Textiles
Pruning scrap
Wood
Glass and inert
Metals
Mass composition [%]

36,3
21,4
12,0
5,9
3,5
3,5
11,0
6,4
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
MSW [t]
113.873
111.163
107.655
104.538
101.775
99.521
98.865
The model results, in terms of produced LFG, are plotted in Figure 13. It is quite
important to note that in the case of landfill with leachate recirculation the 95% of LFG is
produced ten years before than in the conventional landfill case. This feature allows the
concentration of energy recovery during a smaller period of time.
90
Lidia Lombardi
1,40E+07
Conventional landfill
1,20E+07
Landfill with leachate recirculation
Nm3
1,00E+07
8,00E+06
6,00E+06
4,00E+06
2,00E+06
0,00E+00
1
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
Year
Figure 13. Comparison of model results LFG production - for landfill with leachate recirculation and
conventional landfill.
The accelerated biological degradation also strongly contributes to the volume reduction
of the landfilled waste. In order to evaluate the overall waste volume reduction it is necessary
to account for both the increasing density of the waste, due to the weight of the upper layers,
and the accelerated biodegradation. Assuming that waste density passes from 0,6 to 1 t/m3 in
thirty years and then it keeps constant, both in a conventional landfill and landfill with
leachate recirculation, and combining this effect with the material loss in LFG, it is possible
to estimate the overall volume reduction in the two cases. It was calculated that at the end of
the seventh year (last year of operation) in both plants the volume reduction allows further
landfilling, but while in the conventional landfill the recovered volume can host about 55.000
t, in the landfill with leachate recirculation about 80.000 t of waste can still be placed. This
possibility of higher recovered volumes and higher capacity has been accounted in the
following considering as input to the landfill with leachate recirculation the higher amount of
waste.
In order to understand the benefits that can derive from leachate recirculation, the two
hypothetical plants have been compared from an economic, environmental and energetic
point of view.
From an economic point of view, the considered investment costs included: bottom
impermeabilisation cost, LFG and leachate collection system costs and capping (Table 13).
In the case of landfill with leachate recirculation a horizontal piping system for both LFG
collection and leachate recirculation has been assumed (with a LFG collection efficiency of
about 70%), while for the conventional landfill a vertical LFG collection system (with a LFG
collection efficiency of about 60%) and a separate conventional leachate draining system
were considered.
In order to properly calculate the annual instalment connected to the investments relative
to bottom impermebilisation, collection system, capping and flaring it is necessary to consider
91
the effective utilisation time of the equipment. Table 14 summarises the construction phases
and the depreciation times assumed. The interest rate used is 6,5%.
On the basis of the LFG collected yearly in the two considered cases, it is possible to
estimate the appropriate size and number of reciprocating engines required every year to use
the LFG energy content, assuming to apply LFG collection and energy recovery until about
95% of total LFG is produced. Considering a reciprocating engine average life of ten years, it
is possible to calculate the overall number and combination of engines required.
The engine selection has been based on existing models (Jenbacher), using relative large
size engine in the high LFG production period and small size engines in the final LFG
production. Table 15 summarises the engine number used for each of the considered case.
Table 13. Investment and operation costs for the different considered plants
Equipment
Landfill with leachate

recirculation
Bottom impermeabilisation []
Collection system (leachate and LFG) []
Capping []
4.957.803
750.000
1.816.809
with vertical collection
system
4.957.803
460.000
1.816.809
Table 14. Assumed construction phases and the depreciation times

Equipment
Construction phases
Depreciation time [years]
Bottom impermeabilisation
All placed at the beginning
8
Capping
All placed at the closing time
1
Flare
Life time of 1 flare
10
Landfill with leachate recirculation
Collection system
Collection/recirculation system is placed at three different
moments
At the beginning
8
After 2 year
6
After 5 years
3
At the beginning
8
After 2 year
6
After 5 years
3
Conventional landfill with vertical collection system
Collection system
Collection system is placed at Landfill operation time = 8
the beginning
years
From the electric energy conversion efficiency of the considered engines (143 kW
34,3%; 625 kW 38,7; 836 kW 38,8) it is possible to evaluate the electricity production
and assuming an electric energy selling price of about 0,13 /kWh, it is possible to estimate
the gain from electricity sell. The estimation of electricity production also took into account
the energy conversion efficiency lowering when energy input is less than nominal size.
92
Lidia Lombardi
Table 15. Number, size and overall investment cost of the reciprocating engines and
energy production for each considered case in the operating and post-closure phases
Considered configurations
Investment cost []
Produced electric energy [GWh]
Landfill with leachate

recirculation
4 x 625 kW engines +
1 x 143 kW engines
2.246.740
131
Conventional landfill with

vertical collection system
3 x 625 kW engines +
3 x 143 kW engines
2.469.720
105
Table 16 summarises operation costs, grouping together the costs that last for the same
number of years. Operation cost have been assumed equal for the two different plants
considered.
Table 16. Summary of the operation costs
Operation costs
Personnel, covering soils
Leachate disposal, electricity, water, etc
Mechanical machines, fuels and lubricating oil, machine
maintenance
Leachate disposal, environmental and topographic analysis,
general maintenance, assurance
Vigilance
[year]
8
9
[/year]
380.000
630.000
10
275.000
49
460.000
58
25.000
From an energy point of view, it is possible to calculate an overall energy conversion

efficiency, dividing the amount of generated electric energy (Table 15) by the energy content
of the LFG generated in the landfill life time (assuming an average low heating value of
16.000 kJ/Nm3).
From an environmental point of view, it is possible to calculate the specific GHE
production for the different considered cases. Contributions to GHE during operation and
post-closure phases come from collected LFG combustion and from uncollected LFG directly
emitted to the atmosphere; while after the end of the post-closure phase the residual LFG is
all emitted to the atmosphere contributing as well to GHE. These contributions have been
calculated for the two cases (landfill with leachate recirculation and conventional landfill).
Further, considering that the amount of electric energy produced by the engines fed with
LFG, is no more produced by conventional energy system, this term can be considered as an
avoided effect of GHE emissions and then subtracted from the overall balance. Being the
specific emission of about 0,551 kg of equivalent CO2/kWh for electric energy production
(with reference to the Italian situation (ENEL, 1999) the overall avoided effect can be
calculated.
Table 17 shows the results in terms of specific disposal cost for disposing one ton of
MSW, in the two cases of landfill with leachate recirculation and conventional landfill.
From the economical point of view, it appears that applying the leachate recirculation,
even if a slightly higher investment cost for the collection/recirculation system is required, a
lower specific disposal cost can be reached in comparison to a conventional landfill. The
lower cost is mainly due to the shorter time during which the LFG production exhausts with a
93
more concentrated energy recovery using a lower number of engines (lower investment), but
also to the possibility of higher landfill volume recovery due to the accelerated
biodegradation process with a consequent higher amount of disposed waste that corresponds
to a higher amount of LFG production.
Table 17. Specific disposal cost for MSW, overall energy
conversion efficiency and specific CO2 emission
Landfill with
leachate
recirculation
817.390
32.980.512
40,35
Disposed MSW [t]

Total cost []
Specific disposal cost [/tMSW]
Overall energy efficiency and environmental impact
Overall energy conversion efficiency [%]
25
GHE [kgCO2/tMSW] without avoided effects
528
GHE [kgCO2/tMSW] with avoided effects
439
with vertical
collection system
792.518
37.679.930
46,28
20
644
571
From the results concerned with overall energy conversion efficiency, a higher value was
obtained for the landfill with leachate recirculation with respect to the conventional landfill.
Concerning GHE production the landfill with leachate recirculation allows the reduction
of specific CO2 equivalent emitted per each ton of landfilled waste, thanks to the less LFG
emitted directly to the atmosphere after the post-closure phase (without any collection and
combustion). When considering avoided effects, since in the landfill with leachate
recirculation case a higher energy recovery is possible, a further decrease in CO2 equivalent
specific emission is registered.
CONCLUSION
Different landfill gas production mathematical models have been analysed, implemented
and compared among themselves and with data collected from existing landfills, selecting one
of them for application to some study cases.
The use of landfill gas production models is definitely useful in order to properly design
landfill gas collection and energy recovery systems since it supplies an estimation of landfill
gas amount during the landfill operation and post-closure phases. The accuracy of the landfill
gas production estimation depends in part on the complexity of the model and mainly on the
accuracy and specificity of the input data.
The selected model has been used to predict the landfill gas production of a case-study
landfill in order to properly size the energy recovery system, with the aim of obtaining the
maximum profits from selling the produced electric energy. The obtained configuration for
energy recovery was evaluated also from an energetic and environmental point of view,
estimating the overall contribution to Greenhouse Effect from escaped landfill gas, collected
and combusted landfill gas and recovered electric energy avoided emissions. Energy recovery
offers the possibility of decreasing the contribution to Greenhouse Effect, with respect to
94
Lidia Lombardi
simple landfill gas flaring, and the chance to save conventional fuels being a renewable
source of energy.
The same selected model was, then, applied to another case-study landfill in order to
investigate a management option to enhance energy recovery, consisting in leachate
recirculation. The landfill gas production and energy recovery for the conventional landfill
and the landfill with leachate recirculation were compared from different points of view:
economic evaluation, energy conversion and environmental impact. The economic analysis
showed that the specific disposal cost is lower for the landfill with leachate recirculation with
respect to the conventional landfill. Moreover, the landfill with leachate recirculation shows
better indicator values both for the overall energy conversion efficiency and for Greenhouse
Effect specific emission.
REFERENCES
Baldwin T.D., Stinson J. and Ham R.K. (1998), Decomposition of specific materials buried
within sanitary landfills. J. Env. Eng. 124(12): 1193-1202.
Bonori B., Pasquali G., Bergonzoni M. (2001), Landfill gas production valued with a
mathematical method in Sardinia 2001 Eighth International Waste Management and
Landfill Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
Brjesson G., Danielsson A., Svensson B. H., (2000), "Methane Fluxes from a Swedish
Landfill Determined by Geostatistical Treatment of Static Chamber Measurements", in
Environmental Science Technology, vol. 34, pp. 4044-4050.
Boyle W.C. (1976), Energy recovery from sanitary landfills: a review. Microbial energy
conversion, Schlegel H.G. and Barnes J. Eds.
Cardellini C., Chiodini G., Frondini F., Granieri D., Lewicki J. and Peruzzi L. (2003),
Accumulation chamber measurements of methane fluxes: application to volcanicgeothermal areas and landfills. Applied Geochemistry, Volume 18, Issue 1, January
2003, Pages 45-54.
Corti A., Lombardi L., Puglierin L. (2005), Landfill gas production and energy recovery in
bioreactor landfill, Proceedings of SARDINIA 2005, Sardinia 2005 Tenth International
Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering
Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
Department of the Army U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Washington (1995). Engineering and
Design - Landfill Off-Gas Collection and Treatment Systems, da Environmental
Technical Letter, ETL 1110-1-160.
EMCON Associates (1980). Methane generation and recovery from landfills. Ann Arbour
Science Publisher Inc., Ann Arbour, USA.
ENEL Rapporto Ambientale 1999 (in Italian).
EPA (2005), Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) Version 3.02 User's Guide,
EPA/600/R-05/047.
Findikakis A.N. et al. (1988), Modelling gas production in managed sanitary landfills.
Waste Management and Research, vol. 6, No. 2, pagg 115-124.
Halvadakis C.P. (1983), Methanogenesis in solid waste landfill bioreactors. PhD Thesys.
Stanford University
95
Ham R.K. (1979), Predicting gas generation from landfills. Waste Age, 11, 50.
Hartz K.E., Ham R.K. (1982), Gas generation rates of landfill samples. Conservation and
Recycling, 5, 2/3, 133-147.
Hartz K.E., Klink R.E., Ham R.K. (1982), Temperature Effects: Methane generation from
landfill samples. J. Env. Eng. 108: 629-638.
IGES (2000), Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES).
IPCC (1996), Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
Workbook (Volume 2).
Lifshits A.and Galueva T. (1997), Gas production modelling based on the field gas
emissions measurements, in Sardinia 1997, Sixth International Waste Management and
Landfill Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
Lombardi L., Carnevale E., Corti A. (2006) Greenhouse effect reduction and energy recovery
from waste landfill, Energy, Vol. 31, Pag. 3208-3219, Elsevier Science Limited, Oxford
(UK).
McBean E., Ritchie S. and Gidda T. (2005), Landfill gas collection for greenhouse gas
credits: an Argentinian case study, Sardinia 2005 Tenth International Waste
Management and Landfill Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering
Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
Metcalf and Eddy (1991), Wastewater engineering: Treatment, disposal, and reuse. Third
Ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.
Nutting L. (2001), Evaluating Landfill Gas Potential Proceedings Training Workshop Sao
Paulo, Brazil
Owens. J.M.; and Chynoweth, D.P., 1992. Biochemical Methane Potential of MSW
Components, International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion of Solid Waste, Venice,
Italy. April 1517.
Raco B., Scozzari A., Guidi M., Lelli M. and Lippo G., (2005). Comparison of two non
invasive methodologies to monitor diffuse biogas emissions from MSW landfills soil: a
case study. Sardinia 2005 Tenth International Waste Management and Landfill
Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
Reinhart D., Faour A. (2005), First-Order Knetic Gas Generation Model Parameters for Wet
Landfills, EPA-600/R-05/072.
Reinhart, D.R., Townsend, T.G., (1998), Landfill Biorector Design and Operation, Lewis
Publisher.
Swarbrick, G.E. and Lethlean, J.J. (1995), Physical and bio-chemical modelling of landfill
degradation in Sardinia 1995, Fifth International Waste Management and Landfill
Symposium, CISA Environmental Sanitary Engineering Centre, Cagliari, Italy.
T.H. Christensen, R. Cossu, R. Stegmann (1996) Landfilling of waste: Biogas, Th.
Christensen, E and FN SPON, 237-268.
Tchobanoglous G., Theisen H., Vigil S., (1993), Integrated solid waste management
Engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
US-EPA (1995), Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors - AP-42, Fifth Edition,
Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources.
US-EPA, EPA Method 2E, in Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Charter I, Part 60,
Appendix A
96
Lidia Lombardi
Van Zanten, B., Scheepers, M.J.J. (1995) Modeling of Landfill Gas Potentials. in
Proceedings of SWANA 18th Annual Landfill Gas Symposium, New Orleans, LA.
Warith M.A. and Sharma R. (1998), Technical review of methods to enhance biological
degradation in sanitary landfills. Water Qual. Res. J. Canada. 33(3): 417-437.
Young A. (1995), Mathematical modelling of the methanogenic ecosystem. Microbiology
of Landfill sites, ed. E. Senior, Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor, pp. 67-89.
Zhao Youcai, Wang Luochun, Hua Renhua, Xu Dimin and Gu Guowei, (2002), A
comparison of refuse attenuation in laboratory and field scale lysimeters, Waste
Management, Volume 22, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 29-35.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 3
ENERGY AND MATERIAL RECOVERY FROM

BIOMASS: THE BIOREFINERY APPROACH. CONCEPT
OVERVIEW AND ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION
Joanneum Research, Institute of Energy Research, Elisabethstrae 5, 8010 Graz, Austria
ABSTRACT
A great fraction of worldwide energy carriers and material products come from fossil
fuel refinery. Because of the on-going price increase of fossil resources, the uncertain
availability, the environmental concerns and the fact that they are not a renewable
resource, the feasibility of their exploitation is predicted to decrease in the near future.
Therefore, alternative solutions able to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels should be
promoted. Electricity and heat can be provided by a variety of renewable alternatives
(wind, sun, water, biomass), while the fossil resource alternative for production of fuels
and chemicals can be just biomass, the only C-rich material source available on the Earth,
besides fossils.
The replacement of oil with biomass as raw material for fuel and chemical
production leads to the development of biorefinery, a relatively young concept in the
scientific literature. In biorefinery, almost all the types of biomass feedstock can be
converted to different classes of biofuels and chemicals through jointly applied
conversion technologies. This chapter describes the emerging biorefinery concept and
provides an overview of the most important biomass sources, conversion technologies
and platforms (or intermediates). The advantages of biorefinery systems over
conventional fossil systems are outlined by means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): in
the second half of this chapter, a LCA of a biorefinery system based on a lignocellulosic
feedstock (e.g. wood industrial residues) and producing bioethanol and
methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF) as transportation biofuels, furan resins, fumaric acid and
oxygen as chemicals and hydrogen, biomethane, electricity and heat as further energy
carriers, is reported. The biorefinery system is compared with a reference system based
on fossil sources. Results focus on greenhouse gas (GHG) and energy balances and
estimate the possible GHG and fossil energy savings. System performances are also
Corresponding author; tel. +433168761327; fax: +433168761330; e-mail: cherufra@yahoo.it
98

investigated with calculations of product yields and mass, energy, exergy and C
conversion efficiencies. Since the biorefinery system co-produces many high value
products, an allocation issue must be addressed. Different allocation procedures
(substitution method, and energy, exergy, economic allocation) are therefore used and
final results compared. The evaluation of the environmental performances reveals that
relevant environmental benefits can be gained with a shift from oil refinery to
biorefinery: almost 89% of GHG emissions and 96% of fossil energy demand can be
saved.
1. INTRODUCTION
Our strong dependence on fossil fuels results on the intensive use and consumption of
petroleum derivatives which, combined with diminishing petroleum resources, causes
environmental and political concerns. As a consequence, new renewable sources of energy
and chemicals are object of research and development activities. Electricity and heat can be
provided by a variety of renewable alternatives (wind, sun, water, biomass and so on), while
the fossil resource alternative for production of transportation fuels and chemicals is biomass,
the only C-rich material source available on the Earth, besides fossils.
The term biorefinery is raising importance in the scientific community and the concept
embraces a wide range of technologies able to separate biomass resources (wood, grasses,
corn) into their building blocks (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) which can be converted to
value added products, biofuels and chemicals (see Figure 1). A biorefinery is a facility that
integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce transportation biofuels,
power, and chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to today's
petroleum refinery, which produces multiple fuels and products from petroleum. The
replacement of oil with biomass as raw material will require some changes from the todays
production of goods and service: biological and chemical sciences will play a leading role in
the generation of future industries and new synergies of biological, physical, chemical and
technical sciences must be elaborated (Kamm et al., 2006a).
A first generation of transportation biofuels and chemicals is today produced from sugars,
starches and vegetable oils, giving rise to several issues: these raw materials compete with
food for their feedstock and fertile land, their potential availability is limited by soil fertility
and per hectare yields and the effective savings of CO2 emissions and fossil energy
consumption are limited by the high energy input required for crop cultivation and conversion
(Lange, 2007).
Biomaterials
Biomass
Pretreatment
Biomass
components
Conversion
technologies
Bioenergy
Biochemicals
Figure 1. Simplified scheme of biorefinery: conversion of biomass into bioproducts.
Biorefinery Concept: Energy and Material Recovery from Biomass
99
These limitations can be partly overcome by the utilization of lignocellulosic materials,

such as residues from agriculture, forestry, industry and dedicated crops (Cherubini et al.,
2009). The importance of recovering transportation biofuels and chemicals from
lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks is evident: they are the most abundant biomass source in
the Earth, they can be recovered from residue streams in different sectors, they can be grown
in combination with food (e.g. straw and corn stover) or in non-agricultural lands and they
have high potential for converting their main components (cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin) into a wide spectrum of biofuels and chemical products (Kamm et al., 2006b; Katzen
and Schell, 2006).
Since this is a relatively new concept in the scientific literature, few published papers on
environmental performances of biorefinery systems are currently available. This work
addresses this aspect: after a definition of the biorefinery concept, a Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) of a biorefinery system based on wood residues is reported.
The chapter starts with a formal definition of biorefinery and a list of criteria that a
bioenergy/biomass system has to meet to be a real biorefinery. Afterwards, the most
important biomass feedstocks, processes and platforms, related to the biorefinery concept, are
depicted and a comparison between biomass and oil as raw materials is presented. In order to
investigate all the environmental aspects of biorefinery systems, a case study is evaluated by
means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The biorefinery system produces bioethanol, furfural
derivates, electricity, heat, biomethane, hydrogen and oxygen from wood industrial residues.
The biorefinery is compared with a reference system producing the same products from fossil
sources. Information concerning product yields and mass, energy, exergy and carbon
conversion efficiencies are also reported. Several allocation methods are used to share the
environmental burdens of the biorefinery among the co-products and the final results are
compared.
2. APPROACHING BIOREFINERY: DEFINITION,

CRITERIA AND CHARACTERISTICS
2.1. Background and Current Status
Among the several definition of biorefinery, the most exhaustive was recently performed
by the IEA Bioenergy Task 42 on biorefineries (IEA 2008) (Figure 2):
Biorefining: the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of marketable

products and energy.
One of the main driving factors for the future development of biorefinery can be seen in the
efficient production of transportation liquid biofuels. The transportation sector is growing
steadily and in the same way grows the demand for renewable (bio-)fuels, which can only be
provided from biomass. Numerous countries have targets for improving the shares of biofuels in
the national transport sector.
100
Figure 2. Biorefinery recovers energy and materials from biomass sources.
For instance, Europe aims at a share of 5.75% in 2010 and 10% in 2020 of biofuels,
according to the draft directive for renewable energy, while IEA and IPCC expect a significant
contribution of biofuels on transportation market in 2030 (10 20%) (EBS 2007). The main
challenge for biorefinery development is therefore the efficient and cost effective production of
transportation biofuels, whereas for the coproduced biomaterials and biochemicals additional
economic and environmental benefits might be gained.
The most common biofuels produced today in the world are bioethanol, biodiesel and
biogas (or biomethane). Bioethanol production from sugar or corn starch was more than 17
Mtoe in 2005; United States (from corn starch) and Brazil (from sugar cane) are the largest
producers (GBEP 2007). Biodiesel, made by combining vegetable oil (from rapeseed,
soybean, sunflowers, canola and others) or animal fat with an alcohol and a catalyst through a
reaction known as transesterification, is mainly produced in European countries and its total
production in 2005 was about 2.5 Mtoe (GBEP 2007). The production of biogas is diffused in
all the countries, and in the last few years it has been strong implemented in countries with
high feed in tariffs for electricity generation from biogas (especially European countries). In
some countries (such as Germany and Sweden), biogas is also used as transportation biofuel,
after upgrading to biomethane. For instance, Sweden currently leads the world in automotive
biogas production, with a total fleet of approximately 4500 vehicles with 45 % of its fuel
supplied by biomethane (Jnsson and Persson, 2003).
Already commercially available biobased products include adhesives, cleaning compounds,
detergents, dielectric fluids, dyes, hydraulic fluids, inks, lubricants, packaging materials, paints
and coatings, paper and box board, plastic fillers, polymers, solvents, and sorbents.
However, most of these biofuels and biochemicals are produced in single production
chains and not with a biorefinery approach, and have raw materials in competition with the
food and feed industry. Their exploitation is thereby limited. An alternative can be
represented by lignocellulosic materials. In fact, lignocellulosic feedstocks can be supplied
either from dedicated crops or as residues from agricultural, forestry and wood industry. This
feedstock is made of 3 main components (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) which can be
refined into different final products using a set of jointly applied technological processes.
There is not anymore a competition with the food and feed industry since lignocellulosic
biomass can be grown on land which is not suitable for agricultural crops. Moreover, in
comparison with conventional starch and oilseed crops that can contribute only with a small
fraction (grains and seeds) of the above standing biomass to bioenergy and biochemical
101
production, biorefineries based on lignocellulosic feedstocks can rely on bigger biomass per
hectare yields, since the whole crop is available as feedstock.
Therefore, lignocellulosic raw materials are the most suitable biomass source for
providing a large and constant feedstock supply to biorefineries, on condition that sustainable
practices and managements are followed. Over the next 10 to 15 years, it is expected that
lower cost residue and waste sources of lignocellulosic biomass will provide the first influx of
next-generation feedstocks, with cellulosic energy crops expected to begin supplying
feedstocks for bioenergy production towards the end of this time frame, then expanding
substantially in the years beyond (Worldwatch Institute, 2006).
2.2. Criteria for Biorefinery System

In addition to the definition, biorefinery systems should also follow some requisites
which act as guidelines for the future deployment of biorefinery concepts. The criteria which
a biomass or bioenergy system has to follow to be named biorefinery are the following:
1. Biomass Refining: a biorefinery, similarly to the upgrading of crude oil that occurs in oil
refinery, is based on feedstock upgrading processes, where raw materials are
continuously upgraded and refined. This means that a biorefinery should separate all the
biomass feedstock components in order to be individually exploited, leading through a
chain of several processes to a high concentration of pure chemical molecules (e.g.
ethanol) or a high concentration of molecules having similar functions (e.g. the mixture
of C alkanes in FT-fuels).
2. Combustion of residues: a feedstock can not be directly combusted without any
previous treatment, since the aim of a biorefinery is to increase the value of the different
biomass components as material and energy source. Therefore, the most desirable option
is to send combustion for heat and electricity production only the residues and leftovers
of the several technological treatments and conversion processes.
3. Value chemicals/materials: a biorefinery should produce at least one value
chemical/material product, besides the low-grade and high-volume animal feed and
fertilizers, according to the specifications of the first criterion.
4. Fuel-Energy products: as a direct consequence of the second criteria, a biorefinery
should produce at least one energy product besides heat and electricity. Therefore, the
production of at least one biofuel (liquid, solid or gaseous) is required.
5. Fossil fuel replacement: the products of a biorefinery must be able to replace fossil fuel
based products coming from oil refinery, both chemicals and energy carriers. Concerning
the chemicals, this objective can be met by producing the same chemical molecule from
biomass instead of from fossils (e.g. phenols), or producing a molecule having a different
structure but an equivalent function (e.g. succinic acid from biomass vs. maleic anhydride
from fossils) or new biobased products able to replace petroleum based products (e.g.
synthetic biodegradable plastics from starch). Concerning the fuels, a biorefinery must
replace conventional fossil fuels (mainly gasoline, diesel, heavy oil, coal and natural gas)
with the production of biofuels coming from biomass upgrading, both liquid (e.g.
bioethanol, biodiesel, FT-fuels), gaseous (e.g. synthetic natural gas, hydrogen) and solid
(e.g. lignin, charcoal, residues).
102
6. Energy self-sufficiency: a biorefinery plant should have the aim to run in a sustainable
way: all the energy requirements of the several biomass conversion processes should be
internally supplied by the production of heat and electricity from combustion of residues.
For instance, in a lignocellulosic ethanol plant, lignin, after separation from cellulose and
hemicellulose, can be burnt to provide the heat and electricity required by the plant.
However, direct external fossil energy inputs are allowed if they ensure economic
benefits to the system and do not unduly burden the overall GHG and energy balances.
7. Waste minimization: solid, liquid and gaseous wastes released by a biorefinery should be
minimized. This target can be achieved in two ways: using the different biomass
components for producing a wide spectrum of multiple products, or setting up bioclusters, where material flow exchanges among different plants are promoted in order to
transform a downstream residue of a plant into an upstream raw material for another plant.
2.3. Fossils vs. Biomass as Raw Materials

The structure of biorefinery raw materials is totally different from that on which the
current oil refinery is based. Crude oil is a mixture of many different organic hydrocarbon
compounds (based on C and H) while biomass is made of different compounds (with a large
abundance of O and ashes). The first step of oil refinery is to remove water and impurities,
then distill the crude oil into its various fractions as gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, lubricating
oils and asphalts. Then, these fractions can be chemically changed further into various
industrial chemicals and final products.
Unlike petroleum, biomass composition is not homogeneous, because the biomass
feedstocks might be made of grains, wood, grasses, biological wastes and so on, and the
elemental composition is a mixture of C, H and O (plus other minor components such as N, S
and other mineral compounds). This biomass compositional variety is both an advantage and
a disadvantage. An advantage is that biorefineries can make more classes of products that can
petroleum refineries and can rely on a wider range of raw materials. A disadvantage is that a
relatively larger range of processing technologies is needed, and most of these technologies
are still at a pre-commercial stage (Dale and Kim, 2006).
In order to be used for production of biofuels and chemicals, biomass needs to be
depolymerized and deoxygenated. Deoxygenation is required because the presence of O in
biofuels reduces the heat content of molecules and usually gives them high polarity, which
hinders blending with existing fossil fuels (Lange, 2007). Chemical applications may require
much less deoxygenation, since the presence of O often provides valuable physical and
chemical properties to the product.
The main benefits which can be related to an extensive deployment of biorefinery in
replace of oil refinery are based on the supply of renewable biomass. In fact, if this is
managed with sustainable practices, biomass has a closed carbon cycle: its use release to the
atmosphere almost the same amount of CO2 that was captured during the photosynthetic
process. Furthermore, unlike fossil resources, biomass resources are locally available for
many countries and their provision, together with an implementation and development of
biorefinery industries, will create a large number of jobs, especially in rural areas. Therefore,
biorefinery technologies should be compact and suitable for local installations.
103
Another important point concerning biorefinery processing is the fact that environmental
impacts and consumption of non renewable resources should be minimized, while complete
and efficient biomass use maximized. This ecological perspective requires: analyses of three
important agricultural and forestry cycles as carbon (respiration, photosynthesis, and organic
matter decomposition), water (precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, and runoff) and nitrogen
(N fixation, mineralization, denitrification) and their interdependencies (Gravitis and Suzuki,
1999); system performance evaluations and environmental impact estimations carried out by
means of Life Cycle Assessment (Cherubini et al., 2007). Especially soil degradation
minimization and biodiversity conservation seems to be two dominating factors to consider in
the assessment of biorefinery systems.
With all this, biorefinery represents a change from the traditional refinery based on large
exploitation of natural resources and large waste production towards integrated systems in
which all resources are used. An example of how the biorefinery of the future will evolve can be
found in the history of the existing corn wet-milling industry (Lasure and Min, 2004). Initially
the corn wet milling industry produced starch as the major product. As technology developed
and the need for higher value products drove the growth of the industry, the product portfolio
expanded from various starch derivatives such as glucose and maltose syrups to high fructose
corn syrup. Later, fermentation products derived from the starch and glucose such as citric acid,
gluconic acid, lactic acid, lysine, threonine and ethanol were added. Many other by-products,
such as corn gluten, corn oil, corn fiber and animal feed are now being produced. The final
vision is then the development of the technical, commercial and political infrastructure for a
biomass refinery (biorefinery), which will be similar to the current oil refinery concept.
3. OVERVIEW OF BIOREFINERY FEEDSTOCKS,

PROCESSES AND PLATFORMS
3.1. Biorefinery Feedstocks
The term of feedstock refers to raw materials used in biorefinery, from which biofuels
and biochemicals are produced and recovered by means of a set of jointly applied
technological processes.
The biomass of the world is synthesized via the photosynthetic process that converts
atmospheric carbon dioxide to sugar. Plants use the sugar to synthesize the complex materials
that are biomass. Renewable carbon-based raw materials are produced in agriculture,
silviculture and microbial systems.
Although a tremendous variety of biomass resources is available, only four basic
chemical structures are of significance for production of biofuels and biochemicals:
carbohydrates (sugar, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose), lignin (polyphenols), triglycerides
(lipids, vegetable oils and animal fats) and proteins (vegetable and animal polymers made up
of amino-acids). The average composition of synthesized biomass in the world is 75%
carbohydrates, 20% lignin and 5% other compounds (oils, proteins and so on) (Lichtenthaler,
2006). As a consequence, the main attention of research and development activities should
first be focused on efficient access to carbohydrates, and their subsequent conversion to
chemical intermediates and corresponding final products.
104
All the existing types of biomass feedstocks can be divided in five groups: sugar crops,
starch crops, oil based materials, grasses, lignocellulosic materials and organic residues and
others. In the next sections, each of this group is depicted.
3.1.1. Sugar crops

Concerning sugar crops, they provide sugars in a simple form, i.e. mono- or
disaccharides, which can be readily used in conversion processes. Six-carbon, singlemolecule monosaccharide sugars (C6H12O6) include glucose, galactose and mannose, while
the most common 5-carbon sugars (C5H10O5) are xylose and arabinose. The two most
important sugar crops are sugar cane and sugar beet which, together with corn (a starch crop),
supply almost all the bioethanol that is produced today (Rajagopal and Zilberman, 2007). The
drawback of this type of feedstock is that requires dedicated hectares for the production and
can compete with the food industry. Chemical structures of glucose and xylose are reported in
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Chemical structures of glucose and xylose.
3.1.2. Starch crops

Starch crops provide grains containing starch. Starch (C6H10O5)n is a very large polymer
molecule composed of many hundreds or thousands of glucose molecules (polysaccharides),
which must be broken down into one or two molecule pieces prior to be fermented to
bioethanol or biochemicals. The most widespread starch crops are wheat and corn (Tuck et
al., 2006; Wright, 2006). The major drawback of the use of these crops in biorefinery is that
they are also used in the food and feed industry and their provision as biorefinery feedstock
can have adverse impacts on food supply, soil carbon content (if straws and corn stovers are
removed) and land pressure. The chemical structure of starch is illustrated in Figure 4.
105
Figure 4. Chemical structure of starch (segment).
3.1.3. Oil based materials

Oil based materials are made of triglycerides which typically consist of glycerin and
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (the chain length ranges between C8 and C20). The
sources of oils and fats are a variety of vegetable and animal raw materials. Soybean, palm,
rapeseed and sunflower oil are the most important in the terms of world wide production
(Demibras, 2003; Hill, 2006; Sheehan et al., 2000). Vegetable oils are nowadays used for
production of biodiesel by reacting with an alcohol, usually methanol. However, they can also
be used as a substrate for chemical reactions thanks to two chemically reactive sites: the
double bond in the unsaturated fatty acid chain and the acid group of the fatty acid chain
(Biermann et al., 2001). Like sugar and starch crops, oilseed crops are characterized by low
yield, high use of agrochemical inputs and competition with food market. In the future, nonedible crops like Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata, which require lower inputs and are
suited to marginal lands, may become the most widespread oil crops, especially in dry and
semiarid regions (Achten et al., 2007; Rajagopal and Zimermann, 2007). Other sources of oil
provision are the food industry, where waste edible oil is mainly generated from commercial
services and food processing plants such as restaurants, fast food chains and households (Tsai
et al., 2007), and the micro-algae, microscopic single cell aquatic plants with the potential to
produce large quantities of lipids. The latter seems to have promising advantages over
conventional oil crops because of the possibility to be grown in arid and semi-arid regions
with poor soil quality, with a per hectare yield estimated to be many times greater than that of
even tropical oilseeds. Moreover, algae can also grow in saline or polluted water, which has
few competing uses in agriculture, forestry and industry (Chisti, 2007; Sheehan et al., 1998).
A chemical structure of a saturated triglyceride is illustrated in Figure 5.
106
Figure 5. Chemical structure of triglycerides.
3.1.4. Grasses
Grasses are the raw materials for the so-called green biorefinery. This group includes the
large family of green plant materials (green grass from meadows, willow and other natural
resources), alfalfa, clover grass, grass silage, immature cereals and plant shoots (Kromus et
al., 2006). The main components of green plant materials are carbohydrates, proteins, fibers,
fats, amino acids and others. This composition allows to the green biorefinery to produce
biogas, lactic acid, amino acids and fibers. An important green raw material source is the
green harvesting residue material from agricultural cultivated crops, mainly the green foliage
from sugar beet leaves, hemp scrape and leaves.
3.1.5. Lignocellulosic materials
Lignocellulosic materials include dedicated energy crops (such as switchgrass and
miscanthus), agricultural residues, forestry wastes, agroindustrial wastes, and other industrial
wastes. The importance of lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock for biorefinery is evident:
their use allows either the production of valuable biofuels and chemicals able to replace fossil
derived products, and the utilization of a wide range of residues of domestic, agricultural and
industrial activities.
Among the potential large scale industrial biorefineries, the biorefinery systems based on
lignocellulosic feedstocks will most probably achieve the greatest success in terms of market
penetrations and product volumes. On the one side the raw material situation is optimum
(widespread and easily available), on the other side conversion product have a good position
on both the traditional petrochemical and future biobased product market.
All kinds of lignocellulosic biomass are made of three main components: cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose (see Figure 6) has a strong molecular structure made by
long chains of glucose molecules (C6 sugars) and is one of the most important raw materials
for a variety of industries. Currently, major uses of cellulose are in pulp and paper industry, in
medicine and in pharmacy (Kamm et al., 2006b).
107
Figure 6. Cellulose structure.
In the biorefinery concept, the first treatment which cellulose undergoes is usually acid or
enzymatic hydrolysis to glucose, if the feedstock is not pyrolysed or gasified. This sugar
monomer is a key chemical that can mainly follow two routes: fermentation or chemical
synthesis (Schiweck et al., 1991).
The second main component of lignocellulosic biomass is hemicellulose (see Figure 7),
which is relatively easier to breakdown to sugar monomers with chemicals and/or heat than
cellulose. It contains a mix of C6 sugars (galactose and mannose) and C5 sugars (xylose and
arabinose), which represent a great potential for the production of biofuels or chemicals.
Xylose, the most representative sugar in hemicellulose, can mainly undergo three different
pathways: hydrogenation to xylitol, acid treatment to furfural and fermentation to bioethanol
together with C6 sugars (Kamm et al., 2006b).
Figure 7. Hemicellulose structure.
108
Figure 8. Fragment of lignin structure.
The third component of lignocellulosic feedstock is lignin, made of phenolic polymers

(see Figure 8). Even if lignin cannot be hydrolyzed to sugars and then fermented, it is useful
for other purposes. For instance, it can be used in its polymeric forms as adhesives for wood
materials, cement additive and so on, or can be fractionated into low molecular mass
compounds (e.g. phenols), completely degraded to gas or liquid bio-oil through gasification
or pyrolysis, or burnt as a solid fuel to generate heat and electricity.
Table 1 reports the composition of some lignocellulosic biomass which can constitute the
raw materials for biorefinery systems. The abundance of the three main components can vary
significantly among the feedstocks. For instance, lignin ranges from 17% in wheat straw up to
28% in softwood.
3.1.6. Organic residues and others

This group refers to the other biomass raw material sources that do not fall into the other
categories, i.e. the organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), manure, wild fruits and
crops and residues from the food production chain (such as fresh fruit and vegetable). The
physical and chemical characteristics of this wide spectrum of biomass resources vary largely.
Certain streams such as sewage sludge, manure from dairy and swine farms and residues from
food processing are very wet, with moisture contents over 70%. Therefore, these feedstocks
are more suited for an anaerobic digestion process to generate biogas, rather than other
biofuels or chemicals (Berglund and Brjesson, 2006). Other streams, such as organic MSW,
may be more or less contaminated with heavy metals or other elements (Faaij et al., 1997).
Clearly, the different properties and characteristic of the biomass wastes require the
application of different conversion technologies.
109
Table 1. Composition of some lignocellulosic feedstocks.

Parameter
Water
LHV
Cellulose
Glucan (C6)
Hemicellulose
Xylan (C5)
Arabinan (C5)
Galactan (C6)
Mannan (C6)
Lignin
Acids
Extractives
Ash
C
H
O
N
S
Unit
(dry)
%
MJ/kg
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Softwood
Switchgrass
Corn stover
Wheat straw
15
19.6
44.55
44.55
21.9
6.3
1.6
2.56
11.43
27.67
2.67
2.88
0.32
50.26
5.98
42.14
0.03
0.01
15
18.6
35.39
35.39
26.52
22.44
2.73
0.96
0.39
18.17
2.15
11.46
4.28
46.9
5.54
41.96
0.62
0.7
15
18.51
38.12
38.12
25.29
20.25
2.03
0.74
0.41
20.24
4.84
4.78
8.59
46.75
5.49
38.4
0.67
0.1
15
17.56
32.64
32.64
22.63
19.22
2.35
0.75
0.31
16.85
2.24
12.95
10.22
43.88
5.26
38.75
0.63
0.16
Sources: softwood Hammelinck et al., 2005; swithgrass EERE 2008 (biomass sample type: Switchgrass
Alamo Whole Plant #94); corn stover EERE 2008 (biomass sample type: Corn Stover Zea Mays
Stalks and Leaves w/o cobs #55); wheat straw EERE 2008 (biomass sample
type: Wheat Straw (Triticum Aestivum) Thunderbird Whole Plant #154).
3.2. Technological Processes

Biomass must be chemically converted for production of biofuels and biochemicals.
Obviously, changes are necessary to convert biomass from a solid to a liquid state. As
discussed in the previous section, fundamental is the biomass feedstock composition: it
generally has too little hydrogen (which must be added), too much oxygen (which must be
rejected), and other undesirable elements (such as nitrogen and sulphur) which also must be
rejected (Cherubini and Jungmeier, 2008). The aim of each technological process which acts
on raw biomass can be summarized in depolymerising and deoxygenating the biomass
components. Especially for producing fuels, deoxygenation is particularly important as the
presence of oxygen reduces the heat content of the molecules, while some chemical products
may require much less deoxygenation, because the presence of oxygen often provides
valuable physical and chemical properties to the compound (Lange, 2007).
In order to convert biomass feedstock into valuable products within a biorefinery
approach, several technological processes must be jointly applied in multiple steps. These
110
technologies can be grouped in 4 main categories: thermochemical, biochemical, mechanical /

physical and chemical processes.
3.2.1. Thermochemical processes

There are two main thermochemical processes for converting biomass into energy and
chemical products. The first is gasification, which consists in keeping biomass at high
temperature (> 700C) with low oxygen levels to produce syngas, a mixture of H2, CO, CO2
and CH4 (Paisley et al., 1998; Spath and Dayton, 2003). Syngas can be used directly as a fuel
or can be a chemical intermediate (platform) for production of fuels (FT-fuels, Dimethyl
ether, ethanol, isobutene) or chemicals (alcohols, organic acids, ammonia, methanol and so
on). The second most common thermochemical pathway is pyrolysis, which uses high
temperatures (300 600C) in absence of oxygen to convert the feedstock into a liquid
pyrolytic oil (or bio-oil), solid charcoal and light gases similar to syngas (Bridgwater and
Peacocke, 2000; Guo et al., 2001). Their yields vary with process conditions and for
biorefinery purposes the treatment which maximizes the production of liquid bio-oil is the
most desirable (flash pyrolysis). The application of bio-oil as a transportation fuel is
problematic (see following section) and its use as a chemical source of phenols or
levoglucosan is still under development (Helle et al., 2007; Meister, 2002; Zhuang et al.,
2001). Together with charcoal, it is generally best suited as a fuel for stationary electric power
or thermal energy plants. In addition to gasification and pyrolysis, direct combustion is also
included among the thermochemical processes (Gani and Naruse, 2007; Senneca, 2007). This
is the most common and oldest form of biomass conversion that involves burning biomass in
an oxygen-rich environment mainly for the production of heat. Another less widespread
thermochemical process is the biomass hydrothermal upgrading (HTU), which can be
conducted at different conditions of temperature and pressure and with or without a catalytic
mean (Karagz et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2002). The purpose of the HTU process is to convert
biomass into the so-called biocrude, a liquid fuel with an energy density approaching that
of fossil fuels which requires additional treatment before to be used as a transportation
biofuel. This technology is still at a research and development stage.
3.2.2. Biochemical processes
Unlike thermochemical processes, biochemical processes occur at lower temperatures
and have lower reaction rates. The most common types of biochemical processes are
fermentation and anaerobic digestion. The fermentation uses microorganisms and/or enzymes
to convert a fermentable substrate into ethanol, the most common fermentation product, but
the production of many other chemical compounds (e.g. hydrogen, methanol, succinic acid,
among others) is nowadays object of many activities of research and development. Hexoses,
mainly glucose, are the most frequent fermentation substrates, while pentoses (sugars from
hemicellulose), glycerol and other hydrocarbons have required the development of
customized fermentation organisms to enable their conversion to ethanol (Hamelinck et al.,
2005; Lynd, 1996). Anaerobic digestion involves bacterial breakdown of biodegradable
organic material in the absence of oxygen over a temperature range of about 30 65 C. The
main end product of this process is biogas (a gas mixture made of methane, CO2 and other
impurities), which can be upgraded up to > 97% methane and used as a surrogate of natural
gas (Berglund and Brjesson, 2006; Romano and Zhang, 2008).
111
3.2.3. Mechanical/physical processes

Mechanical/physical processes are processes which do not change the state or the
composition of biomass, but only perform a size reduction or a separation of feedstock
components. In a biorefinery pathway, they are usually applied first, because the following
biomass utilization requires reduction of the material size within specific ranges, depending
on feedstock specie, handling and further conversion processes. Biomass size reduction is a
mechanical treatment process that significantly refers to either cutting or commuting
processes that significantly change the particles size, shape and bulk density of biomass.
Separation processes involve the separation of the substrate into its components, while with
extraction methods valuable compounds are extracted and concentrated from a bulk and
inhomogeneous substrates (Huang et al., 2008). Lignocellulosic pre-treatment methods, (e.g.
the split of lignocellusic biomass into cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) fall within this
category, even if some hemicelluse is also hydrolized to single sugars (Cadoche and Lopez,
1989; Lasser et al., 2002, Sung and Cheng, 2002).
3.2.4. Chemical processes
Chemical processes are those processes which carry a change in the chemical structure of
the molecule by reacting with other substances. The most common chemical processes in
biomass conversion are hydrolysis and transesterification, but this group also includes the
wide class of chemical reactions where a change in the molecular formula occurs. Hydrolysis
uses acids, alkalis or enzymes to depolymerise polysaccharides and proteins into their
component sugars (e.g. glucose from cellulose) or derivate chemicals (e.g. levulinic acid from
glucose) (Lynd, 1996; Sung and Cheng, 2002). Transesterification is the most common
method to produce biodiesel today and is a chemical process by which vegetable oils can be
converted to methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids, also called biodiesel. This process
implicates the coproduction of glycerine, a chemical compound with diverse commercial uses
(Crabbe et al., 2001; Demirabas, 2003; Marchetti et al., 2007). Other important chemical
reactions in biorefining are Fisher-Tropsch synthesis, methanisation, steam reforming,
catalytic synthesis or reactions, hydrogenation, oxygenation and so on.
3.3. Platforms
In biorefinery, the platforms are the intermediates which constitute the link between
feedstock and final products. This concept is similar to the petrochemical industry, where the
refinery starts with a massive distillation to separate the crude oil into a large number of
intermediates that are further manipulated into the desired products.
Among the several possible alternatives, the chemicals (or mix of chemicals) which are
individuated as the most important biorefinery platforms are the following: biogas, syngas,
hydrogen, C6 sugars, C5 sugars, levulinic acid, furfural, pyrolytic oil, oil and organic juice.
3.3.1. Biogas
Biogas is a biomass derived gas made of mainly CH4 and CO2. It can be produced either
by anaerobic digestion of biological materials or by methanisation of the syngas coming out
from gasification. Biogas can be used as such for electricity and heat generation or can be
112
upgraded to biomethane by removing CO2 and other undesired elements, like H2S
(Mozaffarian et al., 2004a; Mozaffarian et al., 2004b). Biomethane can be used as a
transportation biofuel, as a stationary biofuel for electricity and heat generation or can be
transported through the existing gas infrastructure and substituting natural gas in all its
existing applications.
3.3.2. Syngas
Syngas is the product of the gasification process. It is mainly made of CO, H2, CH4 and
CO2, but it may also contain different contaminants such as nitrogen, particulates, condensable tars, alkali compounds, H2S, HCl, NH3, HCN and COS. Since these contaminants
can lower activity in the FT or other chemical synthesis due to catalyst poisoning, the syngas
undergo a cleaning process in which the contaminats are removed and its main components
can be tailored to the needs of the following conversion processes, by means of methane
reforming (which converts CH4 with steam to CO and H2), water gas shift reaction (adjusts
the H2/CO ratio by converting CO with steam to H2 and CO2) and CO2 removal (with an
amine). The main products that can be obtained from syngas are: ethanol, methanol,
hydrogen, ammonia, FT-fuels, acetic acid, formaldehyde and others (Dybkjaer and
Christensen, 2001; Hamelinck et al., 2004; Spath and Dayton, 2003).
3.3.3. Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced by syngas after a water shift reaction process (CO + H2O
H2 + CO2), by methane after a steam reforming process (CH4 + H2O 3 H2 + CO), by
alkaline water electrolysis (H2O H2 + O2) or by fermentation of suitable substrates and
microorganisms (Spath and Mann, 2001; Spath and Mann, 2004; Stojic et al., 2003).
Hydrogen can be used either as a fuel or as a chemical reducing agent.
3.3.4. C6 sugars
C6 sugars are the most abundant renewable resource available. Glucose is the most
important C6 sugar and, in Nature, is present in cellulose, starch or as a free monomer. Other
C6 sugars, present in hemicellulose, are arabinose and galactose. Glucose may be used as
substrate for producing energy and material product through mainly 3 pathways: a)
hydrogenation, leading to sorbitol and 1,2-propylene glycol, b) acid treatment, leading to 5Hydroxymethylfurfural, levulinic acid and their derivates, c) fermentation, leading to ethanol,
other alcohols and organic acids (such as lactic acid, acetic acid, citric acid and others)
(Kamm et al., 2006b).
3.3.5. C5 sugars
The most common C5 sugars in biomass feedstocks are xylose and mannose (with xylose
having a dominant position). They can be found in the hemicellulose fraction of
lignocellulosic raw materials or as free monomers. As in the previous case, there are three
main chemical conversion pathways for producing fuels or chemicals from xylose:
(a) hydrogenation, producing xylitol, (b) acid treatment producing furfural and its derivates,
(c) fermentation, producing bioethanol and other chemicals (Kamm et al., 2006b).
113
3.3.6. Levulinic acid

Levulinic acid (C5H8O3) is formed by acid hydrolysis of C6 sugars and can be easily
converted to chemical derivates, thanks to its high reactivity: since it has both a ketone
carbonyl group and an acidic carboxyl group, it can react as a ketone and as a fatty acid.
Figure 9. A possible reaction mechanism of levulinic acid from C6 sugars via HMF (Hayes et al., 2006;
Timokhin et al., 1999).
A possible reaction mechanism for the production of levulinic acid from C6 sugars is
illustrated in Figure 9. Firstly, cellulose is hydrolyzed to C6 sugars and then levulinic acid is
obtained through hydroxymethylfuran (HMF) with an efficiency of 50% (Hayes et al., 2006).
Its main derivates are: methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF, a fuel which can be obtained by
dehydratation and hydrogentation), -aminolevulinic acid (DALA, a herbicide which can be
produced after a chemical synthesis process), diphenolic acids (DA, a polymer constituent
coming out from the reaction of levulinic acid with phenols), ethyl levulinate (EL, a fuel
produced by the reaction with ethanol) and others (Bozell et al., 2000; Hayes et al., 2006).
114
3.3.7. Furfural
Since there is no synthetic route available for furfural production, this chemical
compound is exclusively produced from lignocellulosic biomass by dehydrating C5 sugars
(mainly xylose) which are present in the hemicellulose fraction (see Figure 10). Furfural
(C5H4O2), together with its derivates, is an important chemical because is a selective solvent
for separating compounds in petroleum refining, gas, oil and diesel fuel. The main furfural
derivate is furfuryl alcohol, a basic component for furan resins, but a wide range of products
can also be produced through different chemical reactions, such as methylfuran (MF, a
pharmaceutical compound), methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF, a fuel additive), maleic acid
(MA, a commodity chemical) and Nylon 6.6 (a polyamide), among others (Kamm et al.,
2006b; Vazquez et al., 2007).
- 3 H2O
Furfural
Xylose
Figure 10. Production of xylose from dehydratation of xylose.
3.3.8. Pyrolytic liquid

Pyrolytic liquid is the product of the pyrolysis process applied to biomass feedstocks; in
the case of flash pyrolysis, the yield of pyrolytic oil is about 75%. Pyrolytic liquid (or biooils) is a multi-component mixture of different size molecules derived from depolymerization
and fragmentation of the feedstock. Therefore, the elemental composition of bio-oil and
petroleum derived fuel is different, and they cannot be mixed. Pyrolytic liquid has a water
content of 20-30%, and an oxygen content of 35-40% (but if only lignin is pyrolysed this
value can decrease to 20%); it is highly corrosive and with a lower heating value of 20 MJ/kg
(Bridgwater and Peacocke, 2000; Spilae et al., 1998). The 99.7% (dry weight) of pyrolytic oil,
is composed of acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, sugars, phenols, guaiacols,
syringols, furans, lignin derived phenols and extractible terpene with multi-functional groups.
Many of these substances can be extracted, such as phenols, volatile organic acids,
levoglucosan and others, but the utilization of pyrolytic oil as a fuel for stationary generation
of steam and power remains, to date, the most suitable alternative (Zhang et al., 2007).
3.3.9. Vegetable oil
Vegetable oil can be extracted from nearly any oilseed crop for potential use as biofuels
or as a chemical substrate. They are made of triglycerides which typically consist of glycerin
and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Triglycerides have two chemically reactive sites
and thanks to this reactivity, a wide range of products can be produced, such as: biodiesel
(giving glycerin as a co-product), dicarboxylic acid (by bio-oxydation), polyamides and
polyurethanes (i.e. bio-plastics), among others (Hill, 2006).
115
3.3.10. Organic juice

Organic juice refers to the liquid phase which can be obtained after pressing of fresh
biomass feedstock such as grasses, vegetables, fruits and others. This organic fraction is
extremely reach of chemical compounds dispersed in an aqueous solution, mainly organic
acids of different size and proteins, which can be extracted and concentrated in order to
become value added products.
4. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF BIOREFINERY SYSTEMS:

A CASE STUDY
4.1. Introduction to LCA
In order to investigate all the environmental aspects of biorefinery systems, an evaluation
by means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the full production chain, from supply of raw
materials to final use of products, is required.
A Life Cycle Assessment study is a tool for evaluating environmental impacts associated
with a product, process, or service by identifying energy and materials used and emissions
released to the environment; moreover it also allows an identification of opportunities for
environmental improvements (Consoli et al., 1993; Lindfors et al., 1995). A typical LCA
study consists of the following stages:
1. Goal and scope definition (ISO 14041);
2. Life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis, with compilation of data both about energy and
material flows and on emissions to the environment, throughout the life cycle of the case
study (ISO 14041);
3. Assessment of the potential impacts (Life Cycle Impact Assessment, LCIA) associated
with the identified forms of resource use and environmental emissions (ISO 14042);
4. Interpretation of the results from the previous phases of the study in relation to the
objectives of the study (ISO 14043).
4.2. Goal and Scope Definition

The goal and scope definition is the first part of an LCA, where the purpose, the scope,
the functional unit and the system boundary of the assessment are described.
The aim of this work is to analyze a biorefinery system by means of LCA. The
investigated biorefinery is a system where several conversion technologies are jointly applied
to produce transportation biofuels, bioenergy and material products. The products of the
biorefinery are the following:
1. Transportation biofuels: bioethanol and methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF);
2. Bioenergy carriers: biomethane, hydrogen, electricity and heat;
3. Biomaterials: furan resins, fumaric acid (FUMA) and oxygen.
116
Wood industrial residues are used as raw materials and are delivered to the plant in the
form of pellets (chemical and elemental composition in Table 1). The results of the
biorefinery systems are shown in comparison with a fossil reference system providing the
same amount of energy and chemical products from fossil sources. The software tool Gemis
is used to model LCA calculations and as database source (Gemis, 2008).
Environmental concerns are focused on energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of
biorefinery and fossil reference systems, because reduction of GHG emissions and decrease
of fossil fuel consumption are two driving forces of biomass utilization strategies. As a direct
consequence of the definition, a biorefinery is characterized by multiple useful outputs (both
energy and material products). This fact gives rise to an allocation issue, which was addressed
using different allocation methods.
Finally, biorefinery system performances are investigated by means of several indices
and indicators such as conversion yields and mass, energy, exergy and C efficiencies.
4.2.1. Biorefinery: scope and system boundaries

Wood industrial residues are the raw materials for this biorefinery system. The feedstock
is assumed to be collected from industries, transported to a pellet facility (20 km), where it is
dried and pelletized, and transported to the biorefinery plant (100 km). The GHG emissions
estimated for collecting, processing and delivery of raw materials to biorefinery gates are
equal to 1.94 g CO2-eq./MJpellets, while the primary fossil energy consumption is 8.47
kJ/MJpellets (Gemis, 2008).
MTHF
H2
C5
sugars
Pretreatment
Feedstock
C6
sugars
Acid
treatment
Furfural
Chemical
reactions
Furan resins
O2
FUMA
Hydrolysis
Fermentation
CO2
Distillation
Bioethanol
Fertilizer
Wastewater
Legend
Feedstock
Intermediate
Energy
Product
Anaerobic
digestion
Biogas
Process
Output not
exploited
Lignin &
residues
Combustion
Material
Product
Electricity
Heat
Upgrading
Alkaline water
electrolysis
Biomethane
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Figure 11. Process scheme of the investigated biorefinery.
This biorefinery produces bioethanol from fermentation of C6 sugars, furfural from

hydrolysis of C5 sugars (which is then chemically converted to fuel additive and other
chemicals), electricity and heat from combustion of lignin and residues, hydrogen and oxygen
through alkaline water electrolysis and biomethane and fertilizer via anaerobic digestion of
wastewaters (Figure 11).
117
The lignocellulosic feedstock (530 ktonnes/a) is pretreated through an acid catalyzed

hydrolysis step which splits the raw material in 2 flows: a solid flow containing cellulose and
lignin and a liquid flow containing the hydrolyzed C5 sugars. The pretreatment occurs at
temperatures higher than 160C and with a reaction time of 2-10 minutes (Sun and Cheng,
2002). The liquid flow is made of C5 sugars (xylose and arabinose monomers coming from
hemicellulose hydrolysis with an efficiency of 95%) which are treated with a dilute sulfuric
acid solution at low temperature for a short period of time. The product output is furfural,
obtained with an efficiency of 90% by the following reaction: C5H10O5 C5H4O2 + 3H2O
(Kaylen et al., 2000).
Furfural is then converted to the following products (Kamm et al., 2006b; Vazquez et al.,
2007):
Figure 12. Conversion of furfural to MTHF via methylfuran.
70% to the fuel additive methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF) by reduction with H2 via the
intermediate methyl furan, as illustrated in Figure 12 (1st reaction: C5H4O2 + 2H2
C5H6O + H2O, molar efficiency 80%; 2nd reaction: C5H6O + 2H2 C5H10O, molar
efficiency 95%; both reactions needs a Ni catalyst; overall yield 76%);
15% to furan resins, made by polymerization of furfural, furfuryl alcohol or other
compounds containing a furan ring;
15% to fumaric acid (FUMA) by oxidation (followed by opening of the furan ring) in
presence of a V2O5 catalyst (C5H4O2 + 2O2 C4H4O4 + CO2) (Figure 13).
Figure 13. Conversion of furfural to FUMA via oxidation.
118
The reactants H2 and O2 are internally produced in the biorefinery system by alkaline
water electrolysis; 89% and 22% of the generated H2 and O2 are required in the production of
MTHF and FUMA.
The solid fraction coming out from pretreatment step is subjected to a further hydrolysis
to hydrolyze the remaining cellulose and other C6 polymers and separate lignin. The
conversion efficiencies are the following (Hamelinck et al., 2005):
from cellulose to glucose 90%,

from galactan to galactose 82%,
from mannan to mannose 89%.
About 2% of cellulose is lost during acid recycle activities, while 9% is set aside for
bacteria cultivation; all the C6 sugar monomers are then fermented to bioethanol with the
following efficiencies (Hamelinck et al., 2005):
glucose to ethanol 93%,

galactose and mannose to ethanol 90%.
Bioethanol is finally recovered via distillation.

Lignin (lower heating value 22.9 MJ/kg) and the unconverted cellulose and hemicelluse
(lower heating value15.63 MJ/kg) are combusted to produce electricity and heat with an
efficiency of 26% and 44%, respectively (De Feber and Gielen, 2000). Ashes are delivered to
landfill. Since H2 and O2 are required for the chemical conversion of furfural to its derivates,
20% of the total electricity output is destined to water electrolysis, which generates H2 with
an energy efficiency of 77% and O2 at a rate of 7.92 g/gH2 (Gemis, 2008). Wastewaters
coming from xylose conversion to furfural and C6 sugar fermentation are anaerobically
digested to produce biogas. These wastewaters have a total dry matter content of 54.4 ktdry
and generate biogas at a rate of 6 GJ/tdry (Berglund and Brjesson, 2006). The produced
biogas has a heating value of 24 MJ/m3 and methane content of 60% (Alzate and Toro, 2006).
Undesired methane emissions to the atmosphere during digestion and biogas treatments are
estimated to be 3.47 mg/MJ and the upgrading of biogas to biomethane (CH4 content greater
than 97%), by removing impurities and CO2, needs 5% of the energy content of the biogas
(Gemis, 2008).
Fossil energy consumption and GHG emissions related to the supply of auxiliary
materials (such as sulphuric acid, lime, urea, sodium hydroxide, potassium chloride,
phosphporic acid and sodium sulfite) are calculated using the software tool Gemis, while the
quantities come from (Kaylen et al., 2000). Other releases of GHG emissions are the
following (Gemis, 2008):
Emissions from lignin (and biomass residue) combustion in turbine, estimated to be

1.59 g CO2-eq./MJ of heat set free from combustion;
Emissions from combustion of bioethanol in a passenger car, assumed to be 3 g CO2eq./km (with a specific consumption of 2.45 MJ/km);
Emissions from combustion of biomethane in its final use (0.67 g CO2-eq./MJ).
119
Because of a lack in available data, the GHG emissions from MTHF combustion and its
specific consumption in cars are assumed to be equal to bioethanol. Since the combustion of
these biofuels (e.g. lignin and biomass residues, bioethanol, biomethane and MTHF) releases
CO2 which has a biological origin, it is not accounted for as a GHG and the above emission
factors are mainly due to N2O and CH4.
This biorefinery plant requires 0.16 MWh of electricity and 0.60 MWh of heat per ton of
feedstock for producing bioethanol and furfural (Kaylen et al., 2000), while 7.5 kJ of heat per
g water are needed to distil the water required by the electrolysis process (Gemis, 2008). The
anaerobic digestion step and following biogas upgrading requires 0.65 GJ of electricity and
0.1 GJ of heat per tonne of dry matter in wastewaters (Berglund and Brjesson, 2006).
4.2.2. Biorefinery material products

All the products produced by biorefinery systems can be grouped in two broad
categories: material products and energy products. Energy products are those products which
are used for their energy content, providing electricity, heat or transportation service. On the
other hand, material products are not used for an energy generation purpose but for their
chemical or physical properties. The chemical structure of energy and material products of the
investigated biorefinery system are reported in Figure 14.
The market share of products produced from biomass is expected to rise from the current
level of 5% to 20% in the short run (Sauer et al., 2007). In fact, these products are favourable
from a chemical point of view. Functional groups that must be introduced by costly oxidative
process steps into oil are already available in plant materials. It is noteworthy that for many
biomass derived chemicals the actual market is small, but an economical production process
will create new markets by providing new opportunities for the chemical industry. For
example, succinic acid and formic acid could replace the petroleum-derived commodity
chemical maleic anhydride. The market for maleic anhydride is huge, whereas the current
market for the organic acids mentioned is small.
The material products of the analyzed biorefinery system are fumaric acid, furan resins, O2
and fertilizers. Fumaric acid (HO2CCH=CHCO2H) is a carboxylic acid currently produced from
the oxygenation of the fossil derived product benzene. It is mainly used in medicine, in food
industry as a food acidulent, in chemical industry and in the manufacture of polyester resins and
polyhydric alcohols. Fumaric acid has an annual production of 12 ktonnes but a projected
market volume of more than 200 ktonnes (Sauer et al., 2007). The uses are the following: 35%
as paper size resins, 22% as food acidulant, 15% in unsaturated polyester resins, 6% in alkyd
resins, 5% as plasticizers and 17% miscellaneous (including lubricating oils and oil field fluids,
esters, inks, lacquers, carboxylating agent for styrenebutadiene rubber) (CMR, 2008).
Furan resins are made by polymerization or polycondensation of furfural, furfuryl alcohol
or other compounds containing a furan ring, or by reaction of these furan compounds with
other molecules (not over 50%). The major uses of furan resins are as foundry binders and
their production in biorefinery is assumed to play a major role in chemical conversions of
furfural. Another chemical product is oxygen in its diatomic form (O2), which can be used in
a lot of chemical applications like oxidizing agent. Fertilizers are the residues of the anaerobic
digestion step which can partly replace the use of synthetic fertilizers. However, due to a lack
of data on its use and fossil fertilizers replacement rate, no benefits from this material output
are considered in LCA calculation.
120
Figure 14. Chemical structures of the bioproducts from the biorefinery: bioethanol, biomethane, MTHF,
furfural and fumaric acid
4.2.3. Biorefinery energy products

The energy products of the biorefinery are bioethanol, MTHF, biomethane, hydrogen,
electricity and heat. The production of large quantities of biofuels or fuel additives via
renewable feedstocks offers perhaps the greatest potential for mass-market penetration of
biorefineries.
Bioethanol is one of the most common transportation biofuels currently produced in the
world and can replace gasoline in vehicles. Biomethane is obtained from upgrading of biogas
by removing CO2 and other undesired elements, like H2S. Biomethane can be used as a
transportation biofuel or can be transported through the existing gas infrastructure and
substituting natural gas in all its existing applications.
Methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF) is produced from furfural by reduction to methyl furan,
which is then reduced to MTHF (both reductions occur with H2). MTHF is a very important
compound because it can be added to gasoline (to be blended at the refinery rather than later
in the distribution process) or bioethanol up to 30% by volume without effects on
performances and engine modification. Using MTHF as a fuel additive increases the
oxygenate level in gasoline without adversely affecting engine performance. MTHF also
boasts a high octane rating (87) and a low vapour pressure, thereby reducing fuel evaporation
and improving air quality. Although it has a lower LHV than gasoline, it has a higher specific
gravity and hence mileage is competitive. Properties of MTHF as fuel are reported in Table 2.
Hydrogen is produced via alkaline water electrolysis and is used as a reducing agent for
conversion of furfural to MTHF at the biorefinery plant site. This can be seen as an
innovative way to safely store H2 in a transportation biofuel. The remaining H2 fraction is
delivered to the market.
121
Table 2. Selected properties of MTHF as a transportation biofuel.

Property
Boiling point (102 mmHg)
Boiling point (Atm.)
Flash point
Reid vapour pressure
Lower heating value
Specific gravity
Octane rating
Unit
C
C
C
psig
MJ/kg
MTHF
20
80
11
5.7
32
0.813
80
Electricity and heat are produced by combustion of lignin and process residues. Part of
this electricity and heat production is used to meet the plant energy demand and the rest is
delivered to the public grid.
4.2.4. Fossil reference system

LCA environmental performances of the analyzed biorefinery system are compared with
those of a fossil reference system based on oil refinery, producing the same amount of energy and
chemical products. A comparison between the two systems is illustrated in Figure 15.
ReferenceSystem
Biorefinery
Collection
Wood
residues
Transport
Natural
decomposition
Natural gas
Oil
Extraction &
Conveyance
Extraction &
Conveyance
Transport
Transport
Power
plant
Refinery
Processing
Air
Steam
reforming
Biorefinery
plant
Processing
Distribution Electric net
Distribution
Distribution
Heavy oil
Gasoline
Distribution
Heating
plant
Distribution
Heating
network
Gasoline
vehicles
Distribution
H2
Biofuel
vehicles
Heating
Chemicals
Electric net
network
andH2
Chemicals
Productsandservices (transportation, chemicals, electricity, heat, H2,

methane)
Figure 15. Comparison between production chains: biorefinery system vs. fossil reference system.
122
The biorefinery chain starts at the top with carbon fixation from the atmosphere via
photosynthesis, or, as it occurs in this case study, biomass C taken as biomass waste from the
forest sector. At the end of the biorefinery chain a certain amount of useful energy and products
are supplied. Along the whole process chain, all the energy and material inputs and emissions
occurring for planting and harvesting the crop (or collect the raw materials), processing the
feedstock into fuels and products, transporting and storing of the feedstock, distributing and final
use of the products must be accounted for in a life cycle perspective (Schlamadinger et al., 1997).
Particular importance should be given to the numerous co-products which a biorefinery may
produce, because they can have relevant implications in the assessment of the overall system.
The fossil reference system is dealt with in a similar way, considering all the material and
energy inputs and emissions associated with its life cycle stages: production of the raw fossil fuel,
refining, storage, distribution and combustion. If compared in this manner, the differences between
the two systems producing the same product/service can be presented.
Table 3 reports the bioproducts produced by the investigated biorefinery and the fossil
conventional counterparts that they replace. In the right part of the table the environmental
impacts, in terms of GHG emissions and total energy demand, of the fossil derived products
are listed: these are the GHG emissions and energy consumption saved by the biofuels and
biochemicals of the biorefinery. These values, reported in the right part of the table, have
been calculated by means of the LCA software tool Gemis (Gemis, 2008).
Table 3. Table reporting the conventional alternatives of the different products
of the biorefinery and their specific factors for GHG emissions and fossil
energy consumptions.
Biorefinery
Bioproducts
Bioethanol
Electricity
Heat
Biomethane
MTHF
Fossil reference system

Conventional alternative
Unit
g CO2-eq./unit
Gasoline
km
189
b
Electricity from natural gas
MJ
120
c
Heat from oil
MJ
106
Conventional methaned
MJ
76
Gasoline
km
189
H2
Furan resins
Fumaric acid
H2 from natural gas

Epoxy resins
Conventional fumaric acid
MJ
g
g
72
6.07
1.29
1.24
0.13
0.05
O2
Fertilizer
Conventional O2 (from air)

No benefits
0.07
0.001
MJtot./unita
2.36
1.96
1.32
1.31
2.36
Mainly fossil energy (> 98%)

Large scale gas-fired combined-cycle (CC) power plant with efficiency of 57% and low NOx burner; it
is assumed that 1/3 of the electric capacity comes from the steam turbine.
c
Heavy oil boiler for industrial process heat, efficiency 85%.
d
Including emissions from combustion in natural gas boiler (66.15 g CO2-eq./MJ), efficiency 85%.
b
123
The transportation biofuels bioethanol and MTHF replace conventional gasoline as a liquid
transportation fuel in passenger cars. It is assumed that the electricity and heat produced by the
biorefinery substitute, respectively, electricity produced from natural gas turbine and heat
generated from a heavy oil boiler.
Regarding the two remaining biofuels, biomethane (fed to the national grid) replaces
conventional natural gas in its applications as a stationary fuel while bio-H2 replaces
conventional hydrogen production from steam reforming of natural gas.
Concerning the chemicals, their GHG emissions and fossil energy requirements were
been estimated considering their production chains in the current oil refinery. It is assumed
that furan resins replace epoxy resins.
Epoxy resins are polymers originated from polymerization of epoxy monomers, and are
produced by reaction of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. Epichlorohydrin is a highly
reactive epoxide and polymerizes upon treatment with acid or strong base; bisphenol A,
commonly abbreviated as BPA, is an organic compound with two phenol functional groups
and constitutes a building block of several important polymers and polymer additives. Epoxy
resins are used as adhesives (they are one of the few adhesives that can be used on metals), as
protective coatings, as materials in electronic circuit boards and for patching holes in concrete
pavement. In Figure 16, the chemical structures of BPA, epichlorohydrin and the reaction
mechanism leading to epoxy resins, are illustrated.
Figure 16. Reaction between BPA and epichlorohydrin and formation of epoxy resins.
124
Conventional fumaric acid is currently produced from oxygenation of benzene (C6H6 +

4O2 C4H4O4 + 2 CO2H2). The chemical properties of fumaric acid can be anticipated from
its component functional groups. This weak acid forms a diester, it undergoes additions
across the double bond, and it is an excellent dienophile.
The O2 produced by the biorefinery plant (via alkaline water electrolysis) replaces the
molecular oxygen (O2) that is currently produced from processing of air, from which O2 is
separated. About 100 million tonnes of O2 are extracted from air for industrial uses annually.
The most common method to recover O2 is to fractionally-distill liquefied air into its various
components, with nitrogen N2 distilling as a vapor while oxygen O2 is left as a liquid
(Emsley, 2001).
4.2.5. Functional unit

The functional unit is the foundation of biorefinery systems LCA: it sets the scale for
comparison of different technological routes which a biomass feedstock can undergo in order to be
converted to biofuels and chemicals. One of the main purposes of the functional unit is to provide
a reference to which the input and output data are normalized and the basis by which the final
results are shown. For instance, the results of a bioenergy system from dedicated biomass crops
should be expressed on a per hectare basis, since the available area for the production of biomass
raw materials is the biggest bottleneck for the production of biofuels (Schlamadinger et al., 2005).
However, in order to be comparable, biorefinery results have the need to be independent from the
kind of biomass feedstock (dedicated crops or residues) and from the conversion processes which
act on the biomass raw materials. As a consequence, they cannot be expressed per hectare basis or
per unit of output. The most suitable functional unit is then the unit of biomass input which, in this
study, is the amount of biomass treated per year by the biorefinery: 530 ktonnes/a. Therefore, all
the input flows reported in the following inventory list and the final results of GHG emissions and
cumulated primary energy demand are referred to this amount of biomass input.
4.2.6 Allocation
Allocation in LCA is carried out to attribute shares of the total environmental impact to
the different products of a system. This concept is extremely important for biorefinery
systems, where multiple energy and material products are produced. The question of the most
suitable allocation procedure is still an open issue. Scientific LCA publications show benefits
and disadvantages of several allocation methods (Curran 2007; Ekval and Finnveden, 2001;
Frischknecht 2000; Wang et al., 2004).
The ISO standards suggest to avoid allocation by expanding system boundaries, when
possible. This method relies on the expansion of the product system to include the additional
functions related to the co-products. This procedure (also called substitution method) has the
advantage to avoid allocation issues while has the disadvantage to make the system too
complex, especially if multiple co-products are present (like in biorefineries). In fact, this
method relies on identification of a main product and the environmental benefits of coproducts are assumed as credits, which are subtracted to the total GHG emissions and the
remaining emissions are completely assigned to the main product. Furthermore, the
identification of one of the output as main product is an arbitrary choice and can be a difficult
decision in biorefinery systems, where multiple useful and valuable outputs are produced.
Therefore, system expansion is not recommended when an elevated number of high quality
outputs is produced; this situation can even lead to a negative value (i.e. below zero) of the
125
burdens allocated to the main product. Where system expansion cannot be applied and the
allocation cannot be avoided, ISO norms suggest that the inputs and outputs of the system
should be partitioned between its different products or functions in a way which reflects the
underlying physical relationships between them (physical allocation); i.e. they shall reflect the
way in which the inputs and outputs are changed by quantitative changes in the products or
functions delivered by the system (Curran 2007). Where physical relationship alone cannot be
established or used as the basis for allocation, the inputs should be allocated between the
products and functions in a way which reflects other relationships between them. If system
expansion cannot be applied, input and output data might be allocated between co-products in
proportion to thermodynamics parameters (such as energy or exergy content of outputs) or to
the economic value of products.
Allocation based on energy content of products can be easily carried out but its
application is inconsistent (i.e. lacking of a correct logical relation) and results in misleading
conclusions if there are some products which are not used as energy carriers (e.g. chemicals).
Allocation based on exergy overcomes this inconsistency but can be problematic to be
applied because of the difficulties for estimating the exergy content of substances (especially
new bio-based products). Allocation based on economic values focuses on external
characteristics of the products and has the disadvantages that do not take into account the
environmental perspective and the physical properties of the products, because is based on
their value in human societies; in addition, market values of products can fluctuate
consistently according to the reference year, production chain and geographical location
(Ekvall, 2001; Pierru 2007).
In order to do not disregard these issues and provide a sensitivity analysis on how the
different allocation procedures affect the final results, all the above mentioned allocation
methods are applied to the biorefinery system assessed in this chapter.
Concerning system expansion, the main product is assumed to be bioethanol and the
environmental benefits of co-products are assumed as credits, calculated thanks to the fossil
reference systems. These credits (i.e. the GHG and fossil energy saved by the co-products)
are then subtracted to the total GHG emissions and energy consumption of the whole system;
the resulting environmental burdens are completely assigned to the main product.
Allocation methods based on thermodynamics parameters (energy and exergy content)
and economic values of the products share the environmental burdens among the different
outputs, without identifying a main product.
Concerning allocation based on energy content, for biofuels the following heating values
are considered: bioethanol 27 MJ/kg, MTHF 32 MJ/kg, biomethane 34.75 MJ/kg, hydrogen
114 MJ/kg. The energy content of the material products has been estimated by means of the
Dulongs formula (furan resins 21.22 MJ/kg, FUMA 9.08 MJ/kg). Oxygen does not have a
heating value. Exergy content of products are collected from a specific database (Ayres et al.,
1996).
4.3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) stage deals with the evaluation of environmental
impacts of the biorefinery system and fossil reference system over their whole life cycle. The
results focus on two types of impact categories: greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and
cumulative primary energy demand.
126

Table 5 reports the prices of the products for the allocation based on economic values.
Table 5. List of prices of biorefinery products to be used in the
allocation procedure based on economic values.
Product
Unit
Transportation (bioethanol)
Price
$/kg
1.34
Transportation (MTHF)a
$/kg
1.31
Furan resinsb
$/ton
3555
$/ton
1278
$/GJ
27.78
$/GJ
9.29
FUMA
c
d
Electricity
e
Heat
Biomethane
$/GJ
9.29
$/GJ
35.09
$/kg
8.93
H2
a
O2
Calculated on the basis of gasoline price in the US (1.06 $/L)

b
New chemical commodity, price in market not available. Estimate on the basis of the price of epoxy
resins
c
The price is referred to low grade fumaric acid
d
Average electricity price for households in the US
e
Price based on energy content of replaced natural gas
f
Average price natural gas for households in the US
g
Average estimated price of H2 in future markets (Ducharme et al., 2005)
f
Average O2 price for laboratories
The first impact category refers to all the GHG emissions released for feedstock production,
transport, conversion processes, provision of auxiliary materials and final use of the products.
These emissions are accounted for and converted to g CO2-eq. with equivalency factors. The
analysis considers three long lived GHGs released by human activities: CO2, CH4 and N2O.
Their effect on global warming can be assessed by an index called Global Warming Potential
(GWP), which is a measure of how much a given mass of GHG contributes to global
warming relative to a reference gas (usually CO2) for which GWP is set to 1. For a 100-year
time horizon, GWPs of CO2, CH4 and N2O are, respectively, 1, 25 and 298 g CO2-eq./gemission
(IPCC, 2007). Using this index, one can calculate the equivalent CO2 emission by multiplying
the emission of a GHG by its GWP.
Similarly, the cumulative primary energy demand accounts for all the life cycle stages,
from feedstock provision to final use of products. The primary energy demand is divided into
fossil, renewable and other energy demand. The same impact categories are evaluated for the
fossil reference system as well, with the intent to make comparisons and quantify savings.
In order to gain information concerning performances and conversion efficiencies of the
biorefinery system, the mass, energy, exergy and carbon efficiencies are carried out through
the whole biorefinery conversion chain. The C content of the different feedstock components
and final products are estimated and the C balance of the system calculated according to the
methodology depicted in (Cherubini and Jungmeier, 2008), while the exergy contents of the
molecules are derived from (Ayres et al., 1996).
127
4.3.1. Results and interpretation

The final quantities of products produced are reported in Table 6 (upper part), where the
results of the biorefinery and fossil reference systems are also shown. The biorefinery releases
about 36.8 kt CO2-eq./a and requires 10858 TJ/a of primary energy, of which 208 TJ/a fossil
energy. On the other hand, the fossil reference system releases 336 kt CO2-eq./a and requires
4772 TJ/a, of which 4736 TJ/a fossil energy.
Table 6. Quantities of final products, GHG emissions and primary energy demand
of biorefinery system and fossil reference system.
Birefinery System
Product/service:
1,082
Transportation (MTHF)
122
Furan resins
2.91
FUMA
3.34
Electricity
333
Heat
224
Biomethane
261
H2
13.7
O2
7.07
Fertilizer (no benefit)
36.9
Environmental impacts:
Total GHG emissions
36.8
CO2
27.0
N2O
9.22
CH4
0.61
Primary energy demand
10,858
Fossil
208
Renewable (biomass)
10,495
Others
16
GHG and energy savings
With heat credits
GHG emissions saved
300
0.66
Fossil energy saved
4,527
10.05
Excluding heat credits
GHG emissions saved
276
0.61
Fossil energy saved
4,231
9.39
Mio km
Mio km
kt
kt
TJ
TJ
TJ
TJ
kt
ktd ry
Fossil Reference System

Product/service:
Transportation (gasoline)
1,204 Mio km
Epoxy resins (from fossil)
FUMA (from fossil)
Electricity (from natural gas)
Heat (from oil)
Natural gas
H 2 (from natural gas)
O2 (conventional, from air)
2.91
3.34
333
224
261
13.7
7.07
kt
kt
TJ
TJ
TJ
TJ
kt
Environmental impacts (including heat):

Total GHG emissions
336
CO2
322
N 2O
7.27
CH4
7.69
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO 2-eq./a
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a

Fossil
Renewable
Others
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a
kt CO 2-eq./a
t CO2-eq./tdrywo od
TJ/a
GJ/tdrywood
Environmental impacts (excluding heat):

Total GHG emissions
313
CO 2
299
N 2O
6.76
CH 4
7.15
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO 2-eq./a
kt CO 2-eq./a
t CO2-eq./tdrywo od
TJ/a
GJ/tdrywood

Fossil
Renewable
Others
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a
TJ/a
kt
kt
kt
kt
CO 2-eq./a
CO 2-eq./a
CO2-eq./a
CO 2-eq./a
4,772
4,736
7
25
4,474
4,440
6
24
This means that the biorefinery system is able to save 89% of GHG emission and 95.6%
of fossil energy in respect with its fossil reference system, providing the same quantities of
products and services. In Figure 17, the GHG emissions of the biorefinery and fossil reference
system are compared.
Biorefinery shows a relevant decrease of total GHG, CO2 and CH4 emissions, while it has
a slight increase in N2O emissions, because of the biomass (lignin, residues, biofuels)
combustion steps.
128
336
350
322
300
kt CO2-eq./a
250
Total GHG
200
CO2
N2O
150
CH4
100
50
37
27
0.61
Biorefinery
Figure 17. Comparison between GHGs of biorefinery and fossil reference system.
Going into details, about 33 kt CO2-eq./a are released by feedstock production and
biorefinery plant activities, with the following shares:
61% of these emissions comes from feedstock provision (e.g. collection of wood
residue, pelleting and transport),
16% from lignin and process residue combustion for CHP production (i.e. emissions
of CH4 and N2O),
23% from manufacturing of auxiliary materials such as urea (9%), sulfuric acid,
phosphoric acid (5.7%), sodium hydroxide (5%) and others.
In addition to these emissions, distribution and final use of products are responsible for
an emission of 3.8 kt CO2-eq./a (coming from combustion of transportation biofuels in
passenger cars (95%) andfrom combustion of biomethane in its final application (5%)).
Table 7. GHG emissions of the fossil reference system.
Product/service
kt CO2-eq./a
Transportation (gasoline)
227
67.6%
FUMA (from fossil)
4.31
1.3%
Epoxy resins (from fossil)
17.7
5.2%
Electricity (from natural gas)
39.8
11.8%
Heat (from oil)
23.8
7.1%
Natural gas
21.9
6.5%
H2 (from natural gas)
987
0.3%
O2 (conventional)
509
0.2%
336
100.00%
Total GHG emissions
Biomethane
combustion
Biofuel combustion 0.5%
in cars
10%
129
Other
0.5%
Manufacture of
auxiliary materials
20%
Feedstock
provision
55%
Residue
combustion
14%
Figure 18. Contributions to the total GHG emissions of the biorefinery system. Other includes
wastewater treatment, waste disposal (mainly ashes) and uncontrolled CH4 emissions from anaerobic
digestion.
Contributions from all the stages to the total GHG emissions of the biorefinery system are
illustrated in Figure 18. More than half of the GHG emissions are due to feedstock provision,
i.e. collection, processing and delivery of wood residue pellets.
Concerning the fossil reference system, the total GHG emissions are mainly due to
gasoline (68%), followed by electricity (12%) and then other products. Detailed information
concerning the contributors to the total GHG emissions of the fossil reference system are
reported in Table 7. The primary energy demand of biorefinery system and fossil reference
system has similar contributions than those of GHG emissions.
Results highlight both the importance of generating high quantities of electricity and the
benefits deriving from an utilization of the process heat produced for achieving high GHG
emission and fossil energy savings. Concerning electricity, the lower the share of electricity
sent to alkaline water electrolysis, the higher the savings. In the determination of the
magnitude of these savings, a fundamental role is played by the fossil reference system
considered. It is assumed that the fossil reference system produces electricity from natural gas
but the savings would be larger if, for instance, electricity from coal or oil is displaced.
Regarding the heat, fundamental is the possibility to use it in an application located in the
surrounded of the biorefinery, maximizing the environmental benefits which can be gained. In
the fossil reference system, heat is assumed to be produced from oil and even in this case,
environmental savings would be larger if coal-derived heat is replaced. The differences
between biorefinery systems with and without process heat utilization are reported in the
130
lower part of Table 6: GHG and fossil energy savings are about 8% lower if heat is not used
to substitute oil-derived heat.
Comparison of the biorefinery with its fossil reference system shows that the biorefinery
can reduce GHG emissions of about 299.6 kt CO2-eq./a (0.66 t CO2-eq./tdry wood) and save
4527 TJ/a of fossil energy (10.05 GJ/tdry wood).
Even if the biorefinery system requires more than twice the primary energy demand of
the fossil reference system, it is mainly constituted (97%) by renewable energy, i.e. the
energy content of biomass feedstock, and the savings of fossil energy are relevant (almost
96%). As a consequence, the provision of biomass with sustainable practices is a crucial point
to ensure a renewable energy supply to biorefineries.
Table 8. Conversion yields and mass, carbon, energy and exergy
efficiencies of the biorefinery system.
Ethanol yield per t of feedstock (dry)
0.22
Ethanol yield per ton of cellulose
0.49
C conversion efficiency from wood to EtOH
22.45%
C conversion efficiency from cellulose to EtOH
56.98%
Furfural yield per t of feedstock (dry)
0.04
Furfural yield per ton of xylan
0.68
C conversion efficiency from wood to furfural
5.35%
C conversion efficiency from hemicellulose to furfural
74.86%
a
Material products per t of feedstock (tprod/tdry wood)
2.96%
Energy products (net) per GJ of feedstock (GJprod/GJwood)b:
with heat
37.28%
without heat
35.12%
C conversion efficiency (from feedstock to products)
29.15%
Exergy conversion efficiency:
with heat
44.38%
without heat
42.95%
a
Only material products included (e.g. furan resins, FUMA, and O2)
b
Energy feedbacks to the plant subtracted (i.e. only final energy outputs included)
t/tdry
t/tcell
t/tdry
t/txylan
Biorefinery system performances in terms of product yields and mass, energy, exergy and
C conversion efficiencies are reported in Table 8. Bioethanol and furfural yields are
respectively 0.22 and 0.04 t per tonne of dry feedstock, but the yields increase up to 0.49 t of
bioethanol per tonne of cellulose and 0.78 t of furfural per tonne of xylan. The overall C
conversion efficiency of the plant from feedstock to products is 29.15% and the exergy
conversion efficiency is 44.38%. The material products of the biorefinery (i.e. furan resins,
FUMA and O2) constitute 2.96% of the total mass of the dry feedstock, while final net energy
products (bioethanol, MTHF, H2, biomethane, electricity and heat) store about 37% of the
raw material energy content. Without heat, this energy efficiency decreases to 35%. A
comparison can be done with other biomass conversion systems, which have energy
efficiencies higher than biorefinery. In fact, production of heat from wood combustion can
reach efficiencies higher than 85%, while in CHP application the overall energy efficiency is
around 80%. The reason is that a biorefinery system is made of several conversion steps and
biomass undergo chemical reactions and changes of state, while the aforementioned
131
conventional biomass system mainly involve one step (biomass combustion). In particular,
energy and C conversion efficiencies of the biorefinery are lowered by the fermentation step,
where C6 sugars are converted to bioethanol: C efficiency from cellulose to bioethanol is
about 57% while from hemicellulose to furfural (a chemical pathway, without
microorganisms) is about 75%. During fermentation almost half of the C in C6 sugars is
converted to the useless product CO2, thus lowering the overall efficiency of the process.
4.3.2. Allocation results

The allocation procedures previously described are applied in order to share the
environmental burdens of the biorefinery among the different products. The allocation criteria
are based on energy content, exergy content and economic value of products. An attempt to
avoid allocation through system expansion was also done. Results are reported in Table 9,
where the GHG emissions of the biorefinery system are allocated. Concerning the cumulated
primary energy demand, allocation can be performed considering the same shares of the total
GHG emissions of Table 9.
Table 9. Allocation of the GHG emissions to the biorefinery products using
different allocation methods.
Allocation method
Unit
Transportation
(bioethanol)
Transportation
(MTHF)
Furan resins
FUMA
Electricity
Heat
Biomethane
H2
O2
Energy
Exergy
Economic value
System
expansion
main
-97.6
produc
t
kt CO2-eq./a
25.1
68.3%
25.7
69.8%
25.4
68.9%
kt CO2-eq./a
2.82
7.68%
2.98
8.09%
2.36
6.41%
25.6
credits
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
kt CO2-eq./a
0.59
0.29
3.18
2.14
2.49
0.13
-
1.60%
0.79%
8.64%
5.83%
6.78%
0.36%
0.00%
0.62
0.33
2.60
1.05
3.22
0.11
0.01
1.69%
0.90%
7.07%
2.86%
8.75%
0.30%
0.02%
2.02
0.83
1.80
0.41
0.47
0.09
3.45
5.48%
2.26%
4.90%
1.11%
1.29%
0.25%
9.38%
4.31
17.6
39.8
23.8
21.8
0.99
0.51
credits
credits
credits
credits
credits
credits
credits
In Figure 19, the influence of the allocation methods on GHG emissions allocated to
biorefinery products is shown. It can be noticed that, besides system expansion which uses a
different approach, all the allocation criteria lead to similar results, especially concerning
transportation biofuels (bioethanol and MTHF). Allocation based on energy and exergy
content of products show similar results also for the other energy products and chemicals,
while allocation based on economic values increases the shares of chemical products, such as
furan resins, FUMA and mainly oxygen, while decreasing the environmental burdens
assigned to electricity, heat and biomethane.
The specific GHG emission factors for each product according to the allocation
procedure are listed in Table 10. In this table, GHG emissions per unit of product, i.e. km
driven for biofuels, GJ for electricity and heat, g for chemicals and gaseous biofuels, are
reported. For instance, these factors can be applied in a LCA if these products are used as
auxiliary materials in a future biobased society. Results of these biomass derived products and
services can be compared with those derived from oil refinery (reported in Table 3). For
132
instance, driving a car fuelled with bioethanol produced from biorefinery (23.23 g CO2eq./km, energy allocation) instead of gasoline from oil refinery (189 g CO2-eq./km), saves
approximately 88% of CO2-eq. emissions .
25
k t C O 2 - e q ./a
20
15
10
5
O2
H2
B io m e th a n e
H eat
E le c tr ic ity
FU M A
F u r a n r e s in s
T r a n sp o r ta tio n
(M T H F)
T r a n sp o r ta tio n
( b io e th a n o l)
Energy allocation Exergy allocation Economic allocation

Figure 19. mparison among the different allocation methods (data from Table 9).
Table 10. Specific factors of GHG emissions of biorefinery products

according to the different allocation methods used.
Unit
Energy
Exergy
Economic
g CO2-eq./km
23.23
23.74
23.43
-90.20
System expansion
main product
Transportation (MTHF)
g CO2-eq./km
23.23
24.47
19.38
210.23
credits
Furan resins
g CO2-eq./g
0.18
0.21
0.69
1.48
credits
FUMA
g CO2-eq./g
0.09
0.10
0.25
5.29
credits
Electricity
kg CO2-eq./GJ
9.56
7.82
5.42
119.60
credits
Heat
kg CO2-eq./GJ
9.56
4.69
1.81
106.00
credits
Biomethane
g CO2-eq./g
0.33
0.43
0.06
2.91
credits
H2
g CO2-eq./g
1.09
0.92
0.78
8.23
credits
O2
g CO2-eq./g
0.001
0.49
0.07
credits
133
5. CONCLUSION
The use of biomass as raw materials for bioenergy and biochemical production is
encouraged by the need for a secure energy supply, a reduction of fossil CO2 emissions and a
revitalization of rural areas. Biomass energy and material recovery is maximized if a
biorefinery approach is considered, where many technological processes are jointly applied to
different kinds of biomass feedstock for producing a wide range of bioproducts. A lot of
biorefinery pathways, from feedstock to products, can then be established, according to the
different types of feedstock, conversion technologies and products. Biorefinery concept is
analogous to today's petroleum refinery, which produces multiple fuels and products from
petroleum.
Among the different biomass resources, lignocellulosic materials have great potentials for
production of bioenergy and biochemicals in biorefinery, replacing fossil derived products
and services. The LCA depicted in this chapter shows that significant GHG and fossil energy
savings are achievable if a biorefinery system is compared with a fossil reference system. The
investigated biorefinery produces transportation biofuels (bioethanol, MTHF), gaseous
biofuels (biomethane and H2), chemicals (furan resins, FUMA and O2), electricity and heat
from softwood forest residues, while the fossil reference system produces gasoline as
transportation fuel, natural gas, H2 from natural gas, conventional O2 from air processing,
conventional FUMA and epoxy resins from oil refinery, electricity from natural gas and heat
from heavy oil. The biorefinery releases 36.8 kt CO2-eq./a and requires 10858 TJ/a of primary
energy, of which 208 TJ/a fossil energy, while the fossil reference system releases 336 kt
CO2-eq./a and requires 4772 TJ/a, of which 4736 TJ/a fossil energy. Therefore, 89% of GHG
emissions and 96% of fossil energy can be saved. Even if the biorefinery has higher primary
energy demand than the fossil reference system, it is mainly based on renewable energy (i.e.
the energy content of the processed feedstock): the provision of biomass with sustainable
practices is then a crucial point to ensure a renewable energy supply to biorefineries.
Furthermore, more than half of the total GHG emissions of the biorefinery are originated
from feedstock provision (collection, processing and delivery), followed by manufacture of
auxiliary materials and biomass combustion. Results also show biorefinery system
performances in terms of product yields and mass, energy, exergy and C conversion
efficiencies. Energy and C efficiencies result affected by the fermentation step, where almost
half of the C of the feedstock is loss in the formation of the useless product CO2.
In order to share the environmental impacts of the biorefinery among the different
coproducts, several allocation procedures were applied. An attempt to avoid allocation
through system expansion was developed and then allocations based on energy content,
exergy content and economic value of outputs have been carried out. All the findings are
finally compared and the specific GHG emission factors (g CO2-eq./unit) of each product are
reported. These factors can be applied in LCA studies of a future biobased society, when
biorefinery products will be widely used by customers and as auxiliary materials in
production processes.
134
REFERENCES
Achten, W. M. J., Mathijs, E., Verchot, L., Singh, V. P., Aerts, R. & Muys, B. (2007),
Jatropha biodiesel fueling sustainability?, Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 1: 283-291.
Alzate, C. A. C., Toro, O. J. S. (2006). Energy consumption analysis of integrated
flowsheets for production of fuel ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass, Energy, 3: 24472459.
Ayres, R. U., Martins, K. & Ayres, L. W. (1996), Eco-thermodynamics. Exergy and life
cycle. Analysis, Working Paper (96/04/EPS), INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France.
Berglund, M. & Brjesson, P. (2006). Assessment of energy performance in the life-cycle
of biogas production, Biomass and Bioenergy, 30: 254-266.
Biermann, U., Frmeier, S. & Metzger, J. O. (2001). New chemistry of oils and fats,
Oleochemical Manufacture and Applications, Sheffield Academic Press and CRC press.
Bozell, J. J., Moens, L., Elliot, D. C., Wang, Y., Neuenschwander, G. G., Fitzpatrick, S. W.,
Bilski, R. J. & Jarnefeld, J. L. (2000). Production of levulinic acid and use as a platform
chemical for derived products, Resources Conservation and Recycling, 28: 227-239.
Bridgwater, A. V. & Peacocke, G. V. C. (2000). Fast pyrolysis processes for biomass,
Sustainable Renewable Energy Reviews; 4: 1-73.
Cadoche, L. & Lopez, G. D. (1989). Assessment of size reduction as a preliminary step in the
production of ethanol from lignocellulosic wastes, Biological Wastes, 30, 153-157.
Cherubini, F., Jungmeier, G. & Lingitz, A. (2007). Environmental evaluation of biorefinery
concepts A case study for analysis of GHG emissions and Cumulated Primary Energy
Demand, In: Proceedings of The 15th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition
From Research to Market Deployment, Berlin, 7-11 May 2007.
Cherubini, F. & Jungmeier, G. (2008). Modelling a biorefinery: prediction of theoretical
chemical reactions and system performances, In: Proceedings of the 6th Biennial
International Workshop on Advances in Energy Studies: Towards a holistic approach
based on science and humanity, 29th June - 2nd July, 2008, Graz Austria.
Cherubini F., Bird N., Cowie A., Jungmeier G., Schlamadinger B., Woess-Gallasch S. (2009).
Energy- and greenhouse gas-based LCA of biofuel and bioenergy systems: key issues,
ranges and recommendations, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 53: 434-447.
Chisti, Y. (2007), Biodiesel from microalgae, Biotechnology Advances, vol. 25, Issue 3, Pages
294-306.
CMR - Chemical Market Reporter (2008), Chemical Profiles, Schnell Publishing Company
Reed Elsevier Group; web-site: http://www.the-innovation-group.com/chemprofile.htm.
Consoli, F., Allen, D., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen, A. A., de Oude, N.,
Parrish, R., Perriman, R., Postlethwaite, D., Quay, B., Sguin, J. & Vigon, B. (eds.)
(1993). Guidelines for Life-cycle assessment: A Code of practice. Society of
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) (SETAC Workshop, Sesimbra,
Portugal, 31 March - 3 April 1993).
Crabbe, E., Nolasco-Hipolito, C., Kobayshi, G., Sonomoto, K. & Ishizaki, A. (2001),
Biodiesel Production from Crude Palm Oil and Evaluation of Butanol Extraction and
Fuel Properties, Process Biochemistry, 37, 1:65-71.
135
Curran, M. A. (2007), Co-product and input allocation approaches for creating life cycle
inventory data: a literature review, International Journal of LCA 12, Special issue 1:
65-78.
Dale, B. E. & Kim, S. (2006), Biomass refining global impact the biobased economy of the
21st century, in: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm M., Biorefineries Industrial
Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions), vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
De Feber, M. A. P. C., Gielen, D. J. (2000). Biomass for Greenhouse Gas Emission
Reduction, Task 7: Energy Technology Characterization, ECN-C-99-078.
Demirabas, A. (2003). Biodiesel Fuels from Vegetable Oils via Catalytic and Non-Catalytic
Supercritical Alcohol Transesterifications and Other Methods: A Survey, Energy
Conversion and Management, 44, 13 (2003):2093-2109.
Ducharme, P., Kargas, C., Gagn, J. et al. (2005). Transforming the future: moving toward
fuel cell-powered fleets in Canadian urban transit systems Detailed report February
2005, MARCON-DDM HIT BC Transit, Canada; website: www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/
etb/ctfca/PDFs/english/Transit_Study_e_final.pdf.
Dybkjaer, I. & Christensen, T. S. (2001). Syngas for large scale conversion of natural gas to
liquid fuels, Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, 136 (Natural Gas Conversion VI),
435-440.
EBS 2007 European Biomass Statistics 2007, A statistical report on the contribution of
biomass to the energy system in the EU 27, Published by European Biomass Association
(AEBIOM), Brussels (Belgium), 2007.
EERE 2008, Biomass Feedstock Composition and Property Database, Biomass Program,
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass /feedstock_databases.html (last visited: 06/07/2008).
Ekvall, T. (2001). A market-based approach to allocation at open-loop recycling, Resources
Conseervation and recycling, vol. 29, Issues 1-2. pp. 91-109.
Ekvall, T. & Finnveden, G. (2001), Allocation in ISO 14041 A critical review, Journal of
Cleaner Production, 9: 197208.
Emsley, J. (2001). Oxygen, Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford,
England, UK: Oxford University Press, 297304.
Faaijm A., van Doorn, J., Curvers, T., Waldheim, L., Olsson, E., van Wijk, A. & DaeyOuwens, C. (1997). Characteristics and availability of biomass waste and residues in The
Netherlands for gasification, Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 12, Issue 4, Pages 225-240.
Frischknecht, R. (2000), Allocation in Life Cycle Inventory Analysis for joint production,
International Journal of LCA, 5 (2): 85-95.
Gani, A. & Naruse, I. (2007). Effect of cellulose and lignin content on pyrolysis and
combustion characteristics for several types of biomass, Renewable Energy, vol. 32,
Issue 4, Pages 649-661.
GBEP 2007 Global Bioenergy Partnership, A review of the current state of bioenergy
development in G8 + 5 countries, GBEP Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO), Rome 2007; website: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/
a1348e/a1348e00.pdf.
Gemis, (2008). Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems, Version 4.42, Data Set on
Bioenergy for Heat, Electricity and Transportation Biofuel Systems, Joanneum Research,
Graz, Austria 2008. LCA software tool website: http://www.oeko.de/service/gemis/
en/index.htm.
136
Gravitis, J. & Suzuki, M. (1999). Biomass refinery A way to produce value added products
and base for agricultural zero emissions system, Proceedings of 99 International
Conference on Agricultural Engineering, Beijing, China, December, 1999.
Guo, Y., Wang, Y., Wei, F., et al. (2001). Research progress in biomass flash pyrolysis
technology for liquids production, Chem Ind Eng Progr, 8: 13-7.
Hamelinck, C. N., Faaji, A. P. C., Uil, H. & Boerrigter, H. (2004), Production of FT
transportation fuels from biomass; technical options, process analysis and optimisation,
and development potential, Energy, 29: 1743-1771.
Hamelinck, N. C., van Hooijdonk, G., Faaij, A. P. C. (2005). Ethanol from lignocellulosic
biomass: techno-economic performance in short-, middle- and long-term, Biomass and
Bioenergy, 28, 384410.
Hayes, D. J., Fitzpatrick, S., Hayes, M. H. B., Ross, J. R. H. (2006). The Biofine ProcessProduction of Levulinic Acid, Furfural and Formic Acid from Lignocellulosic
Feedstocks, in: Kamm B., P. Gruber, M. Kamm, Biorefienries Industrial Processes and
Products (Status Quo and Future Directions), vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Helle, S., Bennett, N. M., Lau, K., Matsui, J. H. & Duff, S. J. B. (2007). A kinetic model for
production of glucose by hydrolysis of levoglucosan and cellobiosan from pyrolysis oil,
Carbohydrate Research, vol. 342, Issue 16, Pages 2365-2370.
Hill, K. (2006). Industrial development and application of biobased oleochemicals, in: Kamm
B., P. Gruber, M. Kamm, Biorefienries Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo
and Future Directions), vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Huang, H. J., Shri Ramaswamy, Tschirner, U. W. & Ramarao, B. V. (2008). A review of
separation technologies in current and future biorefineries, Separation and Purification
Technology, 62: 121.
IEA (2008). IEA Bioenergy Task 42 on Biorefineries: co-production of fuels, chemicals,
power and materials from biomass, Minutes of the third Task meeting, Copenhagen,
Denmark, 25 - 26 March 2007 (http://www.biorefinery.nl/ieabioenergy-task42/).
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). Climate Change 2007:
synthesis report. An assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change;
website: http://www.ipcc.ch/.
ISO 14040:2006. Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Principles and
framework.
ISO 14044:2006. Environmental management. Life cycle assessment. Requirements and
guidelines.
Jnsson, O. & Persson, M. (2003). Biogas as transportation fuel, Swedish Gas Center,
Fachtagung 2003; website: http://www.fv-sonnenenergie.de/fileadmin/publikationen/
Workshopbaende/ws2003-2/ws2003-2_02_04.pdf.
Kamm, B., Kamm, M., Gruber, P. R. & Kromus, S. (2006a), Biorefinery systems An
overview, in: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm M., Biorefineries Industrial Processes
and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions), vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Kamm, B., Kamm, M., Schmidt, M., Hirth, T. & Schulze, M. (2006b). Lignocellulose-based
chemical product family trees, in: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm M., Biorefineries
Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions), vol. I, WileyVCH, 2006.
137
Karagz, S., Bhaskar, T., Muto, A., Sakata, Y., Oshiki, T. & Kishimoto, T. (2005). Lowtemperature catalytic hydrothermal treatment of wood biomass: analysis of liquid
products, Chemical Engineering Journal, 108, 127137.
Katzen, R. & Schell, D. J. (2006). Lignocellulosic feedstock biorefinery: history and plant
development for biomass hydrolysis, In: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm M.,
Biorefineries Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions),
vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Kaylen, M., Van Dyne, D. L., Choi, Y. S., Blas, M. (2000). Economic feasibility of
producing ethanol from lignocellulosic Feedstocks, Bioresource Technology, 72: 19-32.
Kromus, S., Kamm, B., Kamm, M., Fowler, P., Narodoslawsky, M. (2006). The green
biorefinery concept Fundamentals and potential, in: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm
M., Biorefineries Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future
Directions), vol. I, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Lange, J. P. (2007). Lignocellulose conversion: an introduction to chemistry, process and
economics, Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref., 1: 39-48.
Lasser, M., Schulman, D., Allen, S. G., Lichwa, J., Antal Jr., M .J. & Lynd, L. R. (2002). A
comparison of liquid hot water and steam pretreatments of sugar cane bagasse for
bioconversion to ethanol, Bioresource Technology, 81: 33-44.
Lasure, L. L. & Min, Z. (2004). Bioconversion and biorefineries of the future, In:
Applications of biotechnology to mitigation of greenhouse warming, Proceedings of the
St. Michaels II Workshop, Ed. Rosenberg, N. J., Metting, F. B., Izaurralde, R. C., April
2003, 2004.
Lichtenthaler, F. W. (2006). The key sugars of biomass: availability, present non-food uses
and potential future development lines, in: Kamm B., Gruber P.R. and Kamm M.,
Biorefineries Industrial Processes and Products (Status Quo and Future Directions),
vol. II, 3-59, Wiley-VCH, 2006.
Lindfors, L. G, Christiansen, K., Hoffmann, L., Virtanen, Y., Juntilla, V., Hanssen, O. J,
Rnning, A., Ekvall, T. & Finnveden, G. (1995). Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle
Assessment. Nord 1995:20. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Lynd, L. R. (1996), Overview and Evaluation of Fuel Ethanol from Celllulosic Bomass:
Technology, Economics, the Environment, and Policy, Ann. Rev. Energy Environ. 21:
403- 465.
Marchetti, J. M., Miguel, V. U., Errazu, A. F. (2007). Possible methods for biodiesel
production, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11: 1300-1311.
Meister, J. J. (2002). Modification of lignin, Journal of Macromolecular Science Polymer
Reviews, 42(2): 235-289.
Mozaffarian, M., Zwart, R. W. R., Boerrigter, H. & Deurwaarder, E. P. (2004a). Biomass and
waste-related SNG production technologies technical, economic and ecological
feasibility, Contribution to the 2nd World Conference and Technology Exhibition on
Biomass for Energy, Industry and Climate Protection 10-14 May 2004, Rome, Italy.
Mozaffarian, M., Zwart, R. W. R., Boerrigter, H., Deurwaarder, E. P., Kersten, S. R. A.
(2004b). Green Gas as SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas) A Renewable Fuel with
Conventional Quality, Contribution to the Science in Thermal and Chemical Biomass
Conversion Conference, 30 August 2 September 2004, Victoria, Vancouver Island,
BC, Canada.
138
Paisley, M. A., Farris, M. C., Black, J., Irving, J. M. & Overend, R. P. (1998). Commercial
demonstration of the Battelle/FERCO Biomass gasification process: startup and initial
operating experience, In: Overend RP and Chornet E, Proceedings of Fourth Biomass
Conference of the Americas, Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, Oakland, USA, 1061-1066.
Pierru, A. (2007). Allocating the CO2 emissions of an oil refinery with Aumann-Shapley
prices, Energy Economics, vol. 29, Issue 3, pp. 563-577.
Rajagopal, D. & Zilberman, D. (2007). Review of environmental, economic and policy
aspects of biofuels, Policy research working paper of the World Bank development
research group, September 2007.
Romano, R. T. & Zhang, R. (2008). Co-digestion of onion juice and wastewater sludge using
an anaerobic mixed biofilm reactor, Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, Issue 3, 631-637.
Sauer, M., Porro, D., Mattanovich, D. & Branduardi, P. (2007). Microbial production of
organic acids: expanding the markets, Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 26. N. 2, 100-108.
Schiweck, H., Munir, M., Rapp, K. M., Scheider, B. & Vogel, M. (1991). New developments
in the use of sucrose as an industrial bulk chemical 5-hydroxymethilfurfural (HMF),
In: Carbohydrates as Organic Raw Materials, F.W. Lichtenthaler (ed.), VCH, Weinheim
New York Basel Cambridge Tokyo, 1991, 78-94.
Schlamadinger, B., M. J. A., Bohlin, F., Gustavsson, L., Jungmeier, G., Marland, G.,
Pingoud, K. & Savolainen, I. (1997). Towards a standard methodology for greenhouse
gas balances of bioenergy systems in comparison with fossil energy systems, Biomass
and Bioenergy; 13: 359-375.
Schlamadinger, B., Edwards, R., Byrne, K. A., Cowie, A., Faaij, A., Green, C., Fijan-Parlov,
S., Gustavsson, L., Hatton, N., Heding, K., Kwant, K., Pingoud, M., Ringer, K.,
Robertson, B., Solberg, S., Soimakallio, & Woess-Gallasch, S. (2005). Optimizing the
GHG benefits of bioenergy systems, 14th European Biomass Conference, 17-21 October
2005, Paris, France.
Senneca, O. (2007). Kinetics of pyrolysis, combustion and gasification of three biomass fuels,
Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 88, Issue 1, Pages 87-97.
Sheehan, J., Dunahay, T., Benemann, J. & Roesller, P. (1998). A look back the US
department of Energys acquatic species program: biodiesel from algae, NREL/TP-58024190, Golden, CO, NREL.
Sheehan, J., Camobreco, V., Duffield, J., Graboski, M. & Shapouri, H. (2000). An Overview
of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Life Cycles, Report No. NREL/TP-580-24772,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, 2000.
Sipilae, K., Kuoppala, E., Fagernaes, L., et al. (1998). Characterization of biomassbased
flash pyrolysis oils, Biomass Bioenergy, 14 (2): 10313.
Spath, P. L. & Dayton, D. C. (2003). Preliminary Screening Technical and Economic
Assessment of Synthesis Gas to Fuels and Chemicals with Emphasis on the Potential for
Biomass-Derived Syngas, NREL Task N BBB3.4210, NREL, Co USA.
Spath, P. L. & Mann, M. K. (2001). Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Production via
Natural Gas Steam Reforming, NREL/TP-570-27637, NREL, Co USA.
Spath, P. L. & Mann, M. K. (2004). Life Cycle Assessment of Renewable Hydrogen
Production via Wind/Electrolysis, NREL/MP-560-35404, NREL, Co, USA.
Stojic, D. L., Marceta, M. P., Sovilj, S. P. & Miljanic, S. S. (2003). Hydrogen generation
from water electrolysis possibilities of energy saving, Journal of Power Sources, 118:
315-319.
139
Sun, Y. & Cheng, J. (2002). Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a
review, Bioresource Technology, 83 (1): 1-11.
Timokhin, B. V., Baransky, V. A., Eliseeva, G. D. (1999). Levulinic acid in organic
synthesis, Russian Chemical Reviews, 68(1): 73-84.
Tsai, W. T., Lin, C. C., Yeh, C. W. (2007). An analysis of biodiesel fuel from waste edible oil
in Taiwan, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11, 838857.
Tuck, G., Glendining, M. J., Smith, P., House, J. I., Wattenbach, M. (2006). The potential
distribution of bioenergy crops in Europe under present and future climate, Biomass and
Bioenergy, vol. 30, Issue 3, March 2006, Pages 183-197.
Vazquez, M., Oliva, M., Tellez-Luis, S. J. & Ramrez, J. A. (2007). Hydrolysis of sorghum
straw using phosphoric acid: Evaluation of furfural production, Bioresource Technology,
98: 30533060.
Wang, M., Lee, H. & Molburg, J., (2004). Allocation of energy use in petroleum refineries to
petroleum products, International Journal of LCA, 9 (1), 34-44.
Worldwatch Institute (2006), Biofuel for transport: global potential and implications for
energy and agriculture, Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of
Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV) in coordination with the German
Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the German Agency of Renewable
Resources (FNR), published by Earthscan, London.
Wright, L. (2006), Worldwide commercial development of bioenergy with a focus on energy
crop-based projects Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 30, Issues 8-9, August-September 2006,
Pages 706-714.
Zhang, C., Peters, C. J. & de Swaan Arons, J. (2002). Thermodynamic modeling of biomass
conversion processes, Fluid Phase Equilibria, 194-197, 805-815.
Zhang, Q., Chang, J., Wang, T. & Xu, Y. (2007). Review of biomass pyrolysis oil properties
and upgrading research, Energy Conversion and Management, 48; 87-92.
Zhuang, X. L., Zhang, H. X. & Thang, J. J. (2001). Levoglucosan kinase involved in citric
acid fermentation by Aspergillus niger CBX -209 using levoglucosan as sole carbon and
energy source, Biomass and Bioenergy 21: 53-60.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 4
PINCH TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

APPLICATIONS IN OIL INDUSTRY
*
Consulting Services Department, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Part I: Pinch Technology for Energy Utilities Targeting and HEN Design
Constructing the Composite Curves for Energy Utilties Targeting
Targeting using Algebraic and Mathematical Programming Methods
Constructing the Grand Composite Curve (GCC)
Utility Selection Using Grand Composite Curve (GCC)
Understanding and Applying Grand Composite Curve
Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis using Pinch Design Method
Part II: Heat Integration Applications in Oil Industry
Oil and Gas Separation Process
Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit
INTRODUCTION
In process industries the main source of waste heat is associated with hot utilities; that
include furnaces, steam boilers, gas turbines and diesel engines.
Energy efficiency optimization not only keeps operating cost under control and conserve
depleted resources but also reduces GHG emissions.
Oil and gas industry consists of very energy intensive processes. Oil and gas separation;
crude atmospheric and vacuum distillation; Naphtha and Diesel hydro-treating and gas oil and
Naphtha reforming, are only some examples.
In the oil and gas business, energy cost is a major element in any facility operating cost.
It usually comes before maintenance cost and sometimes even labor cost. Implementation of a
nourelmm@aramco.com Tel: 9663-873-6045, Fax 9663-873-0766
142
decent level of energy integration in any industrial facility, most of the time, needs capital
investment.
This chapter addresses the problem of waste heat recovery via presenting an introduction
to the pinch technology and two industrial applications of heat integration for waste heat
recovery in oil and gas business. Pinch technology, after almost three decades of its
emanation in the late seventies for a reason or another, is still the most widely used method
for energy integration in oil industry.
The chapter comes into two parts; the first part introduces some aspects of Pinch
technology in brief. Pinch technology is now well documented in several literatures and the
references 1 to 4 at the end of this chapter are only few main examples. In this part, I will
show how we can use pinch technology for energy utility targeting, selection of utility mix
and heat exchanger network synthesis using pinch design method [1, 2, 3 and 4]. The second
part introduces two important applications for heat integration in oil industry [5]. The first
application is showing the effect of heat integration on both energy consumption and GHG
emission reduction in an oil-gas separation facility, and in the second application an
evolutionary approach to crude distillation pre-heat train design is introduced.
TARGETING USING GRAPHICAL METHOD

Any heat exchanger can be represented as a hot stream that is cooled by a cold stream
and/or cold utility and a cold stream that is heated by a hot stream and/or hot utility with a
specified minimum temperature approach between the hot and the cold called Tmin.
The process exhibited below in the graph shows the situation when the two streams do
not have a chance of overlap that produce heat integration between the hot and the cold.
Figure 1. Two Non-Overlapping Streams
Pinch Technology for Waste Heat Recovery Applications in Oil Industry

Feed
120
PROCESS
143
Product
HOT UTILITY
100
HEAT
RECOVERY
80
Pinch
60
(MAT)
40
20
COLD UTILITY
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 2. Heat Integration between Hot and Cold
Moving the cold stream to the left on the enthalpy axis without changing its supply and
target temperatures until we have a desired small vertical distance between the hot stream and
the cold stream we obtain some overlap between the two streams that result in heat
integration between the hot and the cold and less hot and cold utilities. As seen depicted in the
graph below with shrinkage in the red and blue lines span.
Now we want to represent all the hot streams in the process by one long hot stream and
we will call this line the hot composite curve. We will also do the same thing with all the cold
streams in the process.
The next step will be drawing the two composite curves/lines on the same page in a
Temperature (T)-Enthalpy diagram with two conditions:
1. The cold composite curve should be completely below the hot composite curve, and
2. The vertical distance between the two lines/curves in terms of temperature should be
greater than or equal to a selected minimum approach temperature called global Tmin
The resulting graph is depicted below and known as thermal pinch diagram.
Net Heat Sink
Above the Pinch
Opportunity for
heat recovery
Net Heat Source
Below the Pinch
Figure 3. Composite Curves
144
Constructing the Composite Curves

1. Draw the hot composite curve and the cold composite curve via developing the following
tables.
2. These tables list all the hot and cold streams temperatures in an ascending order with the
cumulative enthalpy corresponding to the lowest hot temperature and lowest cold
temperature respectively equal to zero.
3. In every temperature interval the cumulative hot load is calculated using the following
formula
H= FCp * (Tsupply Ttarget)
4. In every temperature interval the cumulative cold load is calculated using the following
formula
H= FCp * (Ttarget Tsupply)
Hot streams temperature list
T0=30
T1=70
T2=120
T3=170
Cumulative Enthalpy (H)

H0=0.0
H1=800
H2=2300
H3=2800
Cold streams temperature list

T0=20
T1=50
T2=90
T3=110
Cumulative Enthalpy (H)

H0=0.0
H1=450
H2=2650
H3=3450
As we mentioned before the cold composite curve shall lie completely below the hot
composite curve and this can be done via dragging the cold composite curve to the right on
the enthalpy axis (H). This process shall stop at a vertical distance between the cold and the
hot composite curve for a temperature equal to the minimum temperature approach selected
earlier.
Table 1. Data for Constructing Composite Curves
Supply Temp
( C)
170
120
50
20
Target Temp.
( C)
70
30
90
110
FCp (kW/ C)
10
20
40
15
Temperature (T)- Enthalpy (H) Diagram
Hot composite curve
Cold composite curve
30
20
Cold composite curve is not completely below the hot composite curve
Figure 4. Temperature (T) Enthalpy (H) Diagram 1
Temperature (T)
- Enthalpy (H) Diagram
Minimum Heating Utility
T
Qh=300 kW
Hot composite curve
Cold composite curve
Minimum Temperature Approach

30
20
Qc=150 kW
Minimum Cooling Utility
Figure 5. Temperature (T) Enthalpy (H) Diagram 2
145
146
TARGETING USING ALGEBRAIC METHOD

Information needed
Given a unit with a list of hot streams to be cooled and cold streams to be heated
FCp (kW/ C)
10
5
10
5
Table 2. Data for Algebraic Method

Supply Temp
Target Temp.
( C)
( C)
520
330
380
300
300
550
320
380
1. Constructing Temperature Iinterval Diagram

1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
Draw two temperature scales one for the hot streams and another for the cold streams
Select a reasonable minimum temperature approach between the hot streams and the
cold stream, (for instance, 10 C)
Draw all the hot streams (in the table hot section) to be cooled according to the hot
steam scale as arrows that start at the supply temperatures and end at the target
temperatures
Repeat step 1.3 for all cold streams in the cold section of the table
Start at the highest temperature of any hot stream in the hot section and draw a
horizontal line that spans across the two sections of the table, the hot and the cold.
Draw horizontal lines again at the start and the end of any arrow representing the hot
streams in the hot section of the table
Repeat step 1.6 for any arrow representing cold stream in the cold section (at the start
and the end of any arrow)
Count the number of segments generated and number them starting at the highest
temperature (they are called temperature intervals)
Make sure that each temperature interval has now temperature value on both the hot
temperature scale and cold temperature scale. The difference is the desired minimum
temperature approach (for instance the 10 C used in this example)
These procedures are depicted in the figure below
Note: This structure means that within any temperature interval it is thermodynamically
feasible to transfer heat from the hot streams to cold streams. It is also feasible to transfer heat
from a hot stream in an interval x to any cold stream which lies in an interval below.
Note: The temperature symbol T* (Figure 6) is the interval inlet temperature used later
on constructing what is know as grand composite curve for selecting the suitable energy
utility mix. To calculate T* we take the average interval inlet temperature of the hot and cold
temperature scale.
147
T minimum = 10 K
T*
555
515
Interval
Hot Streams
560
H1
Cold Streams
550
520
510
390
380
2
385
3
H2
380
370
330
320
305
310
300
295
300
290
375
310
Hot Streams:H1; F1Cp1= 10 kW/K

H2; F2Cp2= 5 kW/K
C2
C1
Cold Streams:C1; F1Cp1= 10 kW/K

C2; F2Cp2= 5 kW/K
Figure 6. The Temperature Interval Diagram
2. Constructing Tables of Exchangeable Heat Loads and Cooling Capacities

2.1. Determining individual heating loads and cooling capacities of all process streams
for all temperature intervals using this formula:
Qnm = F1Cp1* (Ts-Te) in energy units (kW)
Ts is the interval start temperature and
Te is the interval end temperature
n is stream number and m is the interval number
Example 1:
Interval # 1 in the hot section:
The interval start temperature is 560 K
The interval end temperature is 520 K
Q11 (Q for stream #1 in interval #1)= F1Cp1*(560-520)
Since there is no H1 stream in this interval, hence, F1Cp1=0.0
Q stream # 1(exchangeable load) in this interval = 0.0*(560-520) = zero
Example 2:
Interval # 2 in the hot section:
The flow specific heat F1Cp1= 10 kW/K
Then,
Q stream #1(exchangeable load) in interval #1= 10*(520-390) = 1300 kW
148

Example 3:
Interval # 1 in the cold section:
The flow specific heat of this cold stream is F1Cp1= 10 kW/K
Then,
Q stream #1(cooling capacity) in interval #1= 10*(560-520) = 400 kW
Upon the completion of this step,
2.2 We can now obtain the collective loads (capacities) of the hot (cold) process streams.
These collective loads (capacities) are calculated by summing up the individual
loads of the hot process streams that pass through that interval and the
collective cooling capacity of the cold streams within the same interval
These calculations for the above problem is shown in the following tables
Table 3. Exchangeable Loads for Process Hot Streams Intervals
Interval
1
Load of H1, kW
Load of H2, kW
0.0*(560-520)= 0.0
0.0*(560-520)= 0.0
Total Load, kW
0.0+0.0= 0.0
10*(520-390)= 1300 0.0*(520-390)= 0.0
1300+0.0= 1300
10*(390-380)= 100
0.0*(390-380)= 0.0
100+0.0= 100
10*(380-350)= 500
5*(380-330)= 250
500+250= 750
0.0*(330-310)= 0.0
5*(330-310)= 100
0.0+ 100= 100
0.0*(310-300)= 0.0
5*(310-300)= 50
0.0+50= 50
Table 4.Cooling Capacities for Process Cold Stream Intervals

Interval
1
Capacity of C1, kW Capacity of C2, kW

10*(550-510)= 400
0.0*(550-510)= 0.0
Total Load, kW
400+0.0= 400
10*(510-380)= 1300 0.0*(510-380)= 0.0
1300+0= 1300
10*(380-370)= 100
100+50= 150
10*(370-320)=500
5*(370-320)= 250
500+250= 750
10*(320-300)= 200
0.0*(320-300)= 0.0
200+ 0.0= 200
0.0*(300-290)= 0.0
5*(380-370)= 50
0.0*(300-290)= 0.0
0.0+0.0= 0

Hot Load From Utility Source
Top Input
Hot Load From Process Source

Left Input
Cooling Capacity From Process Source
Right Output
Residual Hot to Subsequent Interval

Bottom Output from first interval
Heat Balance
Top Input+ Left Input- Right Output = Bottom Output
Figure 7. First Interval Heat Balance
Numerical Example of First Interval Heat Balance

Hot Load From Utility Source
Top Input = 0.0 kW

Left Input = 0.0 kW
Right Output =400 kW

Bottom Output from first interval
Heat Balance
Top Input+ Left Input - Right Output = Bottom Output
0.0
+ 0.0
- 400
= - 400 kW
Figure 8. Numerical Example of First Interval Heat Balance
= - 400 kW
149
150

Subsequent Intervals Heat Balance
Hot Load From Above Interval

Top Input

Left Input
Right Output

Bottom Output
Heat Balance
Figure 9. Subsequent Intervals Heat Balance
Numerical Example for Subsequent Intervals Heat Balance

For instance; Interval # 3
Hot Load From Above Interval
Top Input = - 400

Left Input= 100

Right Output= 150

Bottom Output = - 450
Heat Balance
- 400
+ 100
-150
= - 450
Figure 10. Numerical Example for Subsequent Heat Balance
3.
151
Constructing Thermal Cascade Diagrams

This diagram is constructed using the total hot loads and cooling capacities obtained in
the previous step for each temperature intervals.[1,2,3]
The temperature intervals are drawn as rectangular with two inlets and two outlets.
The inlet from the left is the total hot load available in this interval (for instance, 1300
kW in case of interval # 2)
The inlet from above is the utility input load, in case of the first interval, or the input
from interval above in case of second, third,,N intervals.
The output from the right is the total cooling capacity of this interval ( for instance, 1300
kW in case of interval #2).
The output from the bottom is the difference between the total inputs and the cooling
capacity of the interval
The heat balance around each interval will be conducted as above.
The reader is encouraged to do the calaculation for interval number 2 and see that in
interval number 2 the hot side input is equal to the cold side output and hence the final output
of the interval will be the same as interval number one ,-400 energy unit.
Upon the completion of the heat balance around each interval the following energy
deficiency diagram will be produced.
Thermal Cascade Diagram (Un-Balanced)

Note: During this step the input from Hot Utility to the first interval is equal to zero
0.0
0.0
1300
100
750
400
1
-400
2
- 400
3
1300
150
- 450
750
4
-450
100
50
200
5
- 550
6
- 500
Figure 11. Thermal Cascade Diagram (Un-Balanced)
152
The maximum difference between the available hot loads and cooling capacities from the
heat balances of these intervals is 550 kW. This deficiency in heat will be supplied via an
outside hot utility. This value will be the input (from the top of the first interval) and the same
heat balance calculation conducted above will be repeated to produce the energy balanced
thermal cascade diagram below.
Balanced Thermal Cascade Diagram
Minimum Heating Utility = 550 units
0.0
1300
400
1
150
1300
150
100
750
150
3
100
750
4
100
100
Pinch Point
50
200
5
0.0
Minimum Cooling Utility = 50 units
Figure 12. Thermal Cascade Diagram (Balanced)
With the completion of this step, the minimum heating utility and minimum cooling
utility required are 550 kW and 50 kW respectively.
TARGETING USING MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING METHOD

The algebraic method mentioned above can be generalized using optimization techniques.
A very famous approach is the transshipment model formulation as we mentioned in the first
module.
Mathematical programming at a Glance:
Let us consider the following constrained problem;
Min f(x)
s.t. h(x) =0.0
g(x) 0.0
n
x R
Where: f(x) is the objective function
h(x) = 0.0 is the set of (m) equations in variables x
g(x) 0.0 is the set of r inequality constraints.
153
In general the number of variables, n, will be greater than the number of equations, m,
and the difference between (n-m) is commonly denoted as the number of degrees of freedom
of the optimization problem. Any optimization problem can be represented in the above form.
If we want to maximize a function this is equivalent to minimizing the negative of that
function.
Now for the heating and cooling utilities minimization problem, let us go back to our
small problem solved algebraically before using pinch technology and use FCP for cold
streams of 19 and 2 kW/C resepctively. The new problem can be easily solved using
mathematical programming model. We write our objective function not only including
heating and cooling utiltities loads but also including heating and colling utilitie costs in
dollar value; formulate our model/constraints using the cascade approach; and then solving
the optimization problem using any commercial software.
Objective function
Minimize (5* 10
min
6
min
Qheating
+ 9* 10 Qcooling )*3600*8000
Define the loads of heating and cooling utilities in each temperature interval and
the surplus from each interval as we did before in the algebraic method through
the development of temperature interval diagram, tables of exchangeable loads
and un-balanced thermal cascade diagram.
The model formulation is a heat balance around each temperature interval in the graph
below as follows:
min
Q heating
0.0
760
r1
1300
2470
r2
100
210
r3
750
1050
r4
100
380
r5
50
0.0
min
Q cooling
Figure 13. Thermal Cascade diagram for LP model

min
Qheating
+ 0.0-760 = r1
r1+1300-2470 = r2
154
r2+100-210 = r3
r3+750-1050 = r4
r4+100-380 = r5
min
r5+50-0.0 = Qcooling
Now using any optimization software:
Model:
Min = (3* 10
min
6
min
Qheating
+ 5* 10 Qcooling )*3600*8760;
min
r1- Qheating = -760;

r2-r1= -1170;
r3-r2= -110;
r4-r3= -300;
r5-r4= -280;
min
Qcooling
-r5= 50;
min
Qheating
0.0;
min
Qcooling
0.0;
r10.0;
r20.0;
r30.0;
r40.0;
r50.0;
The targets obtained graphically or algebraically or using mathematical programming,
give an idea about the potential utility needs of any industrial facility.
To get a better idea in terms of utility types needed, we need to construct a diagram
known as the grand composite curve (GCC) and use it for defining the kind of utilities we
need and how much we need. We can then utilize these findings to compare the current
155
facility needs with the minimum utility needs calculated before to define the gap needed to be
tackled. This step will help us evaluate potential savings upon the heat integration for certain
process area.
CONSTRUCTING THE GRAND COMPOSITE CURVE (G.C.C)

This curve will be drawn between T* calculated before during the temperature interval
diagram construction which is the average temperature of hot and cold side each interval
boundary and the corresponding surplus heat/enthalpy from each interval.
These data are shown below for a generic balanced cascade diagram that can be
developed for any application as shown before:
Data Required To Construct The G.C.C
T* (K)
Enthalpy ( kW)
2620 kW
555
T* (K)
515
1
1860 kW
2
690 kW
385
3
580 kW
375
4
280 kW
310
305
0.0 kW
Thermal Pinch
6
295
50 kW
Enthalpy ( kW)
Figure 14. Data required to drawing Grand Composite Curve (G.C.C.)
Drawing these data as T* versus Enthalpy results in the following diagram that can be
used to define different levels of utilities mix that can be used to satisfy the process heating
utility requirement for instance, as shown below.
156

Grande Composite Curve (G.C.C)
Should Be Drawn To Scale
Total hot utility required is equal to 2620 kW
T* (K)
600
Hu3
Hu2
500
Hu1
400
300
200
Enthalpy ( kW)
700
1400
2100
2800
Figure 15. Grand Composite Curve
Multiple Utility Targeting/Selection using Grand Composite Curve (GCC)

Upon maximizing heat recovery in the heat exchanger network, those heating duties and
cooling duties not serviced by heat recovery must be provided by external utilities.
The most common utility is steam. It is usually available at several levels. High
temperature heating duties require furnace flue gas or a hot oil circuit. Cold utilities might be
refrigeration, cooling water, air cooling, furnace air preheating, boiler feed water preheating,
or even steam generation at higher temperatures.
Although the composite curves can be used to set energy targets, they are not a suitable
tool for the selection of utilities. The grand composite curve drawn above is a more
appropriate tool for understanding the interface between the process and the utility system.
The GCC is obtained via drawing the problem table cascade as we shown earlier.
The graph shown above is a typical GCC. It shows the heat flow through the process
against temperature. It should be noted that the temperature plotted here is the shifted
temperature T* and not the actual temperature. Hot streams are represented by Tmin/2
colder and the cold streams Tmin/2 hotter than they are in the streams problem definition.
This method means that an allowance of Tmin is already built into the graph between the
hot and the cold for both process and utility streams. In other words, the actual hot utility
157
temperature will be {T*(obtained from graph)+(Tmin/2)} and the actual cold utility
temperature will be {T*(obtained from graph)-(Tmin/2)}
The point of zero heat flow in the GCC is the pinch point. The open jaws at the top
and the bottom represent QHmin and QCmin respectively.
The grand composite curve (GCC) provides a convenient tool for setting the targets for
the multiple utility levels of heating utilities as illustrated above.
The graphs below further illustrate such capability for both heating and cooling utilities.
Figure 16. Grand Composite Curve for Utility Selection-1
The above figure 16(a) shows a situation where HP steam is used for heating and
refrigeration is used for cooling the process. In order to reduce utilities cost, intermediate
utilities MP steam and cooling water (CW) can be introduced. The second graph (b) shows
the targets for all the utilities. The target for the MP steam is set via simply drawing a
horizontal line at the MP steam temperature level starting from the vertical axis until it
touches the GCC. The remaining heat duty required is then satisfied by the HP steam. This
maximizes the MP steam consumption prior to the remaining heating duty be fulfilled by the
HP steam and therefore minimizes the total utilities cost. Similar logic is followed below the
pinch to maximize the use of the cooling water prior the use of the refrigeration.
The points where the MP steam and CW levels touch the GCC are called utility pinches
since these are caused by utility levels. The graph, 17(C) below, shows a different possibility
of utility levels where furnace heating is used instead of HP steam. Considering that furnace
158
heating is more expensive than MP steam, the use of the MP steam is first maximized. In the
temperature range above the MP steam level, the heating duty has to be supplied by the
furnace flue gas. The flue gas flowrate is set as shown in the graph via drawing a sloping line
starting from the MP steam to theoretical flame temperature Ttft.
If the process pinch temperature is above the flue gas corrosion temperature, the heat
available from the flue gas between the MP steam and pinch temperature can be used for
process heating. This will reduce the MP steam consumption.
In summary the GCC is one of the basic tools used in pinch technology for the selection
of appropriate utility levels and for targeting for a given set of multiple utility levels. The
targeting involves setting appropriate loads for the various utility levels by maximizing
cheaper utility loads and minimizing the loads on expensive utilities.
Normally, we have a choice of many hot and cold utilities. Using the entropy balance
equation for an open system we can conclude and generally recommend to use hot utilities at
the lowest possible temperature while we generate it at the highest possible temperature to
generate work. And for the cold utilities it is recommended to use it at the highest possible
temperature. These recommendations are best explained using the grand composite curve.
(C)
T-tft
T*
MP
CW
Refrigeration
H
Figure 17. Grand Composite Curve for Utility Selection-2
159
Understanding and Applying the Grand Composite Curve

The graph below shows that utility pinches are formed according to the number of
utilities used. Each time a utility is used a utility pinch is created. It also shows that the
GCC right noses, sometimes known as pockets, are areas of heat integration/energy
recovery and hence does not need any external utilities. These right noses/pockets represent
another possibility of heat integration among hot and cold process streams at a minimum
approach temperature T higher than that of the Tmin. In such cases an ooprtunity for lost
work recovery can exist on the expense of process to process heat integration.
The GCC curve can be used by engineers to select the best match between the utility
profile and process combined heat and power requirements profile. For instance, the steam
system shown below in figure 19 needs to be integrated with the process demands to
minimize low pressure steam flaring and high or medium pressures steam let downs.
In addition, GCC can also helps in selecting steam header pressure levels and loads.
Figure 18. Understanding the Grand Composite Curve
Before closing this part of GCC and its use in selecting process requirements of utilities
mix, I need to mention one important fact here about a rule in pinch technology that is
generally accepted by many people in the industrial community.
This rule says that: do not use cold utility above the pinch to avoid buying extra heating
and cooling utiltities. This rule is absolutely true when we talk only about cost of heating
160
utilities. However, in some situation we can have a trade off between heating utilities cost and
benefits obtained from reducing power import or exporting power to the grid.
With the aid of GCC we might find situations in which it is better from work generation
point of view to use cold water above the pinch to produce steam and generate electricity,
then using steam turbines exhaust for process heating than literally doing process to process
integration using minimum approach temperature T among hot and cold process streams
much higher than the originally selected minimum approach temperature T_min.
HP Boiler
HP
Proc. #1
HP Process
Condensate
Proc. #2
chemicals
MP Boiler
MP
Vent
Proc. #4
MP Process
Condensate
Proc. #1
Vent
Deaerator
BFW
Raw water
Make-up Treatment Plant
LP
Effluent
Proc. #1
Process Condensate
Proc. #3
LP Process
Condensate
Figure 19. Combined Heat and Power System Example
In summary, the Grand Composite Curve can be utilized to help optimize combined heat and
power systems (CHP) shown in figure 19, select the load and return temperature of hot oil
circuits, best integration between process and furnaces exhaust and process refrigeration
levels as well as the synthesis of the multiple-cycle refrigeration systems [1,3].
HEAT EXCHANGERS NETWORK (HEN) SYNTHESIS

Upon deciding on process reaction-separation system design, the optimization of major
design variables such as reactor conversion, selectivity, recycle inert concentration, etc.,
minimization of process waste, minimization of utility waste via heat integration, process
modifications for the sake of more heat integration has been explored and the plant utility
system is configured, the material and energy balance can now be more or less fixed and
hence the hot and cold streams which contribute to the heat exchanger network can be
161
identified. The task is then becomes to design the heat exchanger network. In a little
elaboration define the HEN streams matching, duty of each heat exchanger, inlet and outlet
temperatures of each heat exchanger and with given overall heat transfer coeffiecients
calculate the surface area of each heat exchanger. In the section below we will be defining the
topology, duty and temperatures information of the HEN.
The Pinch Design Method

The best design for an energy efficient heat exchange network will often result in a
tradeoff between the equipment and operating cost. This is dependent on the choice of the
DTmin for the process. The lower the DTmin chosen, the lower the energy costs, but
conversely the higher the heat exchanger capital costs, as lower temperature driving forces in
the network will result in the need for greater area. A large DTmin on the other hand will
mean increased energy costs due to less overall heat recovery, but the required capital cost
will be less. This is true most of the time but not all of the time. Designers may find that a
very large DTmin might lead to high levels of heat duties available to be handled by process
to process heat exchangers and process to utiltities ones resulting in high surface area needs
and consequently both capital cost and energy cost will be increased.
Any way early in this chapter we introduced how to set energy and area targets for the
process before considering the HEN design because in the early days of pinch technology this
technique was important to help make the trade-off between the HEN capital cost and operating
cost quickly and without any heavy calculations. However, nowadays lot of software is
available to make a preliminary synthesis of any large size HEN and estimate its capital cost
directly and then automatically make the trade-off between the operating cost and the capital
cost for the HEN in order to determine the optimal Dtmin for the HEN to be designed.
Now let us first estimate the minimum number of units in a HEN (Nunits ) using the
following formula:[1]
Nunits = S 1
Where,
S = number of streams (hot and cold) including utilities
It is important to keep in mind that using the above formula for HEN minimum number of
units calculation will only be giving an estimate and in some cases designers can come up
with designs which exhibit less number of units due to some perfect matches in temperature
range and load among hot and cold process streams.
Having calculated an estimate to HEN minimum number of units we can then use the
composite curves again used before to determine the energy targets for a given value of
DTmin to determine another estimate to the minimum heat transfer area required to achieve
the desired energy targets ahead of HEN design.
162
To calculate the HEN estimated surface area from the composite curves, utility streams
must be included with the process streams in the composite curves to obtain the balanced
composite curves. The resulting balanced composite curves should have no residual demand
for utilities.
Then the balanced composite curves are divided into vertical enthalpy intervals to
calculate the total minimum area targets assuming constant overall heat transfer coefficient
and pure vertical counter current heat transfer using the famous formual in heat transfer
Q=U*A*T_L.M.T.D [4]. Nowadays due to widespread use of computer programs for HEN
automated design such area targeting calculation is not very beneficial any more in industry.
Now we will start the design of the HEN using the well known pinch design method. A
good initialization of this design is to assume that no individual heat exchanger will have a
temperature difference smaller than Tmin calculated from the targeting phase and there must
be no heat transfer across the pinch by process to process heat transfer or/and inappropriate
use of utilities.
These rules are important for the HEN design to achieve the energy target, given that no
individual exchanger should have a temperature difference smaller than Tmin. To comply
with these two guidelines the design problem needs to be divided at the pinch and using the
grid diagram as shown in figure 20.
HEN DESIGN METHOD

Four Streams Problem Example
The graph below shows the stream data of a very simple HEN problem drawn on a grid
diagram [1,2,3], where the pinch temperature is shown on both the hot and the cold sides
using a minimum approach temperature, T_min=10 C
The Grid Diagram for the Step -By-Step HEN Design
Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
330 C
H1=10
380 C
550 C
380 C
300 C
300 C
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
Figure 20. Grid Diagram for HEN Design
H2=5
QC_min = 50 kW
163
The example given in this chapter for the illustration of the pinch design method for heat
exchangers network design is very simple. Before going through the design of the network for
this simple example in a step-by-step manner, some important rules in pinch design method
need to be mentioned to enable the reader solve more complicated problems.
Start at the Pinch

The pinch is the most constrained region of the problem. At the pinch, Tmin exists
between all the hot and cold streams. As a result, the number of feasible matches in this
region is severely restricted. Quite often there are essential matches to be made. If such
matches are not made, the result will be either using a temperature differences smaller than
Tmin or we have to buy more utilities due to heat transfer across the pinch.
Since the pinch point divides the problem into two subproblems we are going to solve
first the above pinch subproblem. We need to start at the pinch. There are some rules for
matches to be both feasible and efficienct for the designated T_min. With feasible we mean
that the hot stream shall always have a T_min over the matched cold stream. We will be
elaborating more about feasibility later in this section.
With efficienct we mean that a hot stream shall be matched above the pinch at the pinch in a
way that he/she reaches its target temperature at the pinch. Hence, we reach the target heating
utility calculated beforehand. Otherwise we will be needing to buy cold utility above the
pinch!! Resulting in more heating and cooling utilities than the ones originally calculated
during the energy targeting step.
In order to be able to achive this requirement, during matching above the pinch we have
to have enough number of cold streams above the pinch at the pinch to enable each hot stream
above the pinch at the pinch reaches its pinch temperature via matching with a cold process
stream. Otherwise we end up using cold utility above the pinch. If the number of hot stream
above the pinch at the pinch is less than the number of cold streams in such situation we can
consider splitting cold streams to enable us keep the following two rules intact above the
pinch at the pinch. These rules of the inch design method will be further elaborated in this
section.
But for now we need to keep in mind the following two rules for streams matching above
the pinch at the pinch:
1. Number of hot streams above the pinch at the pinch shall be less than or equal to
number of cold streams; and
2. Upon matching hot and cold streams, hot stream CP(FCp) should be less than or
equal to the cold stream matched with it (lighter in load) to avoid infeasiibilty in
matching at some point and again to avoid using cold utility above the pinch at the
pinch that results in consuming more than originally calculated energy target
For streams matching below the pinch at the pinch the reverse is true:
3. Number of cold streams at the pinch shall be less than or equal to number of hot
streams; and
4. Upon matching hot and cold streams, cold stream CP(FCp) should be less than or
equal to the hot stream matched with it (lighter in load) to avoid infeasiibilty in
164

matching at some point and again to avoid using hot utility below the pinch at the
pinch that results in consuming more than originally needed energy target
The CP(FCp) inequality for individual matches

In summary for hot and cold streams matching above the pinch at the pinch; if a hot
steam with CP(FCp) greater than a CP(FCp) of a cold stream, moving away from the pinch,
the temperature difference must increase. At the pinch the match starts with a temperature
difference equal to selected Tmin. The relative slopes (1/FCp) of the temperature-enthalpy
profiles of the two streams mean that the temperature differences become smaller while we
are moving away from the pinch, which is infeasible. Hence we should not consider such
match. On the other hand if we match this hot stream with another cold stream having a
greater CP(FCp), in such case the relative slopes (1/FCp) of the temperature-enthalpy profiles
now cause the temperature differences to become larger moving away from the pinch, which
is feasible. Thus starting with Tmin at the pinch, for temperature difference to increase
while moving away from the pinch, we have to have this inequality achieved.
CPH(FCpH) is less than or equal to CPC(FCpC)
(Above the pinch for streams at the pinch)
So a very simple explaination for you to remember:
Above the pinch at the pinch the CP (FCp) of the hot stream shall be less than (lighter in
load) or equal the cold stream matched with to enable it reach its pinch target tempetraturte
without aid of cold utility above the pinch. Otherwise; the matching will be infeasible and to
avoid such infeasibility we have to use cold utility above the pinch to enable the hot stream
reach its pinch target temperature.
Below the pinch at the pinch the rules are the opposite. If a cold stream is matched with a
hot that has a smaller CP(FCp), in such case steeper slope(1/FCp) will result, then the
temperature differences away from the pinch will become smaller which is infeasible. If the
same cold stream is matched with a hot stream with a larger CP(FCp) different situation will
arise. A less steep slope(1/FCp) will be obtained resulting in temperature differences that
become larger away of the pinch which is feasible. Thus starting with Tmin at the pinch, for
temperature difference to increase while we are moving away from the pinch we have to have
the following inequality achieved
CPH(FCpH) is greater than or equal to CPC(FCpC)
( below the pinch for streams at the pinch)
Again a very simple words for you to remember, below the pinch at the pinch the CP
(FCp) of the cold stream shall be less than (lighter in load) or equal to the hot stream
matched with to enable it reach its pinch target tempetraturte without aid of hot utility below
the pinch. Otherwise; the matching will be infeasible and to avoid infeasibility we have to use
hot utility below the pinch to enable the cold stream reach its pinch target temperature that
results in both heating and cooling utilities increase than originally obtained in the energy
targeting step.
165
The CP(FCp) table

Identification of the essential matches in the pinch region can be clarified using what we
call CP(FCp) table [1,2,3]. In a CP(FCp) table as is shown in the graphs below, the CP(FCp)
values of the hot and the cold streams at the pinch are listed in descending order.
It is important to note here that the CP(FCp) inequality constraint applies only when a
match is made between two streams that are both at the pinch. Away from the pinch,
temperature differences increase and it is no longer essential to obey the CP(FCp)
inequalities.
In conclusion there are some essential matches at the pinch or the region of minimum
choice (ROMC) that need to be made around the pinch or the ROMC.
The next task is to design a network that exhibit minimum number of units. In other words
we need to decide the matched heat loads which minimize the HEN number of units.
The tick-off heuristic
Once the matches around the pinch have been chosen to satisfy the criteria for minimum
energy, the design should be continued in such a way to keep capital cost to a minimum. One
important criterion in the capital cost is the number of units since more heat exchangers mean
more skids; instrumentation, control; space; concrete and so on.
Keeping the number of units at a minimum can be achieved using the tick-off heuristic
[1,2,3]. To tick off a stream, individual units are made as large as possible. In other words the
smaller of the two heat duties on the streams being matched shall be taken completely.
Cooling water must not be used above the pinch to avoid unwarranted excessive use of
utilities, therefore if there are hot streams above the pinch where the duties are not specified
by pinch matches, additional process-to-process matches for more heat recovery shall be
explored; even if it leads to more number of units in the network than the estimated
minimum.
Same logic is correct for heating utilities application below the pinch. Hot utilitites must
not be used below the pinch to avoid unwarranted excessive use of utilities; both heating and
cooling. Therefore if there are cold streams below the pinch where the duties are not specified
by pinch matches, additional process-to-process matches for more heat recovery shall be
identified; even if it leads to more number of units in the network than the estimated
minimum.
Streams Splitting
Stream splitting is sometimes necessary to overcome the CP(FCp) constraints mentioned
above and/or to avoid using cold utility above the pinch or hot utility below the pinch.
Cooling utilities should not be used above the pinch. It means that all hot streams must be
cooled to pinch temperature by heat recovery. If we have a number of hot streams greater
than the number of cold streams (Three hot streams and two cold streams for instance) a
problem will then arise. Since regardless of the CP(FCp) values of the streams, there will be
one of the hot streams that will not be cooled to pinch temperature without some violation of
the Tmin constraint. This problem can only be resolved by splitting a cold stream into two
166
parallel branches. Thus in addition to the CP(FCp) criterion, there is a stream number
criterion above the pinch such that
Sh is less than or equal to Sc (above the pinch)
Where:
Sh = number of hot streams at the pinch
Sc = number of cold streams at the pinch
If there had been more cold streams than hot streams in the design above the pinch, this
would not have created a problem, since hot utility can be used above the pinch.
Let us now consider the sub-problem below the pinch. Here hot utility must not be used
below the pinch. That means that all cold streams must be heated to pinch temperature by
heat recovery. Again, for below the pinch, if we have the number of cold streams greater than
the number of hot streams (3 cold streams and two hot streams, for instance) regardless of the
CP(FCp) values, one of the cold streams can not be heated to pinch temperature without some
violation of the Tmin constraint.
The problem can be solved by splitting a hot stream into two parallel branches. In such a
case, each cold stream at the pinch will have a partner with which to match and be capable of
heating it to pinch temperature. Thus there is also a stream number criterion below the pinch
such that
Sh is greater than or equal to Sc (below pinch)
If we have more hot streams than cold streams below the pinch, this would not be a
problem, since cold utility can be used below the pinch.
It is instructive to mention here that it is not only the stream number that creates the need
to split streams at the pinch but also the streams CP(FCp) inequality.
Sometimes the CP(FCp) inequality criteria for the streams above the pinch at the pinch
and below the pinch at the pinch can not be met at the pinch without a stream split. It is
important to emphasize here the need to satisfy both criteria; the stream population and the
CP(FCp) inequality.
The number of hot streams above the pinch at the pinch needs to be less than or equal to
the number of cold streams above the pinch at the pinch. If this is not the case then we need to
split a cold stream to achieve this guideline. At the same time, the CP(FCp) of the hot stream
above the pinch at the pinch shall be less than or equal to the CP(FCp) of the cold stream
above the pinch at the pinch in order to be able to match them in a heat exchanger. If this is
not the case the cold stream needs to be split into two.
167
On the other hand, the number of cold streams below the pinch at the pinch needs to be
smaller than or equal to the number of hot streams below the pinch at the pinch. If this is not
the case then we need to split a hot stream to achieve this guideline. At the same time, the
CP(FCp) of the hot stream below the pinch at the pinch shall be greater than or equal to the
CP(FCp) of the cold stream below the pinch at the pinch in order to be able to match them in
a heat exchanger. If this is not the case the cold stream needs to be split into two lighter loads
cold streams.
Before closing the pinch design method (PDM) general description with its rules and
heuristics let us summarize the methodology in a step-by-step fasion.
Briefly, the design procedure known as the pinch design method can be lumped as
follows:
Divide the problem at the pinch into two separate sub-problems

The design for the separate sub-problems is started at the region of minimum choice
known as the pinch point and then moving away
Temperature feasibility requires constraints on the CP(FCp) values to be satisfied for
matches between streams at the pinch for the two problems above the pinch and
below the pinch
The loads on individual heat exchangers are determined using the tick-off heuristic to
minimize the number of units
Away from the pinch there is usually more freedom in the choice of matches. In this
case the designer can choose on the basis of his/her process knowledge
Having described the pinch design methodology, let us solve the numerical example
mentioned above.
The pinch point has divided the problem into two sub-problems one above the pinch and
another below the pinch. The division lies at 310 C on the hot streams side and 300 C on the
cold streams side. The problem minimum approach temperature used is T_min=10 C, and
the minimum heating and cooling utiltities are 2876 kW and 50 kW, respectively.
Using the minimum number of units formula mentioned before we can estimate that the
network minum number of units shall be 5 units. Now we will synthesize a feasible HEN that
realizes these two design objectives; minimum utiltities consumtion and minimum number of
units.
In such situations two pinch points will be arised and three sub-problems will be
produced. One sub-problem above the 330 C-320 C near pinch point; one sub-problem
below the 310 C-300 C pinch point and a third sub-problem in between the two pinch
points. Handling situations like that is not difficult but less systematic than one pinch point
situation [1]. The impact of such situation in the systematic design of the HEN is generating a
HEN design that exhbits more number of units than the estimated minimum number of units
HEN originally calculated without considering the near pinch point.
168
It is instructive to mention here that the hot stream H1 and the cold stream C2 can be
called near pinch streams and in some commercial software another near pinch vertical line
will be drawn at 330 C-320 C as shown in figure 21 below.
Near
Pinch
Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
330 C
H1=10
380 C
550 C
380 C
300 C
300C
H2=5
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
QC_min = 50 kW
Figure 21. Grid Diagram with near pinch representation
We will start now the design above the pinch at the pinch. Since we have only one
possibility for hot stream matching with cold stream at the pinch, we will check the CP(FCp)
matching rule. Since stream H2 has CP(FCp) equal to 5 while the cold stream C1 has a
CP(FCp) equal to 20, the CP(FCp) matching rule here rule is satisfied, we do not need to
make any split and we can match the hot stream H2 and the cold stream C1 as shown in the
graph below, figure 21. Upon matching H2-C1 in a heat exchanger uint we need to tick-off
one of the streams to minimize the number of heat exchangers, hence we let the stream with
lower heat load ticked-off. In this example it is the hot stream H2. The heat exchganger heat
duty/load can now be calculated by simply using Q= FCp (Ts-Tt) formula. This load (Q) in
this example is equal to 350 kW. The hot stream H2 has now been cooled down to its pinch
target temperature of 310 C and the cold stream C1 has been heated up from its pinch
temperature at 300 C to 317.5 C as shown in figure 22.
It is also important to note here that in the pinch design method, away from the pinch there is
no systematic technique to complete the HEN. The designer can use his/her common sense to
complete the design to reach feasible network rendering the exact minimum utilities
requirements with minimum number of units.
It is clear in figure 22 above that the hot stream H1 and the cold stream C2 can also have
a good match since hot stream H1 can be ticked-off completely, upon such matching with C2
resulting in a HEN with the desired estimated minimum number of units calculated earlier for
the this example (5 units). The minimum approach temperature between the two streams is
still not violated, greater than or equal to the specified T_min=10 C, and is equal to 12.5 C.
169

Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
330 C
520 C
H1=10
Q= 350 kW
380 C
550 C
H2=5
300 C
317.5 C
380 C
300 C
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
QC_min = 50 kW
Figure 22. Grid Diagram for H2-C1 matching above the pinch at the pinch
The hot stream H1 has a heat load of 1900 kW and hence the process to process heat
exchange between H1-C1 match shall be 1900 kW which is now the duty of this heat
exchanger as shown in figure 23 below.
Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
Q= 1900 kW
380 C
550 C
380 C
412.5 C
330 C
H1=10
Q= 350 kW
317.5 C
300 C
300 C
H2=5
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
QC_min = 50 kW
Figure 23. Grid Diagram for H1-C1 matching away from the pinch
170
Now to calculate the cold stream C1 outlet temperature from H1-C1 heat exchanger we
divide the load/duty of this hea exchanger, 1900 kW, on cold steam C1 CP(FCp) to get the
raise in temperature of this stream upon matching it with the hot stream H1. Adding this raise
in temperature to the the cold stream C1 inlet temperature to H1-C1 heat exchanger renders
the cold stream C1 outlet temperature equal to 412.5 C. Upon the completion of defining the
matches for the two hot streams H1 and H2 at the pinch cold stream C1, we need now to
decide the amount of hot utility needed to allow the cold stream C1 reaches its target
temperature, 550 C.
Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
Q= 1900 kW
380 C
Q= 2750 kW
550 C
412.5 C
380 C
330 C
H1=10
Q= 350 kW
317.5 C
300 C
H2=5
300 C
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
QC_min = 50 kW
Figure 24. Grid Diagram for C1 matching with hot utility away from the pinch
Figure 24 above shows that; the hot utility unit has a heating load/duty of 2750 kW. Bear in
mind that in order to reach the minimum heating utiltity target the cold stream C2 should not
require more than 2870-2750 kW of heating utility. Otherwise, the network streams matching
to realize the minimum heating utility target will not be adequate.
To enable the cold stream C2 reaches its target temperature we need a hot utility heater with
duty equal to 120 kW as shown in figure 25 below.
Counting the number of units and adding the duties of the two utilities units, we see that
the estimated minimum number of units, above the pinch, and minimum heating utiltity
requirements are both satisfied. Before we move to the network design below the pinch, it is
instructive to note that same result obtained in figure 25 above for the estimated minimum
number of units and minimum heating utility equal to 2870 kW, may be obtained again using
different HEN structure and process engineers are always encouraged to explore; synthesize
and generate more than one HEN structure to study other process objectives satisfaction
171

Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
Q= 1900 kW
330 C
Q= 350 kW
380 C
Q= 2750 kW
550 C
412.5 C
380 C
H1=10
317.5 C
Q= 120 kW
300 C
H2=5
300 C
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
QC_min = 50 kW
300 C
Figure 25. Grid Diagram for C2 matching with hot utility away from the pinch
Pinch
CP
(kW/ C)
310 C
QH_min = 2870 kW
520 C
Q= 1900 kW
380 C
Q= 2750 kW
550 C
412.5 C
380 C
Q= 120 kW
330 C
H1=10
Q= 50 kW
Q= 350 kW
317.5 C
300 C
300 C
H2=5
C1=20
320 C
C2=2
300 C
QC_min = 50 kW
Figure 26. Grid Diagram for H2 matching with cold utility below the pinch
Now after we completed the network above the pinch we go below the pinch. In this
simple example we have only one hot steam H2 below the pinch. The hot stream H2 needs to
be cooled down from 310 C to 300 C. The amount of load needed to be removed from this
stream is equal to 50 kW. Therfore the amount of cooling utility required using cooler will be
50 kW, which is exactly the cooling utility target obtained earlier during the utilities targeting
step. Combining the design above the pinch and below the pinch gives us the complete design
of the heat exchanger network that satisfy our two objectives of minmum number of units and
minimum utitilties consumption at T_min equal to 10 C.
172
Figure 26 above is showing such complete heat exchanger network that achieves the
desired heat recovery level exhibited in minimum heating utility equal to 2870 kW and
minimum cooling utility equal to 50 kW. It also consists of the estimated minimum number
of units that equal to 5 units, two process to process heat exchangers and three utiltity service
units (two heaters and one cooler).
Having introduced the fundamentals of energy integration using pinch techniques, the
second part will discuss two industrial applications. In these two application pinch technology
has been used for targeting and utility selection. However, because of capital cost and end
user preference its strict application has been sacrificed for the sake of easy to operate
networks and less capital investment.
PART II. HEAT INTEGRATION APPLICATIONS IN OIL INDUSTRY

Environmentally, there are essentially four phenomena associated with atmospheric
emissions. They are urban smog, acid rain, ozone layer destruction and the greenhouse effect
or global warming.
The greenhouse gas effect or global warming phenomenon problem arises mainly from
the burning of fossil fuels, and its main constituents are carbon dioxide and methane, of
which methane has more than ten times the effect of carbon dioxide. The result is that global
temperatures increase, leading to melting of the polar ice caps and thus rising sea levels,
increased weather disruptions and changes to ocean currents. Atmospheric emissions are
mainly formed as by-products of combustion processes. Such combustion processes, to date,
remain to be the main source used for energy generation in our societies.
In process industries, the essential sources of energy waste are associated with hot
utilities. If the process industries require a furnace or a boiler to provide hot utility, then any
excessive use of the hot utility will automatically produce excessive utility waste and
consequently excessive generation of atmospheric emissions.
Therefore, energy conservation is one important way of not only saving money and
natural resources, but also protecting the environment via minimizing energy-based GHG
emissions. Until late last century the preferred method of dealing with the atmospheric
emissions were known to be taking the end-of-pipe approach. This approach is myopic view
and usually an expensive one.
This view does not tackle the problem at the source where solving could and indeed has
proved in many cases to be easier and more cost effective. Nowadays, energy efficiency
optimization techniques have become a major tool in NOx, SOx, CO and CO2 emissions
minimization from combustion-based processes.
Systematic methods and tools have been developed and are currently utilized to conserve
energy; protect energy-based natural resources and last but not least to minimize energybased emissions and reduce the impact on the environment.
A major concept in the energy efficiency optimization techniques is the concept of Heat
Integration applied in Pinch Technology and others to enhance waste energy recovery in
industrial processes. One way of using this concept is to look first in our plants to satisfy
some of their thermal energy needs through letting the hot streams (sources) that are to be
173
cooled help the cold streams (sinks) that are to be heated to enable both hot and cold process
streams reach their heating and cooling targets.
This approach of Integration of heat sources and sinks in industrial facilities reduces
the need for external hot thermal energy utility that mostly come from fossil materials
combustion processes. This methodology in turn attacks, at the source, the main contributor
to the atmospheric emissions problem by reducing the heating utility requirement. In this
paper a step-by-step modifications are applied to an actual oil and gas separation plant to
minimize its environment-footprint via GHG emissions reduction using heat integration. The
approach give the process owner the facility to select scheme based upon not only capital but
also energy resources sustainability and environmental impact on the world.
Oil and Gas Separation Plant Process Description

The un-stabilized crude oil is pumped to the stabilizer unit through a pipeline. The
stabilizer is fed after removing some light ends. These light ends are combined with
overheads from the column to the compression system. Light end gases from other stabilizers
and low pressure and high pressure production traps, not shown in this graphs but by arrows
only, are also directed to the gas compression section.
The fractionation capability provides a well defined split between the light ends and the
crude oil. This tight split ensures maximization of stabilized crude and minimization of crude
oil quality loss (API Gravity).
Heat input to the stabilizer bottom is provided through reboilers utilizing a heating oil
media in a closed loop circulation system. A furnace is used to heat up the return cold heating
oil. Light ends from the stabilizer overhead system is used as fuel for the heating oil furnace;
flare pilot and purge gas process blanketing.
Net light gases are then compressed, condensed and pumped to the natural gas liquid
pipeline.
The stabilized crude flowing from the bottom of the stabilizer column is cooled before
going to its final destination partially by heat exchange with the stabilizer bottoms and
completely in a final cooling stage using air coolers.
Heat Integration Application in Oil and Gas Separation Facility

Pinch Analysis techniques have been applied taking into consideration legitimate process
constraints such as safety and operability to evaluate the possibility of improving heat
recovery in the process and consequently reducing energy-based GHG emissions. Major
streams in the process have been listed below with its supply temperatures. In this chapter
Pinch technology has been used for targeting purposes and HEN synthesis. However the
problem solved in this chapter is considering HEN sophistication as the primary dominant
objective and energy cost and/or GHG emissions reduction as the secondary one.
174
Figure 1. Typical Oil and Gas Separation Process Flow Diagram
The design shown above is used as a base case to make comparisons among other design
options regarding energy consumption, capital investment, expressed in terms of number of
heat exchangers and its surface area, and the GHG emissions reductions.
Heat integration role is not only to save energy consumption and its environmental
impact but also it can save some capital investment.
Table 1.
Stream
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Name
De-gassing Tank Feed
Desalter Feed
Stabilizer Feed
Stabilizer Btms to Reb
Stb Btm Product
Atm Comp 1st stg
HP Comp 1st stg
HP Comp 2nd stg
TS
[F]
90.0
109.8
157.5
165.0
195.3
265.2
191.0
210.9
175
In the early days of its application in process plants; people were triggered with its
capability in such direction, hence many plants have been reporting successful applications.
In many other cases realizing all possible potential in energy consumption collided with
excessive needs for capital investment. In case of the oil and gas separation presented in this
paper, Figure 2 below shows that for hot and cold streams minimum approach temperature of
17 F, the one used in the base case design, minimum heating and minimum cooling utilities
consumption due to heat integration are 615 and 24 MM Btu/h respectively. Heating oil
media is used to render the desired heating and air is used for the desired cooling. Realizing
such results needs significant capital investment and the decision makers are always looking
for scenarios to select among it, where they get highest possible impact on energy
consumption and GHG emissions reduction with minimum capital investment.
A furnace with about 90 percent efficiency is used to heat up the return hot oil and
electricity is taken from the grid to supply for air coolers and others. This furnace will
produce about 300 kg of CO2 per hour for each megawatt of heat delivered to the heating oil
media used in the process [1].
It is important to note here that even though the hot oil system used in the process can
better match the process requirements for heating purposes compared with steam due to the
slope of the heat deficit curve, as per the shown grand composite curve in Figure 3.In early
design stages it might be much better to consider cogeneration application. Considering a
CHP combined heat and power system in oil and gas separation processes can produce the
desired electricity for the plant and the low pressure steam produced as a by-product of the
cogeneration system in process heating purposes.
In this chapter the HEN design is only considered and not the whole utilities system.
According to pinch technology heuristics for defining the minimum number of units, we have
8 streams above the pinch and 3 streams below the pinch, eleven heat exchangers will be
required. This number can increase and form a very complex network in order to satisfy the
desired energy targets for the oil and gas separation system while the base case design
network is using only seven heat exchangers. Enabling the process owners to exercise their
best budget allocation in reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions by a little defined
increase in the capital investment is shown in the graphs below.
In figure 4 below only one heat exchanger has been added to the base case design to
integrate the discharge of the first stage compressor with a branch from the crude stream
before the desalter. In addition to the relocation of the stabilizer bottoms feed heat exchanger
to make the matching happens before the desalter instead of having it after the desalter. This
change requires an increase in the reboiler duty from the base case design of 197 MM Btu/h
to 272 MM Btu/h
Such modifications in the base case design due to better integration results in about 85.8
MM Btu/h savings in heating oil duty and about 180 T/d reductions in GHG emissions and
of-course savings air cooling duties savings too.
The capital investment is exhibited in the extra heat exchangers surface area increase
shown in graph below.
176
Figure 2. Oil and Gas Separation Utilities Targeting
Figure 3. Oil and Gas Separation GCC
177
Figure 4. Oil and Gas Separation Design Option # 1
Pushing the envelope for more reduction in both energy consumption and GHG
emissions lead us to design option # 2 shown in figure 5 below. In this design option two heat
exchangers have been added to the base case design to integrate the discharge of the first and
third stage compressors with a branch from the crude stream before the desalter. Again the
relocation of the stabilizer bottoms feed heat exchanger has been also implemented and extra
duty for the reboiler has been added. In this design option more waste heat has been
recovered and consequently more GHG emissions have been reduced as follows; about 124
MM Btu/h savings in heating oil duty and about 260 T/d reductions in GHG emissions and
of-course again more savings in air cooling duties.
Further push towards more reduction in heating oil duty and GHG emissions through
design modification produces design options three, four and five shown in Figures 6, 7 and 8.
In these three new design options, three heat exchangers have been added to the base case
design but with different surface area requirements as shown in the three figures below.
The reduction in heating oil duties are 128.6 MM Btu/h, 139.4 MM Btu/h and 142.9 MM
Btu/h; respectively and the reduction in GHG emissions due to such reduction in heating oil
duties are 270 t/d, 292 t/d and 300 t/d; respectively too.
It is instructive to note here that the reduction in both heating oil duties and GHG
emissions with the increase in number of heat exchanger and associated surface area is
happening with steeper change. About 60 % of the reduction in GHG emissions can be
attained with 50 % of extra heat exchangers surface area.
178
179
180
Heat Integration in Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit

In crude atmospheric distillation units, feed get separated to different cuts according to
difference in boiling points. Crude feed get heated up from the ambient temperature to the
desalting temperature, normally between 126 and 140 C. After desalting operation that
reduces the crude temperature between 3 to 6 C, crude is fed to the pre-flash drum or
sometimes even tower to remove some of the light hydrocarbons before the crude goes to the
crude furnace.
Petroleum Gas & Light Naphtha
Distillation
tower
~40C
~25-175C
~150-260C
Fired
heater
~235-360C
~350370C
Heavy Naphtha
Crude oil
feed
Kerosene
Light Gas Oil (LGO)
~330-380C
Heavy Gas Oil (HGO)
Atmospheric residue
Preheated Crude oil
~250-280C
Figure 9. Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit
As shown in the generic crude atmospheric distillation; Figure 9 above the products from
the crude tower and circulating pump-around that are used as tower inter-coolers are used to
aid the products in heating the incoming crude. The incoming crude then is fed to the heater
to raise its temperature to the desired flash zone temperature in the atmospheric distillation
column.
It is always of high importance in the design of this unit to integrate the cold stream
represented by the crude feed stream and products as well as pump-arounds to reduce the heat
load the crude heater as much as possible. In this chapter, a real industrial application is
introduced and discussed.
Table 2 below, shows data extracted from plant process flow diagrams for the crude as a
cold stream and other hot streams. The cold stream is segmented into several streams using its
simulation heating curve to avoid in-accuracy for assuming constant specific heat along long
temperature range. The same is also practiced for some hot streams as shown in the table,
using its simulation cooling curves.
181
Table 2.
Stream Name
PreDesalter
PreFlash
AfterFlash
TPA
Kero
LDO Prod
IPA
HDO Prod
BPA
RCO
TS
TT
[C]
37.46
84.16
90.42
125
158.9
188
225.1
265
160.5
185.1
105
61
241.2
103.3
253.9
318.2
198.4
327.5
346.4
259.7
169.9
[C]
84.16
90.42
126.7
158.9
193
225.1
265
378
75
105
61
40
103.3
60
138
198.4
60
225
259.7
169.9
80
DH
[MM kCal/hr]
16.02
2.27
13.74
13.4833
14.216
14.8257
16.64
64.52
16.02
2.27
1.12
0.5
13.74
3.68
13.43
4.06
3.89
10.35
16.65
15.52
13.23
CP
[MM kCal/C]
0.343041
0.36262
0.378721
0.397738
0.41689
0.399614
0.417043
0.570974
0.187369
2.83E-02
2.55E-02
2.38E-02
9.96E-02
8.50E-02
0.115876
3.39E-02
2.81E-02
0.100976
0.192042
0.172829
0.147164
The first step in applying pinch technology is to find for a reasonable minimum approach
temperature the minimum heating utility and minimum cooling utilities required for this crude
unit. These targets are shown in Figure 10.
The heating utility which is our main focus in this application is about 48 MM Kcal/h
Using pinch design method (PDM) to synthesis the crude pre-heat train, to reach desired
level of waste heat recovery and to minimize the heating load of the crude heater results in the
network below in Figure 11. The network exhibits three splits in the cold crude stream. First
split happens before the crude desalter, the second after the desalter and before the flash drum
and the third after the flash drum up to the crude heater.
As you notice both heating and cooling utilities are considered being of the same
important. In most cases in oil refining heating utility is more expensive than cooling water.
Therefore, many designer put more emphasis on saving in heating utility since it also reduce
emissions than saving on the cold side. Another very important objective in designing new
pre-heat train in crude distillation unit is the number of units of the heat exchangers, less
sophisticated configuration and the easiness of heat exchanger network operation and
maintenance. This need pushes the plant designers to the extreme in considering the easiness
of operation to the extent that they design networks that do not give enough attention to
decent level of waste heat recovery and GHG emissions reduction compared with their
emphasis on capital investment, maintenance and operation of the network.
182
Figure 10. Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit Utilities Targeting
This approach is demonstrated here in the schematic pre-heat train design shown below
in Figure 12 for the same industrial application in hand. The schematic network shown is only
used for topology comparision.
The design exhibits less number of units, no split at all, but much less crude temperature
,265 C before the crude heater. This design means that the approach advocating the easiness
of operation and minimum number of units results in more energy consumption in the crude
heater and consequently more GHG emissions.
It is important to note here that maintenance and easiness of operation of heat exchanger
networks in crude oil refining facilities are very legitimate issues. However, it needs to be
handled with care and at the end a balanced picture and right trade-off based upon economic
should prevail over the argument of we did not do designs like this before, or our operators
are not trained to operate such sophisticated network or even we do prefer this one since it has
no splits and less potential for fouling and cleaning.
183

RCO
150.7 C
TPA
160.5
37.5 C
IPA
157.9
To Tower
LDO
150.9 C
0.3
133.4 C
0.46
133.8 C 133.9 C
Desalter
136.8 C
0.24
0.38
207 C
0.3
204.2 C
205.5 C
134.5 C
RCO Prod.
80 C
LDO Prod.
60 C
150.7 C
205.1 C
HDO
217.9 C
To Colm.
75 C
HDO
217 C
HDO Prod.
60 C
LOD Prod.
241.2 C
IPA
217.4 C
0.4
199.2 C
Flash
0.32
322.8 C
0.2
308.8 C
0.08
378 C
292.8 C
292.2 C
238.5 C
0.32
HDO
327.5 C
HDO
318.2 C
RCO
346.4 C
IPA
253.9 C
Figure 11. Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit HEN (I)
TPA
141.2C
Toairandwatercoolers
160.5C
138.8C
137.1C
169.9C
159C
198.4C
196C
206C
BPA
RCO
.
.
E-5
37.5C
84.5C
90.8C
E-6
253.9C
E-1
E-2
185.1C
KERO
327.5C
E-7
127.0C
E-3
V04-V6
\Desalter
E-4
241.2C
259.9C
199.6C
318.2C
E-8
IPA-b
346.4C
225.5C
E-9
HDO-2
225.7C
253.9C
265.4C
LDO
IPA
Figure 12. Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit HEN (II)
378C
184

LDO
Kero
TPA
160.5C
241.2C
185.1C
IPA-a
253.9C
84.5C
37.45C
127C
90.8C
E-1
E-2
75C
75C
138.8C
E-3
E-4
103.3C
105C
137.1C
134.2C
60C
Desalter
61C
40C
FlashVap
IPA-b
253.9C
193.8C
E-5
137.1C
145C
BPA
199.4C
HDO
141.2C
80C
378C
276.6C
FlashDrum
E-8
200C
E-6
327.5C
318.2C
183.9C E-7
193.7C
RCO
225.7C
186.3C
60C
E-9
346.4C
275.4C
275.8C
Furnace
220C
RCO
Figure 13. Crude Atmospheric Distillation Unit HEN (III)
The third network shown in figure 13 set the right compromise to some facilities. It is
designed differently than the first network since it does not use the pinch design method.
However, some sense of systematic technique has been also used here. This network design
evolves from the simplest design desired by most of the process owners and plant operators. It
has less number of units, no splits, less possibility of fouling and frequent cleaning needs,
easy to operate and more importantly less area and capital cost.
The pre-heat train in Figure 13 kept the simple design before the desalter almost as it is
and focused only on the heating utility minimization. It tried to push the temperature before
the crude heater from 265 C in the simple design to about 276 C in the new design via better
heat recovery in the area after the pre-flash drum only. A systematic technique can be used
for that purpose via enumerating all matches possibilities between the crude stream, after the
pre-flash drum, and all hot streams available at temperatures higher than its supply
temperature. Simulating these possibilities only and then ranking them based upon the impact
on the heating utilities requirement but with only one split in the crude stream after the preflash drum to avoid increasing fouling, will conclude this step and move the approach to the
second step. The second step is to reconcile the selection of the new matches after the preflash drum with that before it. The possibilities that can arise can also be ranked based upon
the level of simplicity in it.
The point that we are trying to make here in this crude unit pre-heat train design approach
is that instead of designing the heat exchanger network using pinch design method to get the
best possible waste heat recovery scheme and try an ad hoc approach to simplify the network,
185
we can start from the simplest possible straight line network shown in this chapter and evolve
from it systematically to reach to better networks from waste heat recovery point of view and
of-course GHG emissions reduction while keeping the easy to operate, clean to maintain and
capital cost objectives satisfied. The details of this new approach and its step-by-step
implementation will be published latter elsewhere.
CONCLUSION
Pinch technology as a new systematic method for advanced waste heat recovery and heat
integration in industrial facilities emanated in the early seventies during the first oil crisis is
still nowadays the most widely used technique for energy integration in oil industry. It has
been successfully used to systematically address the problems of energy efficiency
optimization and the reduction of energy-based un-desired emissions.
Systematic waste heat recovery in oil and gas industry is very beneficial to plant
operating cost reduction. Aggressive waste heat recovery is an essential approach for inprocess GHG emissions avoidance. GHG and other energy-based undesired by-products
atmospheric emissions, produced during oil and gas separation processes and crude oil
distillation can be reduced significantly through proper application of heat integration
concepts. Every megawatt of heating utilities obtained from process boilers and/or furnaces
that can be saved through efficient waste heat recovery system design and operation means
less greenhouse gas and other harmful NOx and Sox emissions.
Improved heat recovery systems designs while can be attained systematically using Pinch
Technology, it is important to consider it in a step-by-step approach especially for the heat
exchangers network grassroots design modifications and existing plants retrofit to enable the
decision makers selects the right scenario that best fit his/her capital investment budget.
REFERENCES
Douglas, J. (1985). Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
EL-Halwagi, M. (1996). Pollution Prevention Process Integration, Academic Press,
Linnhoff, B. (1993). Pinch Analysis-a state-of-the-art, Trans. IChemE, 71(A5), 503-522
Noureldin, M. B. & Hasan, A. K. (2006). Global energy targets and optimal operating
conditions for waste energy recovery in Bisphenol-A plant, Applied Thermal Engineering
26, 374-381.
Noureldin, M. B. & Swan, J. E. (2004). Computer-Aided design software for energy
optimization through interval constraint logic propagation, Proceeding of MDP-8, Cairo
University Conference on Mechanical Design and Production, Cairo, Egypt, January.
Noureldin, M. B. (2003). TEM_icons 1.2 Users manual, Report, Department of Materials
and Process Engineering, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
Noureldin, M. B., Aseeri, A. S. & Al Qahtani, A. H. (2006). Systematic in-Process
Modification Approach for Enhanced Waste Energy Recovery in Gas Plants, AIChE
Spring Meeting Orlando, Florida, April 23-27.Smith, R. (1996). Chemical Process
Design , McGraw-Hill, Inc.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 5
TREATMENT OF SECONDARY SLUDGE

FOR ENERGY RECOVERY
Chunbao (Charles) Xu* and Jody Lancaster
Department of Chemical Engineering, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road,
Thunder Bay, Ont., Canada P7B 5E1
ABSTRACT
Primary and secondary sludges are produced as a result of primary and secondary
wastewater treatment in municipal wastewater plant or pulp and paper mills. Sludge
disposal has become a worldwide problem for many reasons including rapidly shrinking
landfill space, increased environmental awareness, more stringent environmental
standards governing the disposal of sludge, and dewatering challenges. Unlike the
primary sludge, the secondary sludge as byproduct of the biological treatment is far more
difficult to dewater and to be disposed. Secondary sludge waste management issues are a
continuing challenge. This together with record high oil prices have contributed to a need
to examine methods of converting secondary sludge waste into energy. In this chapter,
we have overviewed a variety of secondary sludge post treatment methods for energy
recovery, including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, direct liquefaction, supercritical
water oxidation (SCWO) and anaerobic digestion. A critical comparison between these
methods is presented with respect to their net energy efficiencies. The advantages and
drawbacks of each treatment option are also highlighted in this chapter.
1. INTRODUCTION
Primary and secondary sludges are produced as a result of primary and secondary
wastewater treatment in municipal or industrial wastewater plants, e.g., pulp and paper mills.
For instance, about 40-50 kg of sludge (dry)is generated in the production of 1 tonne of paper
at a paper mill in North America (Joyce et al., 1979), and of that approximately 70%is
primary sludge and 30% secondary sludge (Elliot and Mahmood, 2007). The primary sludge
*
E-mail: cxu@lakeheadu.ca
188
can be relatively easily dewatered for disposal. The secondary sludge consists predominantly
of excess biomass produced during the biological process (Ramalho, 1983), and about half of
the incoming organic pollution load is converted into secondary sludge, containing 0.5 to 2%
solids (Winkler, 1993). Compared with the primary sludge, the secondary sludge is far more
difficult to dewater.
The management of municipal and industrial wastewater sludges has been a long-standing
challenge for many utilities. For example, Canadian municipalities spend $1215 billion
annually for sewage sludge treatment (Buberoglu and Duguay, 2004). Normally, sludges are
disposed by landfilling and incineration (Reid, 1998), which have, however, suffered from their
inherent drawback of poor economics due to many reasons including (1) the high cost
associated with dewatering the sludge to 20-40% solids or higher so as to meet the requirements
of landfilling or incineration, and (2) the significant energy loss in evaporating the sludgecontaining water in incineration or combustion of the sludges in a recovery boiler. The sludge
disposal/management costs can be as high as 60% of the total wastewater treatment plant
operating costs (Canales et al., 1994). In recent years, due to rapidly shrinking landfill space and
the secondary pollution issues associated with the conventional sludge disposal approaches as
well as the increasingly stringent environmental regulations, the disposal of sludges continues to
be one of the major challenges for the municipal wastewater plants and most pulp and paper
mills (Mahmood and Elliott, 2006). This together with record high oil prices have contributed to
a need to examine methods of converting secondary sludge waste into energy. For instance, the
percentage of pulp/paper sludges disposed by landfills has constantly decreased in Europe in
recent years, as shown in Fig. 1, dropping 40% in 1990 to 20% in 2002. In the meantime, the
percentage of pulp/paper sludge used as a raw material in other industries and other applications
(e.g., agriculture as soil improvers, in road construction, land reconstruction) and for energy
recovery has steadily increased.
Figure 1. Disposal methods for the pulp and paper residues in Europe (adapted from Monte et al., 2008
and CEPI, 2004)
189
Comparing with other typical industrial sludges containing 16-35% of total dry solids
(Oral et al., 2005; Rato Nunes, et al., 2008), the original secondary sludges from municipal
wastewater treatment plant or a pulp and paper mill usually contains a much higher ratio of
water (98-99%). A comparison of municipal and pulp and paper secondary sludge
characteristics is presented in Table 1. Similarities exist between municipal and pulp and
paper waste activated sludge, which would suggest that technologies used in the municipal
wastewater sector could be transferred into the pulp and paper industry. General processes
and technologies of sludge reduction technologies through process changes (e.g. operational
control, and return activated sludge treatment) or through post-treatment (e.g., incineration,
carbonization gasification, pyrolysis, supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) and
aerobic/anaerobic digestion, etc.) have been recently reviewed by Mahmood & Elliot (2006).
While changing/optimizing the sludge producing process would certainly reduce the amount
of secondary sludge generation and thus alleviate the issues of sludge waste management,
secondary sludge post-treatment technologies and in particular those aimed at energy
recovery are the focus of this chapter.
Table 1. Comparison of municipal and pulp and paper activated sludge
(modified from Elliott and Mahmood, 2007)
Total dry solids (TS) (%)

Volatile solids (%TS)
N (%TS)
P (%TS)
Fe (g/kg_TS)
PH
Heating value
(MJ/kg_TS)
Municipal
0.8-1.2
59-68
2.4-5.0
0.5-0.7
0
6.5-8.0
19-23
Pulp/Paper
1.0-2.0
65-97
3.3-7.7
0.5-2.8
0.33-2.2
6.0-7.6
22-25
To evaluate different post-treatment options and in order to provide a means of

comparison, it is advantageous to compare the energy efficiency for each option if possible. A
definition of net energy efficiency may be outlined as follows (Xu and Lancaster, 2008). The
net energy efficiency or Energy Output/Input Ratio can be defined as the ratio of energy
content of the objective products to the energy input to produce it, as show in Eq. (1). For
simplification of the discussion, several assumptions may be adopted: (1) Since the feedstock
used is waste biomass or waste sludge, it can be considered as the feed of ZERO energy
value, (2) the heat loss of the reactor or process is negligibly small assuming well insulation
and (3) the energy consumption by other auxiliary operations (e.g., feedstock preparation and
feeding, products separation and recovery, etc.) may be neglected. From the above
assumptions, for many hydrothermal treatment processes for the treatment of sludge, the
energy input may be approximated by the energy required to dewater/thicken the sludge from
its original TS content (e.g. 1-2% for secondary pulp/paper sludge) to a suitable TS content
for the process use (e.g 25% TS or above), and to heat the dewatered sludge from room
temperature (Trm) to the specified reaction temperature (T).
190
Energy Output/Input Ratio =
(HHV of the product) (mass of the product)

(Energy Input)
(1)
The approximate energy efficiency of each process can be estimated by the equation
above, while depending on different requirements and characteristics of each process, the
energy input calculation may differ method to method and may be difficult to determine due
to shortage of experimental data reported.
The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of different types of posttreatment methods of secondary sludge, i.e., waste activated sludge (WAS), for energy
recovery. Emphasis is put on the discussion on the energy efficiency for each process, while
advantages and disadvantages of each process are also highlighted. An outline of the many
post-treatment options and their primary energy products can be summarized in Figure 2. A
description of each treatment method including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, direct
liquefaction, super critical water oxidation and anaerobic digestion follows.
Figure 2. Outline of treatment options of secondary sludge for energy production
2. SECONDARY SLUDGE TREATMENT METHODS

Secondary sludge can be treated by employing a variety of post-treatment technologies
such as heat treatment, chemical oxidation and sludge digestion whose processes have been
overviewed recently by Mahmood & Elliot (2006).
2.1. Incineration
Incineration technology is the controlled combustion of waste with the recovery of heat
to produce steam that in turn produces power through steam turbines (Kumar, 2000). A
general flow diagram of the incineration process is depicted in Figure 3. It shows that the
sludge is fed into the boiler, which could be rotary kiln, fixed bed furnace or, common in the
191
paper industry, a fluidized-bed incinerator (Latva-Somppi et al., 1997). The incinerator yields
products of steam and byproducts of ash and flue gas. Ash can be disposed directly into the
nearest landfill or it can be used as the raw materials of light-weight aggregate and
constructional brick in the building industry (Liaw et al., 1998; Monte et al., 2008). The flue
gas requires treatment through air pollution control before discharge through the stack.
However, specifically designed fluidized-bed combustors produce fewer pollutants through
the flue gas (Kumar, 2000). For power generation the steam is directed through steam
turbines, which work to produce power through the electric generator. Alternatively steam
can be used locally for process steam reducing the mills dependence on costly fossil fuels for
steam production (Monte et al., 2008). Typical fluidized bed operating temperature is
between 700-900oC (Latva-Somppi et al., 1997). While depending on specific waste
regulations in Europe 850oC must be achieved for at least 2 seconds, and if hazardous waste
with a content of more than 1% of halogenated organic substances, the temperature is raised
to 1100oC for 2 seconds in order to reduce the formation of the toxic compounds such as
polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) (Monte et al., 2008). Efficient heat and mass
transfer in the fluidized bed enables the endothermic fuel drying and devolatilization to occur
simultaneously with exothermic combustion of char and volatiles (Latva-Somppi et al., 1997).
Incineration of residues (both rejects and sludge), combined with power and steam
generation, is one of the most commonly applied disposal methods in Europe (Monte et al.,
2008). Sludge incineration is widely practiced on a full-scale basis in many highly populated
urban areas such as in Japan and Germany (Stark et al., 2006). A recent review by Monte et
al. (2008) cited eleven European pulp mills which burn some portion of pulp sludge in
combination with other biomass. Oral et al. (2005a/b) described a three-stage retrofit of an
incinerator in the Czech Republic and concluded that the thermal treatment through
incineration of sludge for energy recovery is favorable both economically and
environmentally.
Figure 3. General flow diagram of incineration (modified from Kumar, 2000)
192
In a sludge incineration process, water in the sludge is completely evaporated and the
organic matter in the sludge is effectively oxidized at high temperatures to CO2 and H2O, as
shown in the following two reactions:
Evaporation:
Oxidation and combustion:
H2O (l) H2O (g)

sludge solids/organics + O2 CO2 + H2O + ash + heat
Since the water evaporation reaction is highly endothermic, in order to sustain the
combustion for sludge with a low TS content, dewatering of the original sludge must be
conducted or additional fuels (bark, wood waste and oil, etc.) shall be added (Monte et al.,
2008). Monte et al. (2008) illustrated that self-supporting incineration (combustion) can be
attained for feedstock containing approximately > 25% combustible/organic content and an
ash content of 0-60%, where additional fuels are not necessary. Evaporation, oxidation and
combustion occur simultaneously. The energy required for evaporation can be estimated
using an equation from Kim and Parker (2008):
Qdrying = Mws W [(Cp,water T) + Hvap] + [Mws (1-W)] Cp,sludge T
(2)
Where Mws is unit mass of wet sludge using a basis of 1kg, W is the water fraction in
sludge, Hvap is latent heat for vaporization of water (2090 kJ/kg), Cp,water is heat capacity of
water (4.186 kJ/kg/oC), Cp,sludge is heat capacity of solids in sludge (1.95 kJ/kg/oC) and T is
temperature difference between initial temperature of 25oC and the temperature of drying of
105oC. This results in an approximate energy input for drying of 2198 kJ/kg. Further energy
input is required to raise the temperature of the sludge from drying temperature of 105oC to
an average reactor temperature of 800oC. The further energy input can be estimated at 2753
kJ per kg of the sludge with 10% total solids (TS). An estimated energy consumption of the
evaporation energy input plus the energy required for heating the feedstock to the reactor
temperature is thus approximately 5000 kJ/kg. Approximately 30% of the solids remain in the
ash (Fytili and Zabaniotou, 2008), therefore 70% is combusted. Energy output of the
incinerator may be estimated given the steam generation data for the incinerator.
2.2. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition process in the absent of oxygen to convert biomass
or waste materials into solid charcoal, water, water-soluble organics (pyroligneous acids,
including methanol and acetic acid); water-insoluble organics grouped under the term of tar
or bio-oil, and non-condensable gases (H2, CH4, CO, CO2).
The chemistry of pyrolysis mainly associates with degradation of carbohydrate polymers
(cellulose and hemi-cellulose) and conversion of carbohydrate components, which may be
illustrated in Figure 4.
When heated at a temperature higher than 300C, the carbohydrate polymers depolymerize into short chains of sugars, accompanied by slow dehydration and subsequent
reactions to form unsaturated polymer intermediates that may be eventually condensed to
form char (Lomax et al., 1991). When heated at a higher heating rate to a higher temperature,
the de-polymerization reactions will liberate volatile products as oil or tar. Cleavage of C-C
193
bond will occur at a high temperature, leading to formation of gas products (mainly CO, CO2,
H2 and CH4). Accordingly, pyrolysis process can be tuned to produce char, oil and/or gas by
properly selection of the operating conditions of temperature, heating rate and reaction time.
If the purpose is to maximize the oil yield then a high heating rate and short gas residence
time would be required, while for high char production, a low temperature and low heating
rate would be preferred. High yield of bio-oil up to about 70-75% (Agblevor et al., 1995) can
be produced in fast pyrolysis processes (with very short residence time and elevated reactor
temperature of ~500C or higher). The commonly used reactors for fast pyrolysis include
bubbling fluidized bed, circulating fluidized bed, ablative, entrained flow, rotating cone
reactors, and vacuum reactors (Mohan et al., 2006). A significant amount of char and equal
amounts of oil and gas products can be obtained in slow pyrolysis processes (operating at a
low temperature for a long residence time). The char produced typically has a higher heating
value of ~ 30 MJ/kg, which can be used as a valuable fuel for generating heat and electricity,
or can be turned into activated carbon by activation. Pyrolysis oils are normally composed of
a variety of organic oxygenates and polymeric carbohydrate and lignin fragments derived
from the thermal cracking of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin components of the biomass
(Mohan et al., 2006; Tsai et al., 2007). The physical properties of wood fast-pyrolysis oil are
compared with those of a petroleum-based heavy fuel oil in Table 2 (Czernik and
Bridgewater, 2004). As shown in this Table, pyrolysis oil contains a high concentration of
water (15-30%), and is highly acidic (corrosive) and unstable liquid with a lower caloric
value of 16-19 MJ/kg compared with 40 MJ/kg for the petroleum-based heavy oil. Pyrolysis
oil is a potential liquid fuel for turbines and boilers, or it can also be applied to produce
chemicals directly, or be upgraded to high-quality fuels by hydro-cracking or catalytic
cracking (Vitolo et al., 1999).
Figure 4. Chemistry of biomass pyrolysis (Lange, 2007)
Pyrolysis has long been recognised more advantageous over conventional incineration
processes for the treatment of sewage-sludge with respect to fuel economy, energy recovery,
and the control of heavy-metal emissions (Lewis, 1975). However, process efficiency is
affected by sludge moisture content, such that co-pyrolysis with other wastes has been
recommended in order to increase the dry-solids content of the sludge (Olexseyr, 1975). The
process normally needs additional treatment to remove excess water. Higher water content
feedstocks cause increases in the production of hydrogen and methane, but these do not
compensate for the losses of carbon monoxide and thermal efficiency (Carre, et al., 1989).
Water reduction is accomplished by dewatering to about 25% DS followed by thermal drying
to 95% DS.
194

Table 2. Typical properties of pyrolysis bio-oil and of a petroleum-based
heavy fuel oil (Czernik and Bridgewater, 2004).
Physical property
Bio-oil
Heavy fuel oil
Moisture content (wt %)
15-30
0.1
pH
2.5
Specific gravity
1.2
0.94
54-58
85
5.5-7.0
11
35-40
1.0
0-0.2
0.3
ash
0-0.2
0.1
HHV (MJ/kg)
16-19
40
Viscosity (at 50 oC, cP)
40-100
180
Elemental composition (wt %)
Low temperature pyrolysis with reactor temperature <500oC has also been widely
adopted for the treatment of sewage sludge in order to promote the oil yields and to minimize
heavy metal evaporation. For a pyrolysis temperature maintained between 500 and 600C,
heavy metals in the sludge (except mercury and cadmium) could be safely retained within the
solid chars (Kistler and Widmedz, 1987; Karayildirim et al., 2006). Cadmium has a lower
evaporation temperature than most other metals and is dispersed into the gas phase at about
60C, but can be condensed in gas-cleaning and scrubbing equipment with relative ease,
while mercury can be completely evaporated at temperatures above 350C and is difficult to
eliminate from the gas stream (Furness et al., 2000). As an extension of standard pyrolysis, an
oil-from-sludge (OFS) process has been developed with the system arranged to maximise the
production of high quality oil, which can be used as a fuel (Bridle and Hertle, 1998). In the
OFS process, pre-dried sludge (25% DS) is heated to 450C for a heating period of about 30
minutes under anoxic conditions and at a pressure just above atmospheric, until about 50% of
the sludge is evaporated. The vapours are then contacted with residual tar to catalyze the
formation of high caloric value hydrocarbons. The process can produce 200-300 litres of oil
per tonne of dried sludge. In comparison with incineration and anaerobic digestion, 95-98%
of the energy in the dried sludge is recovered in the various products, and the net energy
efficiency could be greater. However, the energy input for pyrolysis, including energy
consumption for thickening, drying, and heating of the sludge feedstock to necessitate the
pyrolysis process, is still fairly high. While the data of energy consumption for thickening of
the sludge is unavailable, the energy consumption required to dry thickened waste activated
sludge (TWAS) containing about 10% TS to a dry sludge at 105C is about 2220 kJ/kg-ws,
according to Kim and Parker (2008). This is a significant portion of the energy consumption
for pyrolysis. Kim and Parker (2008) also found the energy consumption for increase of
195
temperature of the dry sludge from 105oC to reach target reactor temperature of 500oC to be
about 770 kJ per kg, while the energy consumed during pyrolysis they assumed to be 300
kJ/kg. Thus, the total energy consumption for pyrolysis at 500oC is 3290 kJ/kg. Energy
outputs for pyrolysis include the amounts and heating values of the oil, gas and char products,
which is not easy to estimate. Using data from Kim and Parker (2008), the average yields of
oil, gas and char were used as 25%, 10% and 65%, respectively, based on dry sludge (or
2.5%, 1% and 6.5% yield of oil, gas and char, respectively, based on TWAS). Average
calorific values in kJ/kg of oil, gas and char were used and are 22,500, 1400, and 16,500
respectively. The total energy output is thus estimated to be 1649 kJ/kg. The net energy
efficiency, calculated using Eq.1 is determined to be about 0.5, suggesting that pyrolysis is
still an energy inefficient process. This conclusion may be supported by the work of Fytili and
Zabaniotou (2008), which shows that pyrolysis is a rather endothermic process, of a
magnitude of 100 kJ per kg of dry sludge.
2.3. Gasification
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process during which carbonaceous content of coal,
biomass or lignocellulosic wastes is converted to a combustible gas at a high temperature (as
high as 900-1400C) into combustible gases (e.g. H2, CO, CO4, and CH4) in the presence of
air, O2 or steam (Fytili and Zabaniotou, 2008). Gasification technology has been widely used
around the world for the production of a fuel gas (or producer gas) from coal biomass.
Typical producer gas from an air-blown gasification process has the following compositions:
9 vol% H2, 14 vol% CO, 20 vol% CO2, 7 vol% CH4, and 50 vol% N2, with a calorific value
of 5.4 MJ/Nm3 (Furness et al., 2000). As a comparison, an O2-blown gasification process
produces a gas of the following compositions: 32 vol% H2, 48 vol% CO, 15 vol% CO2, 2
vol% CH4, and 3 vol% N2, with an increased calorific value of 10.4 MJ/Nm3 (Furness et al.,
2000).
Biomass gasification technology has received increased interest in the last decade since it
offers several advantages over direct combustion, such as reduced CO2 emission, compact
equipment with small footprint, accurate combustion control, and high thermal efficiency
(Rezaiyan and Cheremisinoff, 2005). Gasification technology if integrated with combined
cycle gas turbine system has an overall thermal efficiency of 70-80% and an electrical
efficiency as high as 50%, offering better perspectives for power generation from biomass
(IEA Bioenergy Executive Committee, 2007). It has been shown that biomass gasification
plants can be as economical as conventional coal-fired power plants (Badin and Kirschner,
1998). Gasification, in particular larger scale circulating fluidized bed (CFB) concepts, also
offers excellent possibilities for co-firing schemes. The gas product of gasification, also
known as producer gas or syngas, can be mainly used for steam or heat generation as the fuel
gas, for hydrogen and substitute natural gas production, for fuel cell feed, and for the
synthesis of liquid fuels such as methanol and F-T liquid through various gas-to-liquid
catalytic conversion processes (Dry, 1999). Gasification of biomass has been achieved with
various types of gasifiers, ranging from fixed-bed to fluidized-bed and entrained bed gasifiers,
whose advantages and disadvantages are as summarized by Rampling and Gill (1993) in
Table 3. As revealed in the Table, the major technical challenge for biomass (as well as for
sludge) gasification is associated with ash slagging and the formation and removal of tar (high
196
molecular-weight hydrocarbons rich in benzene, toluene and xylene). The presence of tar in
the producer gas is undesirable not only because it is an indicator of low gasification
efficiency, but also due to the fact that it increases the difficulty of syngas cleanup by fouling
and plugging the pipes and tubes of some equipment (Rezaiyan and Cheremisinoff, 2005). It
is thus necessary to develop technical approaches to eliminate tar. Tar removal can be
achieved either by primary method taking place insider the gasifier or by secondary
treatments outside the gasifier (e.g., hot gas cleanup). As a primary method, choosing the
proper configuration of a gasifier can reduce tar formation. Brandt and Larsen (2000)
produced a significantly low tar formation by employing a novel two-stage gasifier composed
of a pyrolysis unit and a gasification unit with a charcoal bed. Nunes et al. (2007) also
observed a reduction in tar formation when the producer gas went through a second-stage bed
packed with char in a downdraft fixed-bed gasifier. Addition of catalysts, such as char,
alkali/alkaline earth metal-based catalysts (e.g. Na, K, and Ca) and transitional metal-based
catalyst (e.g., Ni and Fe), proved to be an effective means to reduce tar formation by
converting tar into combustible gases through steam reforming, CO2 reforming, thermal
cracking, hydro-reforming/hydro-cracking, and water-gas reactions (Kimura et al, 2006). As
the secondary method for tar removal, hot gas cleanup has attracted increasing attention in
recent years due to the development of integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) and
integrated gasification fuel cell (IGFC) technologies. Hot gas cleanup, i.e., catalytic
destruction of tarry products and NH3 (a contaminant species in the producer gas) at a high
temperature is needed to further increase the overall power generation efficiency of IGCC and
IGFC. The most common catalysts for the decomposition of tar and NH3 are dolomite (a
calcium magnesium ore, CaMg(CO3)2) and Ni-, Mo-, or Ru-based catalysts (Dayton, 2002),
as well as inexpensive Fe catalysts (such as chars from low rank coals with inherent Fe and
Ca cations and limonite iron ore) (Ohtsuka et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2005).
Recent developments in biomass gasification including some non-conventional
gasification processes are under investigation, such as plasma gasification and supercritical
water gasification. Plasma gasification is a gasification process that decomposes biomass into
basic components, such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide in an oxygenstarved environment, with the assistance of a plasma torch heating the biomass feedstock to a
temperature of 3000C or higher (Rezaiyan and Cheremisinoff, 2005). This plasma technique
has high destruction and reduction efficiencies, and it has great application potential for a
wide range of hazardous waste treatment, including both organic and inorganic compounds.
Recently, supercritical water (SCW), highly compressed water at above its critical
temperature of 374C and critical pressure of 22 MPa, has been chosen as an ideal
gasification medium for biomass or lignocellulosic waste conversion primarily because of its
special properties such as liquid-like density and gas-like diffusivity. More importantly, SCW
has strong solubility for organic compounds, accompanied with its high reactivity (Akiya and
Savage, 2002). A wide range of biomass including some model compounds and
lignocellulosic wastes have been successfully gasified in supercritical water (Xu and Antal,
1998; Yoshida et al., 2004; Hao et al, 2005; Williams and Onwudili, 2006). Compared to
conventional gasification processes, supercritical water gasification (SCWG) has higher
gasification efficiency, hydrogen yield and less tar formation (Xu and Antal, 1998). In
addition, supercritical water gasification can utilize the wet biomass and wastes directly,
eliminating the energy- and capital-intensive drying process. Thus, SCWG is particularly
suitable for gasifying biomass with high moisture content and some waste streams such as
sewage sludge (Xu and Antal, 1998). A recent study by Izumizaki et al. (2005) summarized
197
experiments where hydrogen was produced from paper sludge in supercritical water in the
presence of ruthenium (IV) dioxide, RuO2. The reaction conditions were 100 mg paper
sludge, 20 mg catalyst, temperature of 450oC for 2 hours. The major components of gases
produced were hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide in molar ratios of 27%, 27% and 45%,
respectively. One of the authors research group has recently started an extensive study on
catalytic gasification of pulp/paper secondary sludge in SCW for hydrogen production. To the
best of the authors knowledge, to date there is no other investigation worldwide that is
focused on the use of pulp/paper secondary sludge as feedstock for hydrogen generation.
Table 3. Comparison of different types of gasifiers (Rampling and Gill, 1993).
Energy requirement in different stages of a typical gasification process is outlined in

Figure 5, including the location of energy inputs and outputs.
According to Ptasinkski et al. (2007), gasification of raw sludge is not very energy
efficient because the raw sludge contains a substantial amount of water (at as high as 98-99
wt%), and hence the optimal reaction conditions are difficult to achieve. In order to improve
the gasification efficiency, the moisture content of the sludge must be greatly reduced or dried
198
prior to being fed to a gasifier. According to Kim and Parker (2008), the energy consumption
required to dry thickened waste activated sludge (TWAS) containing about 10% TS to a dry
sludge at 105C is about 2220 kJ/kg-ws. It may be possible to use the enthalpy of the
producer gas for drying the sludge and biomass feedstock for the gasification. However, the
gasification of pulp/paper secondary sludge is a relatively new method and hence not very
well documented so far, except for several reports on gasification of a mix of municipal
sewage sludge and coal and other domestic waste (Dinkel et al., 1991; Baumgartel, 1993). For
dry sludge, the gasification technology has shown to be an energy efficient process. For
instance, Hamilton (1998) reported that gasification of dried sewage sludge thermally with
the Lurgi-Rhurgas process based on a circulating fluidized bed produced 0.7 m3 of fuel gas
per kg of dry sludge (DS), and the calorific value of the gas was as high as 22.7 MJ/m3, i.e., a
total energy output of about 16 MJ//kg-DS. With dry sludge used, the total process can thus
be energetically self-sustaining (Furness et al., 2000).
Figure 5. Energy requirement in different stages of a typical gasification process (modified from
Furness et al., 2000)
2.4. Direct Liquefaction

Due to the skyrocketed oil price and the increased concerns over greenhouse gas
emissions, there is a worldwide resurgence of interest in the production of liquid oil products
(e.g., bio-oils and bio-crude) from biomass through liquefaction. Fast pyrolysis, as described
199
in the preceding section, is so far the only industrially realized technology for bio-oil
production (with a liquid yield of 50-70%) (Onay and Kockar, 2006; Maschio et al., 1992).
However, the oil product in fast pyrolysis (i.e., bio-oil) consists of a high content of water
(20-25%) and oxygen, and hence a low heating value (<20 MJ/kg, about only half of that of
crude oil), and the oil is highly corrosive due to its low pH value, as given in Table 2.
Without further upgrading, the pyrolysis oil is not regarded as an ideal liquid fuel for heat and
power generation. The main purpose of liquefaction is to produce oil products of increased
H/C ratios and decreased O/C ratios, and hence a high caloric value relative to those present
in the feedstock. Liquefaction can be accomplished indirectly or directly. For indirect
liquefaction, biomass is converted into liquid products through first gasification to syngas
followed by catalytic conversion (Dry, 1999). Direct liquefaction of biomass feedstocks into
liquid oils has attracted more intensive interest, due to its simpler technical route and better
conversion economy and efficiency relative to the indirect liquefaction processes. In a typical
direct liquefaction process, biomass is converted to liquid products directly but through a
complex sequence of processes involving solvolysis, depolymerization, decarboxylation,
dehydration and hydrogenolysis/hydrogenation (when hydrogen is present in liquefaction).
Direct liquefaction is a low-temperature, high-pressure conversion in the liquid phase, usually
with a high hydrogen partial pressure and a catalyst to enhance the rate of reaction (Furness et
al., 2000). Yields of the products depend on temperature, residence time, initial biomass
concentration, catalysts and liquefaction atmosphere (inert, N2 or reducing, H2). The effects
on the liquefaction product yields were investigated.
Research on direct liquefaction has been widely performed in the 1980s for the purpose
of alternative energy production (Kranich, 1984; Beckman and Elliot, 1985; Boocock and
Sherman, 1985). For instance, in an early study on liquefaction of sewage sludge, conducted
by Kranich (1984), sewage sludges were converted to oils in a reaction medium of water or
oil at 295-450C with the presence of a reducing gas (hydrogen) and catalysts of Na2CO3,
NiCO3 and Na2MnO4. The organic conversion rates varied from 45% to 99% and the oil
yields were from 35% to 63% in the reaction medium of oil. However, the oil yields were
found very low with the water medium (usually less than 20%). Many successful studies on
direct liquefaction of biomass in organic solvents such as anthracene oil (Appel et al., 1996;
Crofcheck et al., 2005) and alcohols (Miller at al., 1999; Xu and Etcheverry, 2007) have been
reported. Hot compressed water and sub-/supercritical water (at temperatures of 200-400C)
are however more advantageous for being used as the solvent in biomass direct liquefaction in
that water is likely the most green and environmentally benign solvent. Extensive research
work has been conducted on direct liquefaction of biomass in sub- and near-critical water. A
pioneer work was reported by Appell et al. (1971), where a variety of lignocellulosic
materials were efficiently converted to oily products in water at around 350oC in the presence
of Co and Na2CO3 as the catalysts. Minowa et al. (1998a, b) obtained heavy oil (HO) (with
calorific values of around 30MJ/kg) at a yield of 21-36 wt% from a variety of biomass
feedstocks in water at 300oC and around 10 MPa with Na2CO3 as catalyst. Qu et al. (2003)
obtained liquid organic products at a total yield of 30-35% by direct liquefaction of
Cunninghamia lanceolata in water at 280-360oC for 10-30 min. It has also been demonstrated
by Suzuki et al. (1986) that the treatment of sewage sludge by direct liquefaction in water at
around 300oC could be a profitable alternative means for sludge disposal. However, the
feedstocks tested so far were mainly wood and municipal sewage sludge, and to the best of
200
the authors knowledge, other than the published work by Xu and Lancaster (2008), no work
has been reported on treatment of pulp/paper secondary sludge in hot-compressed water or
sub-/supercritical water. As a result, liquefaction as a treatment method is still in the research
stages but could potentially be an effective approach to recover energy from the secondary
sludge waste for production of liquid oil products.
Xu and Lancaster (2008) experimentally treated secondary pulp/paper sludge in hotcompressed or sub-/supercritical water at a temperature of 250-380oC in order to produce
liquid oils for energy recovery from the secondary pulp/paper sludge. An outline of a direct
liquefaction process for the treatment of sludge is pictured in Figure 6, where sludge is fed
into a pressure reactor where liquid products are primarily produced and gas products are
collected. Liquid products are a mixture of water-soluble oil (WSO) and heavy oils (HO) and
solid residue or char. Filtration is performed on the liquid product mixture in order to separate
the liquid oil products from the solid residue, char.
Figure 6. Outline of the direct liquefaction process (adapted from Xu and Lancaster, 2008)
The effects of liquefaction temperature, residence time, initial biomass concentration,

catalysts and liquefaction atmosphere (inert, N2 or reducing, H2) on the liquefaction product
yields were investigated. Treatments of secondary pulp/paper sludge in water at 250-380C
for 15-120 min in the presence of N2 atmosphere resulted in yields of water soluble oils
(WSOs) at 20 wt% - 45 wt% and yields of heavy oils (HOs) at 15 wt% 25 wt%, with HHVs
of 10-15 MJ/kg and >35 MJ/kg, respectively. For temperatures lower than 350oC, as
temperature increased the yield of heavy oil (HO) increased at the expense of the watersoluble oil (WSO) formation, while as temperature increased further to above 350oC, the
yield of HO decreased, accompanied by an increase in the yield of WSO. An increased
residence time produced a greater yield of HO (reaching as high as 25wt% for 120min) but a
lower yield of water-soluble and a reduced yield of total oil. A higher initial biomass
201
concentration produced a greater yield of HO but a reduced yield of WSO, while resulting in
negligible change in the formation of total oil products. The presence of 0.1M K2CO3
dramatically enhanced organic conversion leading to a low yield of char, while the use of the
K2CO3 suppressed the formation of both types of oils. The use of the two alkaline earth
metals catalysts, i.e., Ca(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2, did not alter biomass conversion significantly,
but catalyzed the formation of WSO and produced much higher yields of total oil products.
The liquefaction atmosphere (inert or reducing) was found to be another important factor
influencing the liquefaction process. As shown in Figure 7, it was demonstrated that the
reducing atmosphere (i.e., H2) in the liquefaction process promoted the HO formation while
suppressing the WSO formation. With the presence of 0.1M Ca(OH)2 and 2MPa H2,
liquefaction of the sludge powder in water at 280oC for 60 min produced a high yield of HO
(26 wt%), almost two times as high as that in N2 (13.6 wt%), and it produced total oily
products (HO+WSO) at a yield as high as 60 wt%.
6.2
22.0
34.2
26.0
Ca(OH)2
Liquefaction in H2
4.8
21.5
51.4
13.6
Ca(OH)2
7.3
20.6
35.6
21.0
None
Liquefaction in N2
21.3
36.9
20.3
None
20
280oC, 60 min
9.1 wt% biomass
Initial gas pressure: 2 MPa
40
60
5.7
80
100
Yield (wt%, daf)

HO
WSO
Char
Gas
Figure 7. Variation in the product yields with different liquefaction atmospheres (N2 and H2) (adapted
from Xu and Lancaster, 2008).
In Xu and Lancasters (2008) work, the energy output/input ratios, calculated based on
Eq. (1), were all <1.0, suggesting that the liquefaction operation tested, in a batch reactor, was
energy inefficient. However, the energy efficiency can be improved by employing a flow-type
reactor and installing a heat exchanger to pre-heat the reactor feed stream using the hot
product stream as well as by combusting the resulting chars/gases to provide a portion of the
heat for the process. Liquefaction of sludge in H2, irrespective as to whether a catalyst was
present or not, resulted in significantly improved net energy efficiencies. However, the
operation in H2 with the presence of Ca(OH)2 catalyst dramatically enhanced the efficiency to
as high as 0.76.
202
2.5. Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO)

Supercritical Water Oxidation, SCWO, also referred to as hydrothermal oxidation, is a
process that oxidizes organic solutes in an aqueous medium using oxygen/air or hydrogen
peroxide as oxidants, at temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water, i.e.,
374oC and 22MPa, respectively (Bermejo et al., 2006). The SCWO process has been under
development since the early 1980s when the well known process of wet oxidation was
developed at MIT (Modell, 1982). SCW is a superior reaction medium with a high diffusivity,
a low viscosity, and relatively high-density therefore rapid oxidation reactions are expected.
Moreover, the low temperature of the SCWO process in comparison to conventional
combustion can lead to a greatly reduced NOx and SO2 formation. In addition, water is not
only the reaction medium but it participates directly in the reaction through the formation of
free radicals (Griffith and Raymond, 2002). Since water is utilized in the reaction there is no
requirement to dewater the sludge before processing. Sludge can be processed at 10% solids
by weight or even less (Mahmood and Elliott, 2006).
Figure 8 outlines a schematic of a SCWO process. Pressurized sludge (25.5MPa) and
pressurized oxygen are fed into the preheater reactor at 25 degrees Celsius. In the preheater
the mixture of sludge and oxygen are heated up to approximately 300 to 400oC, to achieve the
supercritical state of water. Water at its supercritical state can dissolve organics and hydrolyze
even polymers and hence prevent the formation of char (Perry and Green 1999; Fang and
Koziski, 2000; Mahmood and Elliot, 2006). The reaction mixture enters the main reactor
where the remaining portion of the organics is oxidized in short hydraulic residence time of 510 min at the maximum process temperature of around 600oC (Mahmood and Elliott, 2006).
After reaction, the effluent is cooled and energy is recovered. According to Svanstrom et al.
(2004), about half of the heating value of the sludge can be recovered in the studied process.
The solid and liquid products are separated and the wet inorganic solids can be sent to a
landfill or spread on dedicated land while the water can be redirected to the wastewater
treatment plant.
Figure 8. Schematic of a SCWO system (modified from Mahmood and Elliott, 2006).
203
The effectiveness of SCWO has been demonstrated at the laboratory and pilot scale with
a wide broad range of feedsctocks, such as pig manure (Rulkenes et al., 1989), a variety of
biomass slurries including pulp mill sludge (Modell, 1990), and sewage sludge (General
Atomics, 1997). It has been demonstrated that complete oxidation of virtually any organic
material, including hazardous wastes such as hexachlorobenzene, could be achieved by
SCWO. A supercritical water oxidation sludge processing plant has been installed at
Harlingen, Texas to process up to 9.8 dry tonnes per day of municipal sludge (Griffith and
Raymond, 2002). An environmental assessment was conducted on the Harlingen plant and
found large environmental gains from recovery of heat thereby reducing natural gas
consumption for heat generation (Svanstrm et al., 2004). Hydrothermal oxidation, in
particular SCWO, is currently being considered by various research and waste management
organizations as an alternative treatment option (Stark et al., 2006).
2.6. Anaerobic Digestion

Since a large number of the enteric bacteria and viral pathogens presented in untreated
sewage are associated with wastewater solids, many are not completely removed during
sewage treatment processes and are merely transferred to wastewater sludge (Farrah and
Bitton, 1983). Anaerobic digestion processes are widely recognized as particularly suitable
for highly polluted wastewater treatment and for the stabilization of primary and secondary
sludges. Anaerobic digestion occurs in the absence of oxygen while in the presence of
bacterial activity, producing bio-gas (mainly methane). The methane gas produced can be
used to generate power by fueling a biogas engine connected to an electric generator. The
digested and separated solids can undergo further processing and potentially be used as a
fertilizer or soil conditioner for land application (Kumar, 2000; Gavala et al., 2003), while the
treated water may be used for irrigation (Kumar, 2000). Anaerobic digestion of municipal or
pulp/paper bio-solids could reduce solid wastes by 30-70% with the benefit of energy
recovery through methane production. Generally about half of the organic matter in sludge is
susceptible to anaerobic biodegradation into the formation of biogas (Elliot and Mahmood,
2007).
The microbiology of anaerobic digestion is complicated and involves several bacterial
groups forming a complex interdependent food web. However, four major steps can be
distinguished. In the first hydrolysis step, both solubilization of insoluble particulate matter
and biological decomposition of organic polymers to monomer or dimmers take place.
Acidogensis and acetogenesis follow in the second and third step while in the fourth and final
step methane is produced by menthanogenic archaea (Gavala et al., 2003). Figure 9 outlines a
flow diagram of anaerobic digestion of secondary sewage sludge for energy production.
Secondary sludge is fed into the hydrolysis tank. In conventional single-stage anaerobic
digestion processes, hydrolysis is regarded as the rate-limiting step in the degradation of
complex organic compounds, such as sewage sludge. Two-stage systems have been proposed
to enhance this process (Pons et al., 2008). The first stage digests the solids, and the second
stage separates the undigested solids from the liquid to form carbon dioxide, methane and
water. There are two typical operating temperatures for anaerobic digesters determined by the
desired species of methanogens. For mesophilic processes, the optimum operating
temperature is 37oC, while 55oC is desirable for thermophilic processes (Song et al., 2004).
204
Thermophilic anaerobic digestion is generally more efficient in terms of organic matter

removal and methane production than the mesophilic process (Gavala, H.N. et al., 2003).
Figure 9 . Flow diagram of anaerobic digestion for power generation (modified from Kumar, 2000)
Telles et al. (2002) evaluated the performance of a slow rate anaerobic digester in treating
secondary sewage sludge. The digester was fed by secondary sewage sludge without any
previous thickening, having a concentration of volatile suspended solids (VSS) of 24-29 gL-1.
The operation of anaerobic digestion at room temperature was stable, with no noticeable scum
or foaming problems. The COD reduction in these experiments reached 29, 21 and 45% in the
sludge. Anaerobic digestion of Kraft waste activated sludge (or secondary sludge) was tested
with a pilot-scale digester for sludge reduction and biogas production (Puhakka et al., 1992).
With sludge containing 38% lignin, 40% reduction of the sludge and a biogas production of
0.5 m3-biogas/kg sludge removed were achieved. In these tests, 13 g NaOH/kg sludge was
added to maintain the optimum pH in the system for the maximum sludge reduction
efficiency. Fein et al. (1989) reported that the anaerobic digestion process for the treatment of
Kraft mill primary sludge could be significantly more economical than the conventional
landfilling. Stahl et al. (2004) also reported a pilot trial using anaerobic digestion to pre-treat
wastewater and to digest untreated paper mill effluent, which resulted in a much lower
amount of organics entering the activated sludge system, thus substantially reducing the
quantity of the secondary sludge from the aerobic treatment operation. Anaerobic digestion
has been widely adopted for the treatment of municipal sewage sludge before final disposal
205
and it is employed worldwide as the oldest and most important process for sewage sludge
stabilization and treatment (Pons et al., 2008). While anaerobic digestion is commonly
practiced in the municipal sector, it has not gained popularity in the pulp and paper industry
mainly because of its long sludge residence time requirement of 20-30 days (Elliot and
Mahmood, 2007). There is currently no full-scale anaerobic digestion facility in the pulp and
paper sector for the digestion of solid residues. Nevertheless, there is recent technological
advancement that potentially can make anaerobic digestion of pulp/paper sludge more
feasible by the development and establishment of pretreatment of sludge prior to anaerobic
digestion to accelerate the hydrolysis of sludge.
3. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON OF TREATMENT METHODS

The operating conditions (temperature, pressure, atmosphere and products, etc.) vary
among the methods discussed in the preceding sections, as summarized in Table 4. For
example, incineration, gasification and SCWO methods utilize air or oxygen while the
remaining methods are conducted under oxygen depleted or anaerobic conditions. Some
direct liquefaction processes employ hydrogen gas to obtain better product yields and results.
Incineration, pyrolysis and gasification operate at high temperatures, while these methods
differ in the objective products. Incineration aims to produce heat and steam/electricity,
pyrolysis targets a high yield of oil, and gasification favors production of gas.
Table 4. Summary of Comparison of Secondary Sludge Treatment Methods
Comparison
Parameter
Preheating/
Drying
required
Incinerat
ion
Pyrolysis
Gasification
Direct
Liquefaction
SCWO
Anaerobic
Digestion
No
Yes
(25% solids,
~150oC)
Yes
No
No
No
Operating
Temp (oC)
850-950
400-800
800-1400
250-400
400600
37 (Mesophilic)
55
(Thermophilic)
Operating
Pressure
Ambient
Ambient or
slightly above
Ambient
4-20 MPa
22 MPa
Ambient
Operating
atmosphere
Air
Oxygen
depleted
Air or
oxygen
H2
reducing
N2 - inert
Air or
oxygen
Anaerobic
Primary
Energy
Products
Steam
Oil, Gas and

Char
Syngas
Oil, Gas and

Char
Gas
Biogas,
Methane
The greatest sludge volume reduction (over 90%) can be achieved with the hightemperature methods including incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, which is
advantageous as it effectively reduces the physical amount of sludge for disposal. The major
disadvantage for these high-temperature processes is their lower net energy efficiency for the
treatment of secondary sludge containing very high content of water (98-99%), resulting from
the need of the energy intensive operations of dewatering/thickening and complete
evaporation of the water in the sludge.
206
Other main problems concerning these high-temperature thermal processes include

excessive energy to reach high temperatures, need for extensive air pollution equipment and,
therefore, high capital costs (Monte et al., 2008). In contrast, the other three treatment
methods, i.e., direct liquefaction, SCWO and anaerobic digestion, operate at a relatively lower
temperature and more importantly without the need of dewatering /thickening and complete
evaporation of the water in the sludge. As a matter of fact, for SCWO and direct liquefaction
methods, the water in the sludge is the reaction medium and participates directly in the
reaction through the formation of free radicals (Griffith and Raymond, 2002). Accordingly,
these methods are more promising for the treatment of secondary sludge from the standpoint
of energy recovery. A comparison of advantages and disadvantages of different treatment
methods are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Advantages and disadvantages of sludge treatment methods
(Kumar, 2000; Furness et al., 2000; Karayildirim et al.,2006; Bermejo et al., 2006;
Mahmood and Elliot, 2006;Monte et al., 2008)
Treatment
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Incineration
- High reduction of sludge volume by about

90%
- Nearly complete elimination of the organic
materials
- Possible utilization for the ashes obtained
- Incineration process can be energy deficient

- Air pollution problems (NOx and SO2
emissions)
- Dewatering/thickening of the sludge is
required
- Emission of chlorinated compounds
- High cost due to the increasing demand on
the flue gas cleaning
Pyrolysis
- Non-burning process
- Production of a mixture of gaseous and
liquid fuels and a solid inert residue
- Conversion of all sludge biomass fraction
into useful energy
- Volume reduction by as much as 90% and
production of a sterile carbon char
- Dewatering/thickening of the sludge is

required.
- Less technical maturity for its application to
paper/pulp sludges
Gasification
- Higher efficiency of energy recovery

- Reduced environmental emissions
- Ability to handle most inorganic compounds
found in sludge
- Production of an inert solid waste
- Dewatering and drying of sludge is needed

- Not commercially developed for pulp and
paper sludge treatment
- Complexity of technology
Direct
Liquefaction
- Reaction occurs in aqueous phase, so that no

dewatering, thickening and drying of the
feedstock is required
- Production of a mixture of high calorific
value liquid fuels
- Conversion of all sludge biomass fraction
into useful energy
- Not commercially developed
Supercritical
Water Oxidation
- Easily controlled by operator

- Reaction medium is water, so no
dewatering/drying required
- High organic carbon destruction efficiencies
- Corrosion and salt deposition in the

equipment which accelerates the
deterioration of the reactor
Anaerobic
Digestion
- High energy recovery efficiency

- Low operating temperature
- No dewatering/drying required
- Slow process, long residence times

- Cannot accept shock loading and excessive
foaming is often a problem
207
4. CONCLUSIONS
Unlike primary sludge, secondary sludge as a byproduct of biological treatment is far
more difficult to dewater and to be disposed. Secondary sludge waste management issues are
a big challenge especially with the implementation of more stringent environmental
legislation. Typical post-treatment methods for secondary sludges include incineration,
pyrolysis, gasification, direct liquefaction, super critical water oxidation and anaerobic
digestion. The operating conditions (temperature, pressure, atmosphere and products, etc.)
vary among the methods. For example, incineration, gasification and SCWO methods utilize
air or oxygen while the remaining methods are conducted under oxygen depleted or anaerobic
conditions. Incineration, pyrolysis and gasification operate at high temperatures, while these
methods differ in the objective products. Incineration aims to produce heat and
steam/electricity, pyrolysis targets a high yield of oil, and gasification favors production of
gas. The greatest sludge volume reduction (over 90%) can be achieved with the hightemperature methods including incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, which is
advantageous as it effectively reduces the physical amount of sludge for disposal. The major
disadvantage for these high-temperature processes is their lower net energy efficiency for the
treatment of secondary sludge containing very high content of water (98-99%), resulting from
the need of the energy intensive operations of dewatering/thickening and complete
evaporation of the water in the sludge. In contrast, the other three treatment methods, i.e.,
direct liquefaction, SCWO and anaerobic digestion, operate at a relatively lower temperature
and more importantly without the need of dewatering /thickening and complete evaporation
of the water in the sludge. Accordingly, these methods are more promising for the treatment
of secondary sludge from the standpoint of energy recovery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Part of this work was financially supported by the Natural Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through the Discovery Grant awarded to Dr. Charles
XU.
REFERENCES
Agblevor, F. A., Besler, S. & Wiselogel, A. E. (1995). Fast pyrolysis of stored biomass
feedstocks. Energy & Fuels, 9, 635-640
Akiya, N. & Savage, P. E. (2002). Roles of water for chemical reactions in high-temperature
water. Chem. Rev., 120, 2725-2750.
Appell, H. R., Fu, Y. C., Friedman, S., Yavorsky, P. M. & Wender, I. (1971). Converting
organic waste to oil. Us bureau of Mines, report of Investigation No. 7560.
Appel, H. R., Wender, I. & Miller, R. D. (1996). Conversion of urban refuse to oil. US
Bureau of Mines, Technical Progress Report, No. 25
Baumgartel, G. (1993). The Siemens thermal waste recycling process a modern technology
for converting waste into useable products. J.Anal. & App. Pyrolysis 27, 15.
208
Bermejo, M. D., Fdez-Polanco, F. & Cocero, M. J. (2006). Experimental study of the

operational parameters of a transpiring wall reactor for supercritical water oxidation. The
Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 39, 70-79.
Beckman, D. & Elliot, D. C. (1985). Comparisons of yields and properties of the oil products
from direct thermochemical biomass liquefaction processes. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 63(2),
99-104.
Boocock, D. G. B. & Sherman, K. M. (1985). Further aspects of powdered poplar wood
liquefaction by aqueous pyrolysis. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 63 (8), 627-633.
Brandt, P. & Larsen, E. (2000). High tar reduction in a two-stage gasifier. Energy & Fuels,
14, 816-819.
Bridle, T.R., Hertle, C. K., 1988. Oil from sludge: a cost-effective sludge management
system. Water, Aug., p32.
Buberoglu, B. & Duguay, L. (2004). Biosolids management program. Twentieth Conference
of Canadian Association on Water Quality, Ottawa.
Canales, A., Pareilleux, R. J. L., Goma, G. & Huyard, A. (1994). Decreased sludge
production strategy for domestic waste-water treatment. Water Science Technology, 30
(8), 97-106.
Carre, J., Lacrosse, L., Schenkel, Y. & Rurihose, F. (1989). Biomassfuels and gasification. In
Pyrolysis and Gasification (G. L. Ferrero, K. Maniatis, A. Buekens, & A. V. Bridgwater,
Eds.) Elsevier, London. p83.
Czernik, S. & Bridgewater, A. V. (2004). Overview of applications of biomass fast pyrolysis
oil. Energy Fuels, 18 (2) 590 -598
Confederation of European Paper Industry, (2004). Discovering the high potential of pulp and
paper production residues.
Crofcheck, C., Montross, M. D., Berkovich, A. & Andrews, R. (2005). The effect of
temperature on the mild solvent extraction of white and red oak. Biomass and Bioenergy,
28, 572-578.
Dayton, D. (2002). A review of the literature on catalytic biomass tar destruction-milestone
completion report, NREL/TP-510-32815
Dinkel, P. W., Watt, D. H., Wetherold, R.G. & Williams, P.N. (1991). The gasification of
municipal sewage sludge at a proposed California power plant. In Proc. of Joint
Residuals Management Conf. A WWA/WPCF, Durham, NC, USA, Aug. 1991.
Dry, M. E. (1999). Fischer-Tropsch reactions and the environment. Appl. Catal. A Gen. 189,
185-190.
Elliott, A. & Mahmood, T. (2007). Pretreatment technologies for advancing anaerobic
digestion of pulp and paper biotreatment residues. Water Research, 41, 4273-4286.
Fang, Z. & Koziski, J. A. (2000). Phase Behavior and Combustion of HydrocarbonContaminated Sludge in Supercritical Water at Pressure up to 822Mpa and Temperatures
up to 535oC. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 28, 2717-2725.
Fein, J. E., Patel, G. B. & Cook, C. R. (1989). Anaerobic digestion of Kraft mill primary
sludge. TAPPI Environmental Conference Proceedings, Orlando. Pp. 143-148.
Furness, D. T., Hoggett, L. A. & Judd, S. J. (2000). Thermochemical Treatment of Sewage
Sludge. J. CIWEM 14 57-65.
Fytili, D. & Zabaniotou, A. (2008). Utilization of sewage sludge in EU application of old and
new methods A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12, 116-140.
209
Gasc, G., Blanco, C. G., Guerrero, F. & Mndez Lzaro, A. M. (2005). The influence of
organic matter on sewage sludge pyrolysis. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis.
74, 413-420.
Gavala, H. N., Yenal, U., Skiadas, V., Westermann, P. & Ahring, B. K. (2003). Mesophilic
and thermophilic anaerobic digestion of primary and secondary sludge. Effect of pretreatment at elevated temperature. Water Research, 37, 4561-4572.
General Atomics, (1997). Sewage sludge gasification in supercritical water. Final report, US
DOE Cooperative Agreement, No. DE-FC36-97GO10216.
Griffith, J. W. & Raymond, D. H. (2002). The first commercial supercritical water oxidation
sludge processing plant. Waste Management, 22, 453-459.
Hamilton, C. J. (1998). Gasification as an innovative means of sewage sludge disposal.
In Treatment lnnovation for the Next Century: lnnovation 2000, Cambridge,
July 1998.
Hao, X., Guo, L., Zhang, X. & Guan, Y. (2005). Hydrogen production from catalytic
gasification of cellulose in supercritical water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 110, 57-65.
Holgate, H. R., Meyer, J. C. & Tester, J. W. (1995). Glucose hydrolysis and oxidation in
supercritical water. AIChE J. 41, 637-647.
Jakab, E., Liu, K. & Meuzelaar, H. L. C. (1997). Thermal decomposition of wood and
cellulose in the presence of solvent vapours. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36, 2087.
Joyce, T. W., Webb, A. A. & Dugal, H. S. (1979). Quality and composition of pulp and paper
mill primary sludge. Resource Recovery Conserv., 4, 99-103.
IEA Bioenergy Executive Committee. (2007). Potential Contribution of Bioenergy to the
Worlds Future Energy Demand, IEA Bioenergy, Paris, France
Izumizaki, Ya., Chul Park, K., Tachibana, Y., Tomiyasu, H. & Fujii, Y. (2005). Organic
Decomposition in Supercritical Water by an aid of Ruthenium (IV) Oxide as a Catalyst
Exploitation of Biomass Resources for Hydrogen Production. Progress in Nuclear
Energy, 47, 544-552.
Karayildirim, T., Yanik, J., Yuksel, M. & Bockhorn, H. (2006). Characterisation of products
from pyrolysis of waste sludges. Fuel, 85, 1498-1508.
Khalili, N. R., Campbell, M., Sandi, G. & Gola, J. (2000). Production of micro- and
mesoporous activated carbon from paper mill sludge I. Effect of zince chloride activation.
Carbon, 38, 1905-1915.
Kim, Y. & Parker, W. (2008). A technical and economic evaluation of the pyrolysis of
sewage sludge for the production of bio-oil. Bioresource Technology, 99, 1409-1416.
Kimura, T., Miyazawa, T., Nishikawa, J., Kato, S., Okumura, K., Miyao, T., Naito, S.,
Kunimori, K. & Tomishige, K. (2006). Development of Ni catalysts for tar removal by
stream gasification of biomass. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 68,
160-170.
Kistler, R. C. & Widmer, F. (1987). Behaviour of chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium,
mercury and lead during the pyrolysis of sewage sludge. Envis Sci. & Technol., 21, 704.
Kranich, W. L. (1984). Conversion of sewage sludge to oil by hydroliquefaction. EPA-600/284-010. Report for the U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH.
Kumar, S. (2000). Technology options for municipal solid waste-to-energy project. TERI
Information Monitor on Environmental Science, 5, 1-11.
Lange, J. P. (2007). Lignocellulose conversion: an introduction to chemistry, process and
economics. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 1, 39-48.
210
Lewis, M. F. (1975). Sludge pyrolysis for energy recovery and pollution control. In Proc. Nat.
Conf. on Municipal Sludge Management and Dispffsai. Anaheim, California, USA. Aug.,
p146
Liaw, C., Chang, H., Hsu, W. & Huang, C. (1998). A novel method to reuse paper sludge and
co-generation ashes from paper mill. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 58,
93-102.
Loatva-Somppi, J., Moisio, M., Kauppinen, E., Valmari, T., Ahonen, P., Tapper, U. &
Keskinen, J. (1998). Ash formation during fluidized-bed incineration of paper mill waste
sludge. J. Aerosol Sci., 29, 461-480.
Lomax, D., Commandeur, J. M., Arisz, P. W. & Boon, J. J. (1991). Characterization of
oligomers and sugar ring-cleavage products in the pyrolysate of cellulose. J Anal Appl
Pyrolysis, 19, 65-79.
Mahmood, T. & Elliott, A. (2006). A review of secondary sludge reduction technologies for
the pulp and paper industry. Water Research, 40, 2093-2112.
Maschio, G., Koufopanos, C. & Lucchesi, A. (1992). Pyrolysis: a promising route for
biomass utilization. Bioresource Technology, 42, 219-231.
Miller, J. E., Evans. L., Littlewolf. A. & Trudell. D. E. (1999). Bath microreactor studies of
lignin and lignin model compound depolymerization by bases in alcohol solvents. Fuel,
78, 1363-1366.
Minowa, T., Kondo, T. & Sudirjo, S. T. (1998). Thermochemical liquefaction of Indonesai
biomass residues. Biomass Bioenergy, 14, 517-524.
Modell, M. (1982). Processing methods for the oxidation of organics in supercritical water
oxidation. US Patent No. 4,338,199.
Modell, M. (1990). Treatment of pulp mill sludges by supercritical water oxidation. Paper No.
DOE/CE/40914-T1.
Mohan, D., Pittman, C. U. & Steele, P. H. (2006). Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a
critical review. Energy & Fuels, 20, 848-889.
Monowa, T., Zhen, F. & Ogi, T. (1998b). Cellulose decomposition in hot-compressed water
with alkali or nickel catalyst. J. Supercrit. Fluid, 13, 253-259.
Monte, M. C., Fuente, E., Blanco, A. & Negro, C. (2008). Waste managment from pulp and
paper production in the European Union. Waste Management doi:10.1016/j.
wasman.2008.02.002. (article in press)
Nunes, S. M., Paterson, N., Dugwell, D. R. & Kandiyoti, R. (2007). Tar formation and
destruction in a simulated downdraft fixed-bed gasifier: Reactor design and initial results.
Energy & Fuels, 21, 3028-3035.
Rato Nunes, J., Cabral, F. & Lpez-Pieiro, A. (2008). Short-term effects on soil properties
and wheat production from secondary paper sludge application on two Mediterranean
agricultural soils. Bioresource Technology, 99, 4935-4942.
Ohtsuka Y., Xu C., Kong D. & Tsubouchi N. (2004). Decomposition of ammonia with iron
and calcium catalysts supported on coal chars. Fuel, 83(6), 685-692.
Olexseyr, A. (1975). Pyrolysis of sewage sludge. In Proc. Nat. Conf. On Municipal Sludge
Management and Disposal. Anaheim, California, USA. Aug.. p139.
Onay, O. & Kockar, O. M. (2006). Pyrolysis of rapeseed in a free fall reactor for production
of bio-oil. Fuel, 85, 1921-1928.
Oral, J., Stehlik, P., Sikula, J., Puchyr, R., Hajny, Z. & Martinak, P. (2005a). Energy
utilization from industrial sludge processing. Energy, 30, 1343-1352.
211
Oral, J., Sikula, J., Puchyr, R., Hajny, Z., Stehlik, P. & Bebar, L. (2005b). Processing of waste
from pulp and paper plant. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, 509-515.
Pons, S., Ferrer, I., Vzquez, F. & Font, X. (2008). Optimization of the hydrolyticacidogenic anaerobic digestion stage (55oC) of sewage sludge: Influence of pH and solid
content. Water Research, 42, 3972-3980.
Perry, R., Green, D., 1999. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th Edition. McGraw
Hill, 23-34.
Ptasinski, K. J., Prins, M. J. & Pierik, A. (2007). Exergetic evaluation of biomass gasification.
Energy, 32, 568-574.
Puhakka, J. A., Alavakeri, M. & Shieh, W. K. (1992). Anaerobic treatment of Kraft pulp-mill
waste activated sludge: gas production and solid reduction. Bioresource Technol., 39, 6168.
Qu, Y., Wei, X. & Zhong, C. (2003). Experimental study on the direct liquefaction of
Canninghamia lanceolata in water. Energy, 28, 597-606.
Ramalho, R. S. (1983). Introduction to wastewater treatment processes. 2nd ed. Academic
Press, California, ISBN 0-12-576560-6.
Rampling, T. W. A. & Gill, P. J. (1993). Fundamental Research on the Thermal Treatment of
Wastes and Biomass: Thermal Treatment Characteristics of Biomass. Harwell
Laboratory, Energy Technology Support Unit.
Rezaiyan, J. & Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2005). Gasification technologies- a primer for engineers
and scientists. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Groups, Boca Raton, FL.
Reid, I. (1998). Solid residues generation and management at Canadian pulp and paper mills
in 1999 and 1995. Pulp Paper Can. 99 (4), 49-53.
Rulkenes, W. H. (1989). Feasibility study of wet oxidation processes for treatment of six
selected waste streams. Dutch Rijkswaterstaat Report No. DBW/RIZA 89-079.
Shinogi, Y., Yoshida, H., Koizumai, T., Yamaoka, M. & Saito, T. (2003). Basic
characteristics of low-temperature carbon products from waste sludge. Advances in
Environmental Research, 7, 661-665.
Song, Y. C., Kwon, S. J. & Woo, J. H. (2004). Mesophilic and thermophilic temperature cophase anaerobic digestion compared with single-stage mesophilic- and thermophilic
digestion of sewage sludge. Water Research, 38, 1653-1662.
Stahl, N., Tenenbaum, A. & Hebets, I. (2004). American-Israel paper mills benefits from pretreatment with an anaerobic reacor to improve to improve the activated sludge plant
performance. Pulp Pap. Inc. 46, 29-32.
Stark, K., Plaza, E. & Hultmank, B., 2006. Phosphorus release from ash, dried sludge and
sludge residue from supercritical water oxidation by acid or base. Chemosphere, 62, 827832.
Suzuki, A., Yokoyama, S., Murakami, M., Ogi, T. & Koguchi, K. (1986). New treatment of
sewage sludge by direct thermochemical liquefaction. Chem. Lett. CMLTAG, 9, 14251428.
Svanstrm, M., Frling, M., Modell, M., Peters, W. A. & Tester, J. (2004). Environmental
assessment of supercritical water oxidation of sewage sludge. Resources Conservation
and Recycling, 41, 321-338.
Telles, C., Tavares, C. R.G., Prado, D. F. B. & da Luz Ribeiro, M. M. (2002). Operation of a
slow rate anaerobic digester treating municipal secondary sludge, Electronic Journal of
Biotechnology, 5, 216-227.
212
Thompson, G., Swain, J., Kay, M. & Forster, C. F. (2001). The treatment of pulp and paper
mill effluent: a review. Bioresource Technology, 77, 275-286.
Tsai, W. T., Lee, M. K. & Chang, Y. M. (2007). Fast pyrolysis of rice husk: Product yields
and compositions. Bioresource Technology, 98, 22-28.
Vandecasteele, C., Wauters, G., Arickx, S., Jaspers, M. & Van Gerven, T. (2007). Integrated
municipal solid waste treatment using a grate furnace incinerator: The Indaver case.
Waste Management, 27, 1366-1375.
Vitolo, S., Seggiani, M., Frediani, P., Ambrosini, G. & Politi, L. (1999). Catalytic upgrading
of pyrolytic oils to fuel over different zeolites. Fuel, 78, 1147-1159.
Williams, R. T. & Onwudili, J. (2006). Subcritical and supercritical water gasification of
cellulose, starch, glucose, and biomass waste. Energy & Fuels, 20, 1259-1265.
Winkler, M. (1993). Sewage sludge treatments. Chemistry & Industry, April 1993,
p. 237-240.
Xu, C., Tsubouchi, N. & Ohtsuka, Y. (2005). Catalytic decomposition of ammonia with metal
cations present naturally in low rank coals. Fuel, 84 (8-10), 1957-1967.
Xu, C. & Etcheverry, T. (2008). Effect of iron-based catalysts on hydro-liquefaction of
woody biomass in supercritical ethanol. Fuel, 87, 335-345.
Xu, C. & Lancaster, J., 2008. Conversion of secondary pulp/paper sludge powder to liquid oil
products for energy recovery by direct liquefaction in hot-compressed water. Water
Research, 42, 1571-1582.
Xu, X. & Antal, M. J. (1998). Gasification of sewage sludge and other biomass for hydrogen
production in supercritical water. Environmental Progress, 17, 215-220.
Yoshida, T., Oshima, Y. & Matsumura, Y. (2004). Gasification of biomass model compounds
and real biomass in supercritical water. Biomass and Bioenergy, 26, 71-78.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 6
ENERGY RECOVERY FROM WASTE: COMPARISON

OF DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGY COMBINATIONS
1
Lidia Lombardi and 2Andrea Corti
Universit degli Studi di Firenze, Via Santa Marta, 3, 50139 Firenze Italy,
Dipartimento di Ingegneria dellInformazione, Universit degli Studi di Siena,
Via Roma Siena Italy.
ABSTRACT
Energy recovery from waste can follow several routes. The most common one is
waste direct combustion associated with conventional energy recovery in a steam turbine
cycle. The combustion can be applied directly to Municipal Solid Waste or can be
applied to a stream of selected waste obtained by means of mechanical sorting of
Municipal Solid Waste, using several technologies for the combustion, the most common
of which is mobile grate combustor.
Besides the direct combustion of waste, alternative possibilities for thermal treatment
are gasification and pyrolysis. These processes require being fed by a homogeneous
combustible fraction obtained by mechanical sorting and supply as output one or more
combustible streams, available for energy recovery.
When Municipal Solid Waste mechanical sorting is applied, besides the combustible
fraction stream, a humid fraction is also obtained, characterised by a high presence of
organic biodegradable fraction. At present the fate for this stream is biological aerobic
stabilisation, but another option, to push energy recovery also from this stream, is
biological anaerobic digestion, which can be applied through different technologies (wet
and dry digestion). Through this process a biogas with elevated content of methane can
be produced and supplied to engines for energy recovery.
The above-mentioned technologies can be combined in several schemes to optimise
the overall energy recovery. The combination of schemes will be analysed in this chapter
in reference to a study case characterised by an average waste material composition. The
comparison will be carried out using some indicators of the overall energy recovery for
each scheme.
214
INTRODUCTION
The thermal treatment of solid residues was introduced as the most suitable way to reduce
the mass (up to 7080% reduction) and the volume (up to 90% reduction) of waste and to
clear up their potential for putrefaction, with the connected sanitary risks (Tchobanoglous et
al.,1993).
Further, according with the growing awareness of conventional fuels availability
reduction and along with the increasing costs of traditional energy sources, the solid waste
thermal treatment collected attention also in reference to the possibility of associating, to the
simple disposal, the energy recovery process. Nowadays, the waste thermal treatment
represents an inescapable part of the integrated waste management and treatment system and
the challenge for the future lays in the improvement of energy recovery, keeping a high level
of plant reliability.
The term thermal treatment means a process which takes place at relatively high
temperatures involving several different chemical reactions evolving, in the case of waste,
from the compounds present in the solid mass.
Whether the oxygen is present or not it is possible to obtain different thermo-chemical
processes.
The most common thermo-chemical process applicable to solid materialsand hence
wasteis combustion (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). It takes place in a large excess of oxygen
with respect to the stoichiometric ratio, since the aim is the complete oxidation of organic
material made of mainly carbon and hydrogen. The combustion is an exothermic process, and
since its outputs are combustion gases and bottom ashesboth of which are completely
oxidised materialsthere is no energy content left.
When oxygen is added in sub stoichiometric ratio to solid materials, partial oxidation
reactions of the organic material take place, releasing thermal energy and heating up the
system. At increasing temperature, the bonds of long chain molecules of solid materials are
broken to obtain smaller molecules in gaseous form. Hence, the process outputs are a gaseous
stream (called the syngas), which still has an energy content, carried by partially oxidised
compounds and small hydrocarbons, and solid residues which may contain unreacted
compounds. Such a process is called gasification (Reed, 1981).
When the solid material undergoes a process that takes place at a relatively high
temperature and in complete absence of oxygen, this is called the pyrolysis (Bridgewater et
al., 1999). Such a process requires a heat supply from the external environment and its
outputs are in generalwith different yields depending mainly on the temperaturea
gaseous stream (called the syngas), a liquid stream (called the tar) and a solid stream (called
the char), with all three having combustible characteristics.
In this chapter the application of the above-mentioned thermo-chemical processes to
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), coupled with appropriate energy recovery systems, is
considered from a process analysis point of view, with the aim of comparing the energy
recovery potential in the different cases.
Of course, while combustion can be applied to MSW directly, gasification and pyrolysis
require a more homogeneous entering material, in terms of size, calorific value and
composition. In order to obtain an adequate stream from MSW to be fed to gasification and
pyrolysis, a pre-treatment, based on mechanical sorting of MSW, is applied with the aim of
Energy Recovery from Waste: Comparison of different Technology
215
removing humid and inert fractions and concentrating high energy content materialsas
plastic, wood and paperin a stream which is commonly called combustible fraction (CF) or
in some casesif some law requirements are complied withcan be addressed as Refuse
Derived Fuel (RDF).
When MSW mechanical sorting is applied, besides the combustible fraction stream, also a
humid fraction (HF) is obtained, characterised by a high presence of organic biodegradable
fraction. At present the most common fate for this stream is biological aerobic stabilisation, but
another option to push energy recovery also for this stream is biological anaerobic digestion,
which can be applied through different technologies (wet and dry digestion). Through this
process a biogas with elevated content of methane can be produced and supplied to engines for
energy recovery. It is worth noticing that the anaerobic digestion is not an alternative to the
aerobic biostabilisation, since an aerobic post-treatment for the anaerobic digestate is always
required, in order to reach high levels of stabilisation and sanitary risk avoidance.
According to the considerations above, the energy recovery potentials from MSW were
evaluated including not only the thermo-chemical processes but also their integration with
anaerobic digestion, considering for each process the appropriate entering stream.
The analysis is reported in reference to a study case in terms of MSW flow rate and
composition, as it will be illustrated in the next paragraph.
All the considered processes were analysed by means of thermodynamic and chemical
simulation using specific tools, illustrated in the following.
MSW Characteristics and Pre-treatment

In order to perform a comparison among the different possibilities for energy recovery
from MSW, a reference study case was assumed, characterised by the features reported in
table 1 in terms of MSW material composition, mass flow rate and low heating value (LHV).
With respect to this MSW composition a simplified mechanical sorting process was
considered, based on grinding, metals removal by magnetic separator and sieving (figure 1).
The process outputs are mainly a combustible fractionadequate for feeding a thermal
treatmentand a humid fraction, characterised by a large presence of organic fraction
appropriate to feed a biological process. The material composition, mass flow rate and LHV
of the output stream are reported in table 1.
Figure 1. Schematic of simplified mechanical sorting line.
216

Table 1. Material composition and mass flow rate for MSW,
combustible fraction and humid fraction.
Paper and cardboard

Organic fraction
Pruning scrap
Plastics
Metals
Wood
Glass
Textiles
Mass flow rate [kg/h]
LHV [kJ/kg]
MSW
15,53%
30,14%
8,74%
8,63%
7,07%
4,46%
8,44%
16,99%
Combustible fraction
Humid fraction
21,59%
19,84%
7,03%
11,99%
5,17%
5,22%
5,56%
23,61%
9.536
12.201
2,57%
54,85%
13,02%
1,43%
7,01%
2,95%
15,36%
2,81%
4.649
3.647
14.344
10.127
On the basis of the assumed elemental composition and moisture content for each single
material fraction (table 2), whose results are coherent with literature values (Tchobanoglous
et al., 1993), the overall elemental composition and moisture content of each waste stream
(MWS, combustible fraction, humid fraction), were determined and results are reported in
table 3.
The elemental composition for each waste stream is required in the chemical and
thermodynamic models used for the mathematical simulation of the analysed processes.
Table 2. Assumed elemental composition and moisture
content for each material fraction
Paper and cardboard

Organic fraction
Pruning scrap
Plastics
Metals
Wood
Glass
Textiles
Carbon
33,30%
16,80%
25,03%
66,98%
0,44%
39,60%
0,49%
35,64%
Hydrogen
3,30%
2,24%
4,79%
10,93%
0,53%
4,80%
0,10%
5,85%
Oxygen
30,68%
13,16%
11,06%
10,74%
3,78%
34,16%
0,39%
22,77%
Nitrogen
0,08%
0,91%
0,99%
0,86%
0,09%
0,16%
0,10%
5,04%
Sulphur
0,23%
0,14%
0,11%
0,86%
0,00%
0,08%
0,00%
0,63%
Inert
7,43%
1,75%
13,04%
4,66%
83,16%
1,20%
96,92%
20,07%
Moisture
25,00%
65,00%
45,00%
5,00%
12,00%
20,00%
2,00%
10,00%
Combustion with Energy Recovery

The most common route followed to realise energy recovery from waste is their direct
combustion associated with conventional energy recovery in a steam cycle. This is
conventionally addressed as a Waste-to-Energy (WtE) process. The WtE can be applied
directly to MSW or can be applied to the combustible fraction obtained by means of
mechanical sorting.
217
Table 3. Calculated elemental composition and moisture content

of the considered waste streams
MSW
Humid fraction
16,56%
Carbon
26,10%
30,84%
Hydrogen
1,76%
2,14%
2,45%
Oxygen
0,00%
0,00%
11,57%
Nitrogen
1,32%
1,58%
0,81%
Sulphur
0,27%
0,34%
0,13%
Inert
20,74%
17,91%
24,23%
Moisture
49,81%
47,91%
44,24%
MSW direct combustion could be of particular interest when a well developed separate
collection system is applied. This means that the waste fractions that can be recovered are
separated up-stream of the waste collection, and the remaining non differentiated residual
MSW are characterised by relatively high low heating values (since the humid fraction and
inert fractions are preliminarily eliminated).
The simulation of the WtE process was carried out using an in-house developed
mathematical code, using the Engineering Equation Solver software (F-Chart Software). The
code requires as input the mass flow rate of waste, its elemental composition, the combustion
temperature, the steam cycle maximum pressure, maximum temperature and condenser
pressure, the temperature levels in the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and the
estimation of the internal consumption in term of percentage of the produced gross power.
The code calculates the energy and mass balance in the combustion chamber and the
volumetric percentage of oxygen in the combustion gases, estimates the thermal energy
losses, the bottom and fly ash production, and evaluates the steam production in the HRSG,
the steam turbine power output, the net power production and the net efficiency.
The main operating parameters assumed for the simulations are reported in table 4. The
WtE process was simulated for both MSW and combustible fraction, considering as input the
mass flow rates, previously reported in table 1, and elemental compositions, previously
reported in table 3.
Figure 2 shows the simplified schematic of the considered WtE process. The recovery of
the heat released in the combustion is assumed to start within the combustion chamber itself,
placing evaporator pipes in the wall of the combustion and post-combustion zone. This
integrated boiler in the combustion zone represents the most recent technology for WtE and it
is able to improve the energy recovery in this kind of plant, with respect to the previous
technology which was based on adiabatic (unless the unavoidable thermal losses)
combustion. From a modelling point of view, the combustion temperature is imposed, while
the amount of heat recovered in the integrated boiler is subtracted from energy balance in
the combustion chamber to such an extent that the excess combustion air is enough to
assure a minimum level of about six percent of oxygen volume in the exhausts.
The main output results from the WtE simulations, are reported in table 5, with reference
to the two different feedings of MWS and combustible fraction.
218

Table 4. Main operating parameters assumed for the waste
combustion with energy recovery
Combustion temperature [C]
Steam maximum temperature [C]
Steam maximum pressure [bar]
Steam cycle condenser pressure [bar]
Exhausts HRSG entering temperature [C]
Exhausts HRSG exiting temperature [C]
Internal consumption [%]
1.100
400
40
0,25
620
150
12
Figure 2. Simplified schematic of the considered WtE process.
Table 5. Main results form the WtE simulations.
Waste mass flow rate [kg/h]

LHV [kJ/kg]
Entering thermal power [kW]
Gross power output [kW]
Net Power output [kW]
Exhaust mass flow rate [kg/h]
Gross efficiency [%]
Internal consumption [%]
Net efficiency [%]
CO2 mass flow rate output [kg/h]
MSW
14.344
10.127
40.350
10.109
8.896
90.582
25,1
12
22,05
13.841
9.537
12.201
32.322
8.356
7.376
68.750
25,8
12
22,82
10.643
Gasification with Energy Recovery

The simulation of the gasification process with energy recovery was carried out using the
commercial software Aspen Plus (Aspen Technology Inc.), considering as input only the
combustible fraction, in reference to the elemental composition and mass flow rate reported in
table 3.
The simplified schematic of the proposed gasification process with energy recovery is
shown in figure 3.
219
Figure 3. Simplified schematic of the proposed gasification process with energy recovery.
The waste enters the gasification reactor together with the gasification air and a stream of
steam, supplied to push the hydrogen production. Once imposed the gasification temperature,
the amount of required gasification air is evaluated. The gasification solid residues leave the
reactor from the bottom, while the syngas exits from the top. Syngas is cooled down to an
assumed temperature recovering the heat to produce superheated steam - before entering a
wet scrubbing for the removal of undesirable compounds. Actually the removal process is
simulated only from a thermodynamic point of view, considering the syngas further cooling
and its moisture content saturation, at the temperature assumed at the exit. Then the syngas is
fed to a boiler together with combustion air, which is evaluated on the basis of the assumed
combustion temperature. The energy released in the combustion is in large part recovered in
the boiler to produce superheated steam. This steam, together with the amount of steam
produced in the first syngas cooler, expands in a steam turbine, down to the condenser
pressure, producing power output. The exhausts exiting from the boiler are further cooled
down in order to produce the amount of process steam required by the gasification reactor.
gasification with energy recovery.
Gasification temperature [C]
Gasification pressure [bar]
Steam supplied to process gasification [kgH2O/kgC]
Unreacted carbon [%]
Syngas temperature at the exit of first cooler [C]
Syngas temperature at the exit of scrubbing [C]
Syngas combustion temperature [C]
Steam maximum temperature [C]
Steam maximum pressure [bar]
Steam cycle condenser pressure [bar]
Temperature of exhausts after last cooling [C]
875
1
0,11
4,60
150
80
850
400
40
0,25
150
The main operating parameters assumed for the simulations are reported in table 6. Table 7
shows the simulation main results and the details of calculated syngas characteristics. Table 8
reports the gasification and energy recovery cycle synthetic results. The overall process efficiency
is calculated as the ratio between the power output an the energy entering with the waste.
220

Table 7. Main simulation results and details of calculated syngas characteristics
Cycle main results

Gasification air mass flow rate [kg/h]
Evaporated water in the scrubbing
process [kg/h]
Syngas mass flow rate after scrubbing
process [kg/h]
Combustion air mass flow rate [kg/h]
Exhausts mass flow rate [kg/h]
23.112
1.080
Syngas characteristics at gasification reactor exit

Temperature [C]
875
31.197
32.277
LHV [kJ/kg]
2.210
34.700
66.977
Compounds
N2
Mass fraction
0,59
Steam produced in the first syngas

cooler [kg/h]
Steam produced in the boiler [kg/h]
9.870
CO
0,096
18.072
CO2
0,176
Exhausts boiler exiting temperature

[C]
Turbine power output [kW]
200
H2O
0,124
5.345
H2
0,01
Pump consumptions [kW]
72
Other trace compounds
0,004
Table 8. Gasification and energy recovery cycle synthetic results

9.537
LHV [kJ/kg]
12.201
32.322
5.273
Net efficiency [%]
16,31
10.280
Pyrolysis with Energy Recovery

The simulation of the pyrolysis process with energy recovery was carried out using the
commercial software Aspen Plus (Aspen Technology Inc.), considering as input only the
combustible fraction, in reference to the elemental composition and mass flow rate reported in
table 3.
The simplified schematic of the proposed pyrolysis process with energy recovery is
shown in figure 4.
The waste enters the pyrolysis reactor were the temperature is kept at the assumed value.
A syngas is produced and the solid products/residues are discharged from the bottom. In this
study the attention was focussed on syngas production, rather than on liquid and solid
outputs, since the assumed operating temperature is relatively high. Part of the syngas is burnt
to supply the heat required by the pyrolysis reactor. The remaining syngas is burnt with air
combustion in a reciprocating engine to produce electric energy. This layout solution was
proposed on the basis of the very good LHV obtained for the pyrolysis syngas, which can be
accepted by the reciprocating engine. The possibility of using relatively high efficiency
221
equipment for energy conversion of this syngas open the potential to high energy recovery,
with respect to steam cycles proposed previously for the WtE and gasification cases.
Figure 4 Simplified schematic of the proposed pyrolysis process with energy recovery.
The main operating parameters assumed for the simulations are reported in table 9. Table
10 shows the simulation main results and the details of calculated syngas characteristics. The
overall process efficiency is calculated as the ratio between the power output an the energy
entering with the waste.
pyrolysis with energy recovery.
Pyrolysis temperature [C]
Pyrolysis pressure [bar]
Unreacted carbon [%]
Reciprocating engine efficiency [%]
750
1
4,60
35
Table 10. Main simulation results and details of calculated syngas characteristics.
Cycle main results
Heat required by the pyrolysis reactor
[MW]
Syngas mass flow rate for heating the
reactor [kg/h]
Syngas mass flow rate to engine [kg/h]
Syngas mass flow rate for heating the
reactor [%]
Syngas mass flow rate to engine [%]
Reciprocating engine power output [kW]
Syngas characteristics at pyrolysis reactor exit

14,5
Temperature [C]
750
2.640
7.533
4.893
LHV [kJ/kg]
19.850
35
Compounds
Mass fraction
65
N2
0,018
9.447
CO
0,778
CO2
0,028
H2O
0,009
H2
0,057
CH4
0,1
-
NO3
0,007
Other trace compounds
0,003
222

Table 11. Pyrolysis and energy recovery cycle synthetic results
9.537
LHV [kJ/kg]
12.201
32.322
9.447
Net efficiency [%]
29,22
10.280
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a sequence of biological processes in which different types of
bacteria break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen (Mata-Alvarez , 2002).
Thus the humid fraction mechanically sorted from MSW (table 1), which contains a large
amount of biodegradable fraction, is a good candidate to be processed in such a way. The
main product of anaerobic digestion is a biogas with good LHV, that can be supplied to a
reciprocating engine to produce electricity, as illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Simplified schematic of the anaerobic digestion process with energy recovery.
The anaerobic biological process could be simulated in a complete way reproducing the
microbial reaction kinetics by mathematical models (Mata-Alvarez , 2002), but this can be
particularly onerous especially if we are dealing with solid waste. For this reason a simplified
approach was followed in this application, which is based on some simplified assumptions,
aimed to evaluate biogas production from anaerobic degradation of humid fraction. Starting
from the material composition of the humid fraction and the moisture content assumed in
table 2, the amount of Total Solids (TS) was evaluated. From TS, assuming the inert content
of table 2, recalculated on dry basis (table 12), the Volatile Solids (VS) content was
estimated. Then, assuming a biodegradability coefficient (BC), coherent with literature data
(Tchobanoglous et al.,1993), for each material fraction, and a VS removal efficiency (RE),
that can be obtained in the anaerobic digestion (Mata-Alvarez , 2002), the amount of the
biodegraded material was evaluated. This amount of biodegraded material was characterised
for each material fraction in term of brutal chemical formula of the type CaHbOcSdNe, on
the basis of elemental composition (table 2). Then the general anaerobic stoichiometric
reaction (1) was considered:
223
CaHbOcSdNe + rH2O mCH4 + sCO2 + dH2S + eNH3
(1)
in order to evaluate the amount of the reaction products which build up the biogas and, hence,
the biogas production.
Table 12 summarises the calculation procedure steps and table 13 reports the calculation
results.
Table 12. Summary of calculation procedure for biogas production estimation.
Humid fraction TS
Paper and cardboard

Organic fraction
Pruning scrap
Plastics
Metals
Wood
Glass
Textiles
Inert
VS
BC
RE
Wet % [kg/h] %
[kg/h] % TS % TS [kg/h] % VS %
2,57
54,85
13,02
1,43
7,01
2,95
15,36
2,81
90
893
333
63
287
110
700
118
120
2550
605
66
326
137
714
131
75,00
35,00
55,00
95,00
88,00
80,00
98,00
90,00
9,90
5,00
23,70
4,90
94,50
1,50
98,90
22,30
99,90
99,95
99,76
99,95
99,06
99,99
99,01
99,78
81
848
254
60
16
108
8
91
50,00 60,00
82,00 60,00
60,00 60,00
60,00
60,00
72,00 60,00
60,00
54,00 60,00
VSREMOVED Brutal
chemical
[kg/h]
formula
24
CHO
417
C18H28O10
91
C5H10O2
47
C 2H 3O
30
CH2O
Table 13. Results of the biogas production modelling.
Produced [kg/h]
Produced [kmol/h]
Produced [Nm3/h]
Volume composition [%]
CH4
210,82
13,14
294,34
55,49
CO2
438,34
9,96
223,11
42,06
H2S
5,05
0,15
3,36
0,63
NH3
7,24
0,43
9,63
1,82
The overall biogas production resulted to be about 530 Nm3/h, which correspond to about
0,11 Nm3 of biogas per kg of humid fraction or 0,36 Nm3 per kg of VS, which resulted
coherent with literature data (Mata-Alvarez , 2002). Being the biogas LHV of about 19.420
kJ/Nm3 (on the basis of the CH4 volumetric fraction) and assuming an electric conversion
efficiency of 0,35 for the reciprocating engine, the power output was calculated and reported
in table 14, with the overall efficiency of the process (the ratio between the net power output
and the entering power with the humid fraction).
Table 14. Anaerobic digestion with energy recovery cycle synthetic results

Waste LHV [kJ/kg]
Net efficiency [%]
Humid fraction
4.650
3.647
4.711
1.002
21,27
438
224
Comparison of Thermal Processes

The resulted obtained above are compared in this section in term of several performance
indicators for the different thermo-chemical treatments with energy recovery applied to the
considered waste. The compared systems are:
-
MSW WtE (MSW-WtE)

combustible fraction WtE (CF-WtE)
combustible fraction gasification with energy recovery (CF-GAS)
combustible fraction pyrolysis with energy recovery (CF-PYR).
Table 15 reports the comparison, assuming a continuous operation of processes for 325
days per year. The calculated performance indicators consist of energy conversion efficiency;
energy source savings, expressed in Ton of Oil Equivalent (TOE) per year; specific energy
production per unit mass of processed waste; gross CO2 emission/production overall
amount and specific values due to the waste/syngas combustion; avoided CO2 emissions,
due to the avoided use of conventional energy replaced by the amount produced in the energy
recovery process, considering a specific emission for conventional processes of about 0,496
kgCO2/kWh (ENEL, 2006); net CO2 emission/production as the difference between the gross
and the avoided CO2 emission/production.
Table 15. Comparison of studied processes according to some energy
and environmental performance indicators.
Waste mass flow rate [kg waste/h]

LHV [kJ/kg waste]
Entering power [kW]
Net power output [kW]
Efficiency [%]
Energy source saving [TOE/year]
Specific energy production [kWh/kg waste]
Gross CO2 emission [tCO2/year]
Avoided CO2 emission [tCO2/year]
Net CO2 emission [tCO2/year]
Gross specific CO2 emission [kg
CO2/kWh]
Net specific CO2 emission [kg CO2/kWh]
Gross specific CO2 production [tCO2/t
waste]
Net specific CO2 production [tCO2/t waste]
MSW-WtE
14.344
10.127
40.350
8.896
22
16.075
0,62
107.960
-34.417
73.543
CF-WtE
9.537
12.201
32.322
7.376
23
13.311
0,77
83.016
-28.501
54.515
CF-GAS
9.537
12.201
32.322
5.273
16
9.528
0,55
80.184
-20.400
59.784
CF-PYR
9.537
12.201
32.322
9.447
29
17.071
0,99
80.184
-36.551
43.633
1,56
1,44
1,95
1,09
1,06
0,95
1,45
0,59
0,96
1,12
1,08
1,08
0,66
0,73
0,80
0,59
With respect to the results in table 15, in order to have a complete view of the energy
recovery potential, the additional energy consumptions, due to the pre-treatment of the MSW
to obtain the combustible fraction, are to be considered in the processes which accept the
combustible fraction as input. In order to consider this contribute, an average value in the
225
range from 29 kWh/tMSW (Lombardi et al., 2007) and 48 kWh/tMSW (Lombardi et al., 2006)
dependant on the type pre-treatment of about 38,5 kWh/tMSW was assumed. Consequently
the performance indicators related to energy are modified as reported in table 16.
Table 16. Energy performance indicators, considering the pre-treatment consumptions.
MSW-WtE
CF-WtE
CF-GAS
CF-PYR
Waste mass flow rate [kg waste/h]
14.344
9.537
9.537
9.537
LHV [kJ/kg waste]
10.127
12.201
12.201
12.201
Entering power [kW]
40.350
32.322
32.322
32.322
8.896
7.367
5.273
9.447
Specific pre-treatment consumptions

[kWh/tMSW]
38,5
38,5
38,5
Pre-treatment consumption [kW]
552
552
552
Net power output considering pretreatment consumption [kW]
8.896
6.815
4.721
8.895
Efficiency [%]
22
21
15
28
Results in table 15 and 16 show that the efficiency of WtE applied to MSW or
combustible fraction is quite similar, but the amount of recovered energy is higher in MWS
WtE. Gasification of combustible fraction with energy recovery of syngas in steam cycle
offers a lower efficiency and lower amount of recovered energy with respect to WtE in
general. On the contrary, from a theoretical point of view, the combustible fraction pyrolysis,
with syngas energy recovery in engine, leads to a higher efficiency with respect to the other
considered systems.
Comparison of Integrated Energy Recovery Systems

The possibility of combining the thermo-chemical treatments for the combustible fraction
and the biological treatment for the humid fraction gave the possibility of composing four
integrated scenarios for the processing of MSW, as shown in figure 6. Scenario I is the direct
MSW combustion in WtE. In scenario II, MSW is mechanically sorted: the combustible
fraction (CF) is sent to WtE, while the humid fraction (HF) is sent to anaerobic digestion with
biogas energy recovery in engine. In scenario III, MSW is mechanically sorted: the
combustible fraction (CF) is sent to gasification with syngas energy recovery in a steam
cycle, while the humid fraction (HF) is sent to anaerobic digestion with biogas energy
recovery in engine. In scenario IV, MSW is mechanically sorted: the combustible fraction
(CF) is sent to pyrolysis with syngas energy recovery in engine, while the humid fraction
(HF) is sent to anaerobic digestion with biogas energy recovery in engine. Results for the
compared scenarios are reported in table 17.
226
Figure 6. Schematic of the compared integrated waste treatment scenarios.
Table 17 shows that the energy and environmental performances for scenario I and
scenario II are quite similar, even if the CO2 emissions are higher in the case of MSW WtE,
since a more complete use of the carbon content is performed with respect to the combination
of combustion with anaerobic digestion. Again the scenario based on gasification reports
lower performances, while the one based on pyrolysis has the best energy and environmental
results.
CONCLUSION
From a technological point of view, the market of energy recovery from waste offers
today a wide number of proven technical systems only in reference to processes based on
waste direct combustion, i.e. WtE. WtE is the most widespread thermal treatment for waste at
the international level. It is a mature technology which has reached a high reliability.
Gasification and pyrolysis processes are far less common and especially applied to
particular typologies of wastes, with relatively small plant sizes. They present a significant
complication both at plant level and at operating level. Up to now, their reliability, in
reference to the continuous operation, is lower with respect to WtE.
From the results reported in this chapter, the gasification process coupled with syngas
energy recovery in a steam cycle does not offer a potential in the direction of the efficiency
improvement in energy recovery from waste, with respect to the traditional WtE.
227
Table 17. Comparison of proposed scenarios according to some energy

and environmental performance indicators.
Scenario 1
Scenario II
CF WtE + HF
AD
Scenario III
CF GAS + HF
AD
Scenario IV
CF PYR + HF
AD
14.344
14.344
14.344
14.344
10.127
40.350
8.896
22
10.127
40.350
8.369
21
10.127
40.350
6.275
16
10.127
40.350
10.450
26
16.075
15.122
11.338
18.882
0,62
0,62
0,72
0,53
107.960
84.815
85.852
85.852
-34.417
-32.377
-24.276
-40.400
73.543
52.437
61.576
45.425
1,56
1,3037
1,75
1,05
1,06
0,80
1,26
0,56
0,96
0,77
0,78
0,78
0,66
0,47
0,56
0,41
MSW WtE
Waste mass flow rate
[kg waste/h]
LHV [kJ/kg waste]
Entering power [kW]
Efficiency [%]
Energy source saving
[TOE/year]
Specific energy
production [kWh/kg
waste]
Gross CO2 emission
[tCO2/year]
Avoided CO2 emission
[tCO2/year]
Net CO2 emission
[tCO2/year]
Gross specific CO2
emission [kg
CO2/kWh]
Net specific CO2
emission [kg
CO2/kWh]
Gross specific CO2
production [tCO2/t
waste]
Net specific CO2
production [tCO2/t
waste]
On the contrary the pyrolysis process, coupled with syngas energy recovery in a
reciprocating engine, can reach quite high performances in terms of efficiency and energy
recovery. However, today the pyrolysis technology is not yet competitive in reference to
commercial industrial scale installations for waste treatment, since its application to the
biomass sector (small sizes) in still in development.
The possibility of coupling the thermal treatment, for the combustible fraction, with the
anaerobic digestion, for the humid fraction, allows keeping efficiency and energy recovery
levels similar to the MSW WtE case, with two additional benefits. The first one is related to
the lower CO2 production, due to lower carbon transformation in the biological process. The
second one is related to the possibility of obtaining incentive pay for the energy produced
from anaerobic digestion, since this is acknowledged as a renewable source, while energy
from WtE is not, at least in some countries (as in Italy for example).
228
REFERENCES
Aspen Technology Inc., Aspen Plus , www.aspentech.com
Bridgewater, A. V., Meier, D. & Radlein, D. (1999). An overview of fast pyrolysis of
biomass, Organic Geochemistry, 30, pp. 14791493.
ENEL, Rapporto Ambientale 2006, www.enel.it
Engineering Equation Solver, F-Chart Software, info@fchart.com
Lombardi, L., Corti, A. & Sirini, P. Analisi di ciclo di vita per la valutazione di scenari di
trattamento di rifiuti urbani, VIII SIBESA Simposio Italo-Brasiliano di Ingegneria
Sanitaria Ambientale, 17-22 Settembre 2006, Fortaleza Brasil. ISBN: 85-7022-148-7
Lombardi, L., Corti, A., Meoni, R. & Iossifidis E. Comparing different Municipal Solid
Waste management scenarios by means of Life Cycle Assessment. ISWA/NRVD World
Congress 2007, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 24-27 September, 2007.
Mata-Alvarez, J. (2002). Biomethanization of the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes.
IWA Publishing.
Reed, T. B. Biomass Gasification: Principles and Technology, Energy Technology Review,
No. 67, Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J., 1981. ISBN 0-8155-0852-2.
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. & Vigil, S. (1993). Integrated solid waste management
Engineering principles and management istsues. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 7
ENERGY RECOVERY FROM WASTE

INCINERATION: LINKING THE SYSTEMS
OF ENERGY AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
Kristina Holmgren
Linkping Institute of Technology, Linkping, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Energy recovery from waste incineration has a double function as a waste treatment
method and a supplier of electricity and/or heat. Waste incineration thereby links the
systems of waste management and energy. This chapter addresses the importance of
taking this into consideration when e.g. making investment decisions or designing policy
instruments. The design of two policy instruments will be described as examples of the
conflicting goals in the two systems. A conflict is also that increased waste incineration
can decrease production of combined heat and power in the district heating systems.
Since policy instruments in Sweden are dependent on the common legislation of the
European Union this will be addressed, together with trading in waste and electricity and
how this impacts waste incineration in Sweden. Conflicts between the internal market in
the European Union and waste management goals are shown. When making investment
decisions, various models are often used as decision support tools. Some models for
assessing waste incineration/management are therefore described together with strengths
and weaknesses when dealing with the dual function of waste incineration.
INTRODUCTION
Energy recovery through waste incineration1 connects two vital systems in modern
society: the waste management system and the energy system. In Sweden, with an extensive
Corresponding author: Tel.: +46 13 286687; fax: +46 13 281788. E-mail address: kriho@ikp.liu.se
Digestion also has this function, since it is a treatment method for easily biodegradable waste, where the residual
products are a fertilizer and a gas which can be used for electricity and heat production or for transportation
after cleaning, but this chapter will address only waste incineration.
230
Kristina Holmgren
district heating (DH) system that supplies just over 40% of the total heating demand of
buildings and premises, heat supply from waste incineration has a substantial share of the
total DH supply of about 12% (Swedish Energy Agency, 2004). Furthermore, both these
systems are the focus of attention due to environmental concerns, and for this reason, changes
are being made in both systems. The European Union has common legislation which impacts
both systems in the member countries. Apart from the legislation, the countries of the
European Union are connected through trade; important in this case are the common
electricity market and trading in waste.
The aim of this chapter is to highlight two issues. The first is the dual purpose of waste
incineration as a waste treatment method and as a supplier of electricity and/or heat. This
chapter will emphasise the importance of taking this into consideration with regard to, e.g.
decision making and when designing policy instruments. Two policy instruments that impact
both technical systems will be described and the difficulties in handling the double function
of waste incineration will be the central issue. These policy instruments are a recently
proposed tax on incinerated waste in Sweden and green electricity certificates. Various
models are often used as decision support tools in decision making processes, e.g. when
municipalities make investment decisions. When designing and using these models, the
dilemma of the two functions needs to be faced and the ways in which some models handle
this will be described.
Policy instruments in Sweden are highly dependant on legislation in the European Union,
the policy instruments that will be described in this chapter are no exception. Therefore, the
second issue in focus in this chapter is the connection via common legislation between
countries in the EU. The consequences of this will be discussed, with a special emphasis on
its impact on waste incineration in Sweden. Furthermore, the countries in the EU are
connected via trade, and of special importance for waste incineration in Sweden is naturally
the trade in waste, but also in electricity.
The methodology applied to address these issues consists of a literature review and
knowledge gained in earlier studies.
DEVELOPMENT OF WASTE INCINERATION IN SWEDEN

This section will include a description of the historical development of waste incineration
in Sweden. This information has been collected from a report from the Swedish Association
of Waste Management (2005a) and from Hrelja (2006). The current situation with regard to
waste incineration in Sweden will also be described, together with its impact on district
heating, combined heat and power production and also the material recovery market.
Historical Development
Burning waste has been carried on for a long time; it has been done in the open at
landfills or in simple furnaces in order to reduce waste volumes and decrease problems with
vermin. This brought inconveniences, such as hazardous emissions to the atmosphere, and in
1903 Swedens first waste incineration plant began operations in Stockholm. However, it was
Energy Recovery from Waste Incineration: Linking the Systems
231
not until the 1960s that waste incineration really began to show some development. The
prerequisites for this were the district heating networks that began to appear after the Second
World War, when municipalities interest in district heating was aroused. In 1948, Swedens
first district heating network was operational in the city of Karlstad and other cities soon
followed. This expansion created opportunities for waste incineration plants, since it provided
an outlet for the heat produced, giving the waste a value. In the 1970s, waste began to be seen
as a resource rather than a problem; in 1975 a proposition from the government stated that
recovery had to increase in the future. The proposition did not state which technology was to
be preferred, but incineration was regarded as preferable in bigger cities. As a result of the
new view of waste as a resource, a number of plants with central sorting and composting were
built. This venture failed since the plants did not work satisfactorily and there was no outlet
for the residual product. This served to increase interest in waste incineration. Waste
incineration expanded significantly, especially during the 1970s, over the years up until 1985.
The number of plants increased from 2 in 1960 to 27 in 1985, and treatment capacity from
100,000 tons annually to 1,800,000 tons. The oil crises of the 1970s led to a growth in interest
in waste incineration as an indigenous fuel, in order to decrease oil dependency.2 During the
1980s, researchers began to report widespread diffusion of heavy metals and dioxins in the
environment and the effects on humans and animals. Waste incineration was found to be an
important cause of this diffusion of hazardous substances in the environment.3 In 1985, a ban
on investment in waste incineration was issued by the Swedish Environmental Agency, until
the issues of emissions and technology had been solved. The Environmental Agency and the
Energy Agency were commissioned to analyse the risks associated with waste incineration
and concluded that it was possible to reduce the emissions to acceptable levels through a
number of measures, including cleaner waste (i.e. more sorting of waste), more efficient
combustion, advanced flue gas cleaning equipment, and the safe disposal of residual products.
Limits were set for emissions. On the basis of these results, the ban on investment was lifted.
Of the existing plants, 20 went through with modernisations while 7 were shut down.
However, the debate on dioxins in the municipalities did not end there. Hrelja (2006) shows
that in the 1980s the municipality of Skvde chose not to build a waste incineration plant due
to lack of confidence in the treatment method. Later, however, Skvde went ahead and built
the plant, which was inaugurated in 2005.
Waste Incineration in Sweden Today

Today, there are 29 waste incineration facilities in Sweden, both hot water boilers (14)
and combined heat and power plants (15) producing about 8.6 TWh heat and 0.74 TWh
electricity (Swedish Association of Waste Management, 2005b). These facilities treat about
1.95 million tons of municipal waste and 1.2 million tons of other waste, mainly from the
manufacturing industry. Cleaner fractions of waste can also be incinerated at other facilities
and is not included in the figures presented here. Figure 1 shows the waste treatment methods
2
3
This was only one of a number of measures to decrease oil dependency.

There are a number of sources, of which waste incineration is one. Industrial processes can also give raise to
dioxins as can power plants using other fuels. Spontaneous fires at landfills are also a source of dioxins, where
the contribution of emissions is hard to estimate.
232
Kristina Holmgren
for municipal waste in Sweden. As can be seen, energy recovery is the treatment method for
almost half of the municipal waste today. This development is mainly a result of recent
regulations in the waste management system aimed at decreasing landfill; the introduction of
a tax on landfill in 2000, at present 46.3 4/ton (Ministry of Finance, 2005a) and a ban on
landfill of combustible waste from 2002 and from 2005 also of organic waste (Ministry of the
Environment, 2001).
9%
1%
33%
47%
10%
Material
recovery
Biological
treatment
Energy
recovery
Landfill
Hazardous
waste
Figure 1. Treatment methods of municipal waste in 2004, total amount 4.2 million tons (Swedish
Association of Waste Management, 2005b).
Capacity for waste incineration is currently increasing and is forecast to increase from 2.8
Mton in 2002 to 4.9 Mton in 2008, if all planned projects are carried out (Swedish
Association of Waste Management, 2004), resulting in a total of 40 waste incineration plants.
Despite these investments there will still be a lack of treatment capacity. The fact is that
quantities of waste are also increasing, between 1985 and the present by some 2-3% per year.
If this trend is not broken, additional waste treatment capacity will also be needed after 2008.
Waste incineration and district heating

The role of waste as a fuel makes it part of the energy system. Therefore, the use of waste
as a fuel is dependent on such factors as the prices of other fuels used, legislation, and policy
instruments in the energy system. The value of using the waste is higher when the prices of
e.g. fossil fuels or biofuel increase. Energy taxation in Sweden has had a significant effect on
what fuels are used in the DH systems, since heat from fossil fuels has been heavily taxed.5
There has been a major shift from an almost total dependency on oil up until 1980 to a
diversified supply where renewables represent a substantial proportion. This can be seen in
Figure 2. A historical survey of the development of the DH sector can be found in Sjdin
(2002).
4
5
An exchange rate is 1 = 9.40 SEK is used throughout this chapter (January 2006).
The carbon dioxide tax is at present 0.1 /ton. More details of the energy taxation can be found e.g. in (Holmgren,
2006).
233
60
50
40
30
20
10
Waste heat
Heat pumps
Electric boilers
Biofuel & peat
Refuse
Coal
Natural gas
Oil
19
70
19
73
19
76
19
79
19
82
19
85
19
88
19
91
19
94
19
97
20
00
20
03
Figure 2. Development of heat supply to the district heating networks between 1970 and 2003 (Swedish
Energy Agency, 2004).
Palm (2004) shows that also institutional factors can connect the waste management
system and the DH system. In the city of Linkping, one reason for the introduction of waste
incineration was that the same municipal utility operated both the waste management system
and the DH system and saw that with waste incineration they could solve two problems at the
same time: both an acceptable waste treatment method and heat production for the DH
system. A study by Sahlin et al (2004), which is an overview of the consequences of using
waste as fuel in Swedish DH systems, also shows that waste incineration enables DH
networks to expand due to the low cost of the heat.
Waste incineration and combined heat and power production

One disadvantage of waste incineration is the low electrical efficiency in the plants.6 This
is due to the many impurities in the fuel; the temperature of the steam in the boiler can not
exceed 400C without entailing high maintenance costs due to corrosion, as stated e.g. by
Korobitsyn et al (1999). Combined heat and power (CHP) production is an efficient way to
use resources and is recognized by the European Union as one of the measures needed to
meet the demands in the Kyoto protocol (European Union, 2004a). Many utilities have
chosen not to invest in electricity production in their waste incineration plants due to
difficulties in producing electricity in combination with historically low electricity prices in
Sweden.7 However, electricity production at waste incineration plants is forecast to increase,
from 0.7 to 1.7 TWh between 2002 and 2010. (Swedish District Heating Association, 2005).
6
The electrical efficiency of waste incineration plants is around 23% at capacity 30 MWe (Elforsk, 2003). By way
of comparison, a natural gas fired CHP plant has an electrical efficiency of 46-49.5% at capacity 150 MWe and
biomass fuelled power plants 34% at capacity 80 MWe (Elforsk, 2003).
7
A more detailed explanation of this can be found e.g. in Trygg and Karlsson (2005).
234
Kristina Holmgren
Existing waste-fired CHP plants will increase their electricity production and the total number
of waste-fired CHP plants will double over the same period. The reason for the increase in
electricity production at waste fired CHP plants is not clarified, but it is reasonable to believe
that it is a result of the higher electricity prices anticipated when Swedish electricity prices are
harmonized with those in continental Europe; this is further explained in the section on
Impact on Waste Incineration of Trade in Electricity. The proposed tax on incinerated waste,
which is designed to promote CHP production, is probably also a factor. In the municipalities
that have a waste incineration plant, the plant is the base supplier of heat to the DH network,
due to the negative operational cost of receiving the waste. This can remove the heat sink for
more efficient plants and shorten their annual operational times. How to use the heat sink can
in this perspective be seen as a conflict between waste management and the energy system. If
waste incineration is chosen as the treatment method, it is vital to recover as much as possible
of the energy content of the waste. This heat can occupy much of the heat sink leading to
lower electricity production in the DH system, compared to if a plant with higher electrical
efficiency were chosen instead of a waste incineration plant. Earlier studies have shown that
this can be the case, e.g. for a municipal system (Holmgren and Bartlett, 2004) and an overall
study of the DH systems in Sweden (Sahlin et al, 2004). This can of course vary between
systems as shown by Holmgren (2006). This study deals with the competition in the DH
system in the city of Gteborg, where there is heat from waste incineration, waste heat from
industries, and also investment in a natural gas fired CHP plant. There is room in the system
for all types of waste heat; the new CHP plant mostly replaces heat boilers in the system.
Waste and Connection to the Material Market

Waste management is connected to the material markets through the material recovery
systems. However, the development of the material recovery system is highly dependent on
political decision, such as the introduction of the concept of Producer Responsibility. The
incentive to material recovery of municipal waste comes mainly from the Ordinance on
Producer Responsibility, which includes packaging, cars, car tyres, newspapers, and electric
and electronic devices (e.g. Ministry of the Environment, 1994; 1997). For the included
fractions, levels of material recycling are stated. Packaging producers have set up companies
to handle the collection of packaging. The companies have a deficit in financing this system,
which the producers pay. This is different to newspapers, for example, which do not show this
deficit in collection; a functioning market existed even before the legislation was introduced.
Also, in industry, different metal fractions such as copper and steel have had a functioning
market for recycling for a long time half of the raw material used to produce steel comes
from collected scrap.8 The prices of materials naturally influence the attractiveness of
material recovery.
Personal communication with sa Ekdahl, European Confederation of Iron and Steel Industries, 2003.
235
CONNECTION BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

VIA LEGISLATION AND TRADE AND THE IMPACT
ON THE SWEDISH WASTE INCINCERATION
This section will describe the connections between EU countries in terms of common
legislation and trade in waste and electricity. Differences and similarities in waste
management and district heating will also be outlined.
European Legislation Affecting Energy and Waste

The common legislation in the European Union connects the countries to each other. This
section will describe policies and directives that influence waste incineration. The European
Unions member states are obliged to implement the directives in their national legislation.
The core of the European Union is the internal market which means free mobility of
goods, services, people, and capital. This can be in conflict with waste management goals;
examples are the principles of proximity and self-sufficiency, meaning that waste should be
treated in the proximity of its origin and that member states should be self-reliant as regards
treatment capacity. This is stated in the Framework Directive (European Union, 1975) which
also defines waste as any substance or object which the holder disposes of or is required to
dispose of and establishes the fundamental concept of the Polluter Pays Principle. One
problem with the Framework Directive is that it does not clearly state when waste ceases to
be waste and becomes a secondary material. In the Shipment of Waste Ordinance (European
Council, 1993), waste is divided into two categories - for disposal and for recovery - where
trading in the former is forbidden, in order to satisfy both the internal market and the
proximity and self-sufficiency goals. Environmental concerns may be in conflict with free
trade, both in terms of differing cost for waste treatment options due to varying standards and
subsidies to the material recovery market. It is important to harmonise standards for waste
treatment options in order not to draw waste to less controlled plants. The Directive on
landfill (European Union, 1999) and the Directive on the incineration of waste (European
Union, 2000) have this purpose. The Directive on the incineration of waste sets permitted
maximum levels for emissions to the atmosphere and directions for monitoring the emissions.
Emissions to water are also regulated, there are directions as to how the combustion process
should be controlled, and how to take care of the residual products. It concerns both waste
incineration plants and plants that burn both waste and other fuels, and has meant investment
costs for the plants in Sweden in order to fulfil these demands. Whereas the directive is
specific about emission levels, it is vague on how to classify efficient energy recovery of
waste, which is a shortcoming. It says the heat generated during the incineration and coincineration process is recovered as far as practicable e.g. through combined heat and power,
the generating of process steam or district heating. The performance of waste incineration
plants differs widely, as can be seen from Figure 3, and is detailed further in the section on
European differences in waste management and use of district heating. A definition of what
an efficient energy recovery of waste is should be introduced. This weak point has been
observed by the European Commission, which suggests that the energy efficiency of the plant
should decide whether to classify it as a disposal plant or a recovery plant. The use of
236
Kristina Holmgren
resources in other plants that the waste incineration plant could replace should also be taken
into consideration (European Commission, 2005). The Landfill Directive specifies
operational and technical requirements for landfills. It sets the demands that the pricing for
receiving waste should include after-care for at least 30 years. It also dictates lower quantities
of biodegradable waste in landfill and the collection of methane emissions. Apart from this,
there is a directive on producer responsibility for packaging waste (European Union, 2004b),
stipulating levels of material and/or energy recovery for different packaging materials.
The EUs waste policy is founded on the waste hierarchy, described in the Sixth
Environmental Action Programme from the European Commission (2001) and states that first
comes waste prevention, then recovery (reuse, material and energy recovery where material
recovery, including biological treatment9 is preferred to energy recovery) and finally disposal,
where landfill and waste incineration without energy recovery are included. Swedish waste
policy is based upon this hierarchy. This does not go undisputed, however; in particular the
question of whether energy recovery or material recovery, including biological treatment, is
to be preferred, raises issues.
Directives that impact the energy sector include the directive on the common electricity
markets (European Union, 2003a), which states that Europe should have free trade in electricity in
member states. This will mean higher electricity prices than historically in Sweden, since Sweden
will be harmonized with continental Europe which currently has a higher electricity price (e.g.
Trygg and Karlsson, 2005). This will further be described in the section on Impact on Waste
Incineration of Trade in Electricity. There is a directive promoting CHP (European Union, 2004a),
stating that CHP is an effective way to use resources and one measure to meet the demands in the
Kyoto protocol. This has probably had an impact on the design of the proposed tax on incinerated
waste, which will be explained in the section on Introduction of a tax on incinerated waste in
Sweden. Recently, the European Union managed to agree on minimum energy tax levels
(European Union, 2003b). There is a directive promoting electricity produced from renewable
energy sources (European Union, 2001). Also this is seen as a measure to meet the demands in the
Kyoto protocol and strengthening the domestic supply of energy. This has in Sweden led to the
implementation of a system of green electricity certificates, which will be explained in the section
on Green electricity certificates and waste incineration. Another directive regulates the emission
allowance trading (European Union, 2003c). Waste incineration plants are not included in the
trading sector, but are affected by the fact that the costs for fossil fuels increase as do electricity
prices due to marginal pricing, where the marginal power producer is coal condensing power in
the European system, further explained by Trygg and Karlsson (2005).
European Differences in Waste Management and Use of District Heating

This section presents some figures with regard to the amount of district heating in
different European countries and waste management methods. Figures for electricity and heat
output from waste incineration in different European countries are given. The aim is to
9
Biological treatment includes digestion and composting. When digested, biodegradable waste is degraded without
access to oxygen, resulting in biogas which can be used as fuel for vehicles or for electricity and heat
production, and a residual product which can be used as fertilizer. When composted, biodegradable waste is
degraded with access to oxygen, and the residual product can be used as a soil amender.
237
investigate if any unambiguous trends can be seen in this material; is there a correlation
between high DH production and/or high market share and high proportion of energy
recovery as a waste treatment method? In Sweden this is the case, but what about other
European countries?
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
Au
st
Bu ria
lg
ar
Cr ia
oa
ti
Cz a
e
De ch
nm
a
Es rk
to
n
Fi i a
nl
an
Fr d
a
G nce
er
m
a
Hu ny
ng
ar
y
Ita
Ic ly
el
an
d
La
Li tvi
t
a
Ne hua
th nia
er
la
n
No d s
rw
a
Po y
l
Ro and
m
a
Sl nia
ov
a
Sw kia
Sw ed
itz en
er
la
nd
0%
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Renewables
Waste
Others
Figure 3. Fuels used for DH in the countries surveyed in a report by Euroheat and Power (2003).
Figure 3 shows the amount of fuel used for DH production by some European countries.
It can be seen that the supply differs between countries. Coal is the major fuel used in the
Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries and natural gas is also widely used; and the
two fuels account for about 85% of the total supply. The CEE countries show a less
diversified supply than the old EU member states and a large untapped potential exists for
using more heat from waste incineration, renewables, and industrial surplus heat. As regards
the proportion of DH produced in CHP plants, this is high in the old member States (64-94%)
with the exception of Sweden.10 In the CEE countries, the proportion is lower (35-72%).
Figure 4 shows the total DH production in several European countries together with its
share of the heat market. It can be seen that Poland and Germany are the largest producers.
The highest market shares exist in some Nordic countries, along with some CEE countries.
Profu (2004) identifies a number of key-factors when assessing environmental impact
of waste incineration, where one is energy recovery per ton waste. Figure 5 shows the extent
to which the useful energy content of the incinerated waste is taken care of in a number of
countries. Sweden has the highest energy recovery of the countries surveyed, mainly due to
the countrys extensive DH network. The efficiency of using waste as a fuel varies between
the countries surveyed. It should be noted, however, that if the data in the diagram were
recalculated into oil equivalences, countries would show more similar figures.
10
One reason for this is the historically low electricity prices in Sweden (Sjdin, 2002) and (Trygg and Karlsson,
2005).
238
Kristina Holmgren
Table 1. Treatment methods for municipal waste in European countries
2002 in 000s of tons (Eurostat, 2005)11
Belgium
Czech
Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Greece
Spain
France
Ireland
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
UK
Bulgaria
Romania
Turkey
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
11
Recycling
Composting
1442
1088
Energy
recovery
1493
175
122
398
796
17250
13
375
3811
4715
463
3897
:
35
:
:
67
:
2133
:
116
252
87
37
659
1295
3733
:
170
:
19
507
:
555
7844
2
32
3914
4208
34
7335
:
24
:
:
47
:
2365
:
215
135
11
39
:
354
1423
:
:
383
3
225
:
2008
153
0
:
1567
10235
:
2587
:
55
:
:
288
:
3125
490
:
944
5
91
201
1675
2674
:
:
9
7
492
:
Incineration,
destruction
134
Landfill
Total
594
4761
2097
2845
:
11673
0
:
:
875
:
111
:
0
:
:
:
:
:
:
36
:
0
65
0
:
7
:
:
0
3
215
11266
419
4233
14723
12991
1967
18500
450
657
1000
:
3907
188
810
1500
10142
3388
699
1192
1512
825
27545
3188
6695
24573
245
482
80
3587
52532
553
4640
:
33024
2724
29929
500
866
1000
:
4646
187
9900
4634
10509
4618
956
1524
2372
4172
33535
3945
8365
33324
293
3061
4900
The data in the Recycling, Composting, Energy recovery, Incineration destruction, and Landfill columns are
taken from Treatment of municipal waste. The data in the Total column is taken from Generation of
municipal waste. These were obtained from the Eurostat website. The data differs somewhat in some cases.
This is done in order to compare data, to see whether anything has been omitted.
239
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
120
100
80
60
40
20
DH production
UK
S lo v a k ia
S weden
S w it z e rla n d
P o la n d
R o m a n ia
L it h u a n ia
N e t h e rla n d s
N o rw a y
I t a ly
L a t v ia
H u n g a ry
I c e la n d
F in la n d
F ra n c e
G e rm a n y
D e n m a rk
E s t o n ia
B u lg a ria
C ro a t ia
Czech
A u s t ria
DH market share
Figure 4. DH production (TWh) and DH market share (%) in the countries surveyed by the report in
Euroheat and Power (2003).
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
Ita
Ne
ly
th
er
la
nd
s
Sp
G
re
ai
n
at
Br
it a
P o in
rtu
g
Hu a l
ng
ar
y
Sw
ed
en
Au
Sw stri
it z a
er
la
nd
No
rw
De a y
nm
ar
k
Fr
an
ce
G
er
m
an
y
Figure 5. Energy recovery by waste incineration (International Solid Waste Association, 2002; Swedish
Association of Waste Management, 2000)
Table 1 shows different waste treatment methods in the European countries. The statistics
are not exhaustive because not all data is available. Nonetheless, some comments can be
made. Regarding the correlation between high amount of DH and energy recovery, this can
240
Kristina Holmgren
mainly be seen in Sweden and Denmark. One thing that separates Denmark from Sweden is
the high proportion of total electricity production that comes from CHP plants; about 40% in
Denmark compared to around 8% in Sweden. The countries in CEE with a high amount of
DH and/or large market share (the Baltic countries, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia,
and Romania) have not evolved their waste management sector and landfill is still the
dominating treatment method. Some countries have a large proportion of heat from waste
incineration in the DH systems, but the total amount of DH and/or market share is low, such
as France, Norway, Italy and Switzerland. For Germany, the data is contradictory. In Table 1,
it would appear that incineration is used mainly as a destruction method but as Figure 3
shows, some of the heat comes from waste. What can be said is that Germany has put a lot of
effort into developing their material recycling. In general for Table 1, it can be said that waste
treatment differs widely between countries and many still rely heavily on landfill.
Impact on Waste Incineration in Sweden of Waste Trade with Some

European Countries
Trading in waste in the European Union is regulated (European Council, 1993) and waste
is divided into different categories: green, yellow and red. Green waste includes e.g. wood
chips, logging residues, pellet, tall oil and sorted fractions of plastics, paper and rubber;
imports of waste in this category do not have to be registered. Examples of yellow waste are
chemically treated used woods, mixed fractions of used wood, paper, rubber and plastics, and
municipal solid waste. Red waste is e.g. waste containing or contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) or polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxin. The information on what
type of waste the categories include is taken from Ericsson and Nilsson (2004). The authors
estimated imports of green waste in 2000 at 760,000 tons. The Swedish Environment
Protection Agency must approve imports of yellow and red fractions. Imports of yellow waste
increased from 200,000 tons in 1999 to 430,000 tons in 2002 (Olofsson et al 2005). Olofsson
et al analyse which factors lie behind Swedish yellow waste imports, mainly intended for use
in waste incineration plants with energy recovery. Both factors in the waste management
system and the energy system are analysed. Five countries account for almost all imports to
Sweden: Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, and Holland. The following factors may be
significant;
12
The infrastructure in Sweden, with DH systems that can utilise the heat, thus raising
energy recovery significantly
Energy taxation on fossil fuels is high12 in Sweden, and this increases the value of heat.
Different types of bio fuel are the most common alternative for the base supply of heat.
This means that clean fractions of waste are suitable to combust in existing plants, since
the fuels are similar in composition.
The quality of the imported waste has been higher than waste from Sweden, but this is
starting to level out due to stricter sorting requirements in Sweden.
Taxes on waste and a ban on landfill are also driving factors. Norway and Denmark both
have taxes on waste incineration.
The carbon dioxide tax is at present 0.1 /kg.
241
All the above factors lead to a difference in gate fees. The authors assume that in the
future, the predominant factor to decrease the driving factors for import to Sweden would be
the introduction of a waste incineration tax. A change in energy taxation in order to better fit
in to the European Union legislation could also have a significant impact. In Sweden,
business is divided into different sectors, with differentiated energy tax levels. This may be in
conflict with the EUs rules with regard to state aid, but Sweden has been granted temporary
exemption. If the differentiation were changed and the same rules were valid for the whole of
the business sector, the value of heat would be lowered, since the high taxes on fossil fuels
would be lowered. Instead, it is suggested that there would be taxation on heat for consumers
(Ministry of Finance, 2003).
Table 2 shows the gate fees in Sweden for different treatment options for municipal
waste. As can be seen, there is great variation between plants.
Table 2. Gate fees for municipal waste, including VAT and taxes
(Swedish Association of Waste Management, 2005b)
Treatment method
Cost (/ton)
Landfill
74-128
Incineration
32-64
Biological treatment
43-106
Impact on Waste Incineration of Trade in Electricity

The objective of the directive (European Union, 2003a) on a common internal electricity
market is to open up the electricity market by subjecting it to competition. The reason for this
is to increase efficiency in the energy sector. Industrial consumers can choose their supplier
from July 1st 2004 and all consumers from July 1st 2007. The European Commission
publishes a yearly report about the implementation of the internal market (European
Commission, 2004) and that report states that the result of the implementation so far is
unsatisfactory. One reason is barriers to cross-border trade, e.g. market structures and the
need for additional investments in infrastructure. However, the report states that these
problems must be solved. The impact of this directive in Sweden is that electricity prices will
increase due to harmonisation with the electricity prices in continental Europe, which are
higher than in Sweden. This is further described in Trygg and Karlsson (2005).
Higher electricity prices increases interest in producing electricity in the DH systems, and
naturally also interest in electricity production in waste incineration plants. It also effects the
cost of heat in the DH networks. A higher electricity price reduces the cost of heat from CHP
plants and their possibility to compete with other plants also improves. Waste incineration
plants are base suppliers of heat due to their negative operational costs and the need to treat
the waste. However, in the DH network of Gteborg (Holmgren, 2006), where the municipal
energy utility buys heat from a waste incineration plant13 and also waste heat from industries,
the municipal utility had a better negotiation position towards those companies when they
invested in a natural gas fired CHP plant assuming electricity prices harmonized with those
on the continent.
13
In this case, another company, co-owned by several neighbouring municipalities owned the waste incineration
plant and sold the heat to the utility operating the DH network.
242
Kristina Holmgren
DISCUSSION OF TWO POLICY INSTRUMENTS

Two policy instruments will be discussed in this section: the introduction of a tax on
incinerated waste and the green electricity certificate system. The aim here is to show how
policy instruments in one system affect the other, and the difficulties in handling the double
function of waste incineration as a supplier of heat and/or electricity and as a waste treatment
method.
Introduction of a Tax on Incinerated Waste in Sweden

A government investigation on a tax on incinerated waste was presented recently
(Ministry of Finance, 2005b), and a proposal of the tax was incorporated in the government
budget proposition (Ministry of Finance, 2005c). The proposal is that waste should be
incorporated in the existing energy taxation system by taxing the fossil content of the waste,
meaning e.g. plastic packaging. However, at the time of writing, the tax has been postponed
due to difficulties in measuring the fossil content in municipal waste. Table 3 shows the level
of the tax on incinerated waste and how it applies to different energy conversion units.
Table 3. Waste incineration tax as proposed (Ministry of Finance, 2005b)
Energy tax
(/ton waste)
Carbon dioxide tax

(/ton waste)
Fossil content 100%

Hot water boiler
16
355
Condensing power plant
0
0
51-62
CHP plant14
Fossil content: 14% of total weight (assumed value for municipal waste)
Hot water boiler
2
45
Condensing power plant
0
0
CHP plant
0
6.5-8
Total
(/ton waste)
371
0
51-62
47
0
6.5-8
The design of the tax is in accordance with how existing energy taxation is applied to the
DH sector; with a carbon dioxide tax and an energy tax, which is not applied to electricity
production, since electricity is taxed for the consumer (industrial consumers are exempt), heat
from hot water boilers is taxed in full, and heat from CHP plants is taxed at deducted levels as
is heat to industrial consumers. For a more detailed description of energy taxation, see e.g.
Holmgren (2006). It can also be noted that the DH networks are part of the emission
allowance trading systems, and the plants included will therefore probable be granted
additional deductions of carbon dioxide taxes. However, since waste incineration plants are
not included in the trading system, this is not included here.
The description of the assignment to carry out the governmental investigation of this tax
includes several goals that should be taken into consideration. How the tax steers according to
the waste hierarchy and to make material recovery including biological treatment more
243
economically competitive is important, but also impacts on the DH networks and the
incentive for CHP production from waste incineration. The problem is that the goals that are
enumerated conflict.
In the waste incineration tax proposal, resulting from the government investigation, the
energy system perspective is the predominant; waste is seen primarily as a fuel, and therefore
the main objective is that waste taxation be harmonized with energy taxes on other fuels. The
investigation states that the fossil content of waste is subsidized in comparison to fossil fuels
and that the value of the subsidization of biomass fuels is lessened if there is no tax on
incinerated waste. This is corrected if the tax on incinerated waste is designed in this way, and
it also provides the incentive for CHP production in waste incineration plants which has
hitherto been lacking. The EU directive on promotion of CHP (European Union, 2004a) has
influence over this. When summarizing the proposal, it can be said that the energy perspective
has been given first priority and the waste management priority second. The only fraction
which will have an increased incentive to material recover is various plastics. This fraction is
appropriate for material recycling in an energy efficiency perspective; an earlier study has
shown large energy savings when recycled plastic material is used instead of virgin material
(Holmgren and Henning, 2004).
Another study has analysed the consequences for a municipal energy utility of investing
in waste incineration if a tax on incinerated waste were introduced. (Holmgren and
Gebremedhin, 2004). Tax levels of 11 and 42.5 /ton were analysed, since those were the
levels proposed in an earlier government investigation (Ministry of Finance, 2002). The
conclusion was that at the tax level of 11 /ton, the investment was still profitable for the
utility, but at the 42.5 /ton level, the investment was not profitable. Note that in Table 3
these levels are in the proximity of the levels proposed for plants with CHP production and
hot water boilers respectively. The prerequisite for the results is naturally that the utility can
not raise the gate fee for receiving the waste. The results indicate, however, that at these tax
levels, other treatment options begin to be of interest.
Other questions which are raised concern the impact on gate fees of waste incineration
plants. Plants with electricity production could maintain lower gate fees than other plants.
Would that mean transportation of waste to those plants? This, however, is contradicted by
the lack of waste treatment capacity (Swedish Association of Waste Management, 2004), due
to waste management regulations. Another issue is to what extent the energy utilities will
raise their gate fees to let consumers shoulder the increasing costs. Most existing plants
without electricity production can not easily convert to CHP production since they consist of
hot water boilers,15 and conversion would virtually mean building a new plant. Of the planned
waste incineration plans, all have electricity production16 (Swedish District Heating
Association, 2005). One question in a waste management perspective is what will happen in
terms of encouraging material recovery and biological treatment, in accordance with the
waste hierarchy, since this opportunity to increase incentive was not taken.17
14
Electrical efficiency in the interval 15-28%.

Personal contact with Anders Hedenstedt, Swedish Association of Waste Management.
16
Personal contact with Anders Hedenstedt, Swedish Association of Waste Management.
17
Again; except for fractions of plastic waste.
15
244
Kristina Holmgren
Green Electricity Certificates and Waste Incineration

The green electricity certificate system is designed to increase electricity produced by
renewables (Ministry of the Environment, 2003a, b). The certificate system is influenced by
the directive on increased electricity from renewables (European Union, 2001). The producers
of electricity receive a certificate when they produce electricity in approved conversion units.
These are wind power, solar power, geothermal power, tidal power, hydropower in new or
small plants (installed after the end of 2002, and also increased power in old plants renovated
after April 2003 and hydropower in plants with a maximum capacity of 1.5 MW), biomass,
peat, sorted wood waste from demolition waste, and electricity produced from biogas. It is
also proposed that animal fat, meaning residual products from the food industry, should
receive certificates (Ministry of Finance, 2005c). Consumers will need a quota of certificates
in relation to their total electricity consumption, creating a demand for certificates and thus
giving them an economic value. The aim is to increase annual electricity production from
renewable energy sources by 10 TWh between 2003 and 2010. The system ends in 2010, but
a proposal to extend it to 2030 is in place (Ministry of Sustainable Development, 2005).
Electricity produced from municipal waste does not receive certificates in the Swedish
certificate system, even if municipal waste is estimated to be of about 80% biological origin.
If municipal waste were to be included, it would further increase the incentives for CHP in
waste incineration plants since it pays off for every produced MWh of electricity. In the
proposed tax on incinerated waste, the main issue is to be classified as a CHP plant, and in
order to be so, the quota between electricity and heat needs to be at least 20% (Ministry of
Finance, 2005b). The issue of whether municipal waste should receive electricity certificates
has been debated since the electricity certificate system was originally designed and in the
government investigation on a tax on incinerated waste (Ministry of Finance, 2005d) the
question is analysed once again. The conclusion is that the new tax on incinerated waste is
enough to steer towards increased CHP in waste incineration plants and if electricity
certificates were given for municipal waste, it could steer waste of biological origin towards
incineration and that would not comply with Swedish waste management goals.18 Again, the
conflict between the goals in waste management and in the energy system can be seen. From
an energy system viewpoint, it is logical to implement electricity certificates for municipal
waste. It would increase electricity production in waste incineration which is in line with the
European directive on promotion of cogeneration (European Union, 2004a). When the tax on
incinerated waste is introduced, it is deemed important to remove the subsidies that the fossil
part of municipal waste has enjoyed in comparison to fossil fuels. When the electricity
certificate system is analysed, it is not important to insert the biological part in the system
which benefits biomass fuels. When it comes to green electricity certificates, the government
investigation states that the waste management goals are more important than the goals of the
energy system.
The directive on electricity from renewables (European Union, 2001) provides scope for
interpretation by member states, e.g. as regards which sources should be included in a
certificate system. A voluntary certificate system exists in Europe, The Renewable Energy
18
The Swedish goals for biodegradable waste state that at least 35% should be biologically treated by 2010
(Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2005).
245
Certificate System19 (RECS) which in contrast to the Swedish system does include municipal
waste. This shows that opinions as to how to classify waste in terms of whether it is a
renewable or not differ throughout Europe.
MODELS AS DECISION SUPPORT

Various models are often used as decision support tools, e.g. when municipalities make
infrastructural decisions, such as waste treatment capacity and energy utility plants. This
section describes some models based on system analysis. The models have been used to
assess waste management systems and waste incineration and the common theme is the
dilemma of the two purposes waste treatment and production of heat and sometimes
electricity, and how to handle this.
System analysis can be a mean to assess complex systems in order to e.g. determine how
available resources should be used to satisfy the aim of the system or to evaluate
environmental impacts of various measures. A model can be built that should include the
essential features of the system. By building a model, understanding and knowledge of the
system and the correlation between components in the system is gained.
Models and How to Handle the Double Function of Waste Incineration

The method used in earlier studies carried out by the author (Holmgren and Bartlett,
2004; Holmgren and Gebremedhin, 2004; Holmgren, 2006) is energy system modelling,
using the MODEST model (Henning 1998; 1999). MODEST is a linear programming model
which minimizes the cost of supplying heat and/or power demand during the analysed period.
The main purpose of the model is to find suitable investments, but it can also be used to
optimize the operation of existing plants. The results from these studies are mainly how waste
functions as a fuel in the district heating system, e.g. the impact on other fuels used, the cost
of supplying heat with different amounts of waste used as fuel, and the amount of electricity
produced in the DH networks. The effects of various policy instruments are also an
appropriate issue to assess. The influence of the waste management system in the model is
mainly via economic signals as regards the cost of waste as a fuel. Limits on amount of
available waste is also set. When analyzing the results, it is vital to be aware that also
considerations, more related to the waste management sector, should be included. A study has
also been made that has broadened the scope by comparing waste treatment options from an
energy efficiency viewpoint (Holmgren and Henning, 2004). Assuming that there is a district
heating system that can utilize the heat, which fractions of the waste are suitable to energy
recover and which to material recover? Another example of a study with the energy system in
focus is Sahlin et al (2004), which analyses the impact on Swedish district heating systems as
a whole, using a questionnaire and a simulating energy model named HEATSPOT.
Other methods have the waste management system in focus, as shown e.g. by Sundberg
et al (1994). The paper describes the model MIMES/WASTE, which seeks the most cost19
More information can be found at www.recs.org (November 2005).
246
Kristina Holmgren
efficient way to treat waste. Another study has linked MIMES/WASTE with an energy
system model, MARTES, by using both models in two case studies (Olofsson, 2001).
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely used method for evaluating the environmental
impact of products and services (Rydh et al, 2002). How to perform an LCA is laid down in
ISO standards. The methodology in short has four steps:
1. Goal and scope definition
2. Inventory analysis, where data is compiled
3. Life cycle assessment involving classification of data to different environmental
impacts;20 characterization, where the data is analysed as to the extent to which they
contribute to different impacts; and valuing or weighting. The step of valuing is however
in question since it is considered to be subjective.
4. Interpretation of results.
One model for assessing waste management options based on LCA methodology is
ORWARE, see e.g. Eriksson et al (2002). This model handles the double functions of waste
incineration by compensatory systems, in line with LCA methodology. A compensatory
system, e.g. for waste incineration, apart from the function of waste treatment, also means
district heating and/or electricity. To assess the robustness of the results, a sensitivity analysis
of these compensatory systems is recommended, e.g. if district heating is produced by
biomass fuel or oil. Finnveden and Ekvall (1998) compare LCA studies of recycling versus
incineration of paper, and show the importance of assumptions made with regard to
compensatory systems and also take up the question of biomass; what is made of the saved
biomass when recycling paper? This question indicates a need to define how biomass should
be regarded; should it be regarded as a scarce resource?
A number of studies have attempted to estimate the potential biomass supply. Ericsson
and Nilsson (2006) have assessed the potential in the 15 old EU countries (EU15), 8
newcomers21 and 2 candidate countries22 (ACC10) and also Belarus and Ukraine, and
compared it with the EUs targets for increasing the proportion of the total primary energy
supply produced with biomass. Their assessment shows that, subject to certain restrictions on
land availability, the potential is up to 11.7 EJ/year in the EU15 and 5.5 EJ/year in the
ACC10. These figures can be compared with the fact that total energy supply in the EU15 in
2001 was 62.6 EJ. There are no resource limitations in meeting the EU target of 5.6 EJ/year in
the EU15 by 2010, though it will probably not be met due to slow implementation of the
renewable energy policy. Berndes et. al. (2003) are reviewing 17 studies on the contribution
of biomass in future global energy supply. Both demand-driven studies23 and resource
studies24 were reviewed. The resource studies showed large variations in the amount of
biomass fuels. The studies with the highest assumptions assumed vast areas of Africa to be
given over to energy crop production with exports to the rest of the world. The article
20
Such as greenhouse gases, eutrophication, acidification.

Cyprus and Malta are not included.
22
Bulgaria and Romania.
23
The meaning of demand-driven studies is the potential of energy from biomass in competition with other energy
carriers.
24
The meaning of resource-driven studies is the possibility to produce biomass for energy purposes in competition
with other land uses, such as food production.
21
247
criticizes the studies for not including other environmental effects of such expansion, such as
biodiversity, and social factors are also overlooked. These studies give an indication that
biomass utilization could increase substantially; this could, however, lead to environmental
and social problems which are not taken into account when, for example, making a study
where biomass fuel replaces fossil fuel as a compensatory system for district heating
production, hence indicating lower environmental concerns. This is a significant issue, since
it has been shown that these assumptions are often crucial for the results in LCA studies.
One drawback of using MODEST when analyzing waste incineration is that few
environmental effects have been taken into account. In earlier studies (Holmgren and Bartlett,
2004; Holmgren and Gebrenedhin, 2004; Holmgren, 2006), only carbon dioxide emissions
from the analysed DH networks have been calculated. One solution could be to use external
costs of environmental effects, and include these costs in the optimization calculations of the
D networks. This has been done by Carlsson (2002). In that study, external cost data was
obtained from the European Unions ExternE-project.25 The basic idea behind the concept of
external cost is that electricity and heat production give rise to several negative external
effects,26 such as climate change, acidification and health impacts. The cost of these effects
should be internalized in the price of the energy supply, otherwise a suboptimal consumption
of energy occurs from a socio-economic perspective. This can be compared to the step of
valuing or weighing in the LCA methodology, since that is essentially also to put a value on
environmental effects. However, this step is not really accepted in LCA methodology since it
is considered to be subjective and the recommendation is to use it with care.
CONCLUSION
The double function of waste incineration, both as a waste treatment method and a
supplier of electricity and/or heat is discussed in this chapter. A positive impact in one of the
systems may be negative in the other, and strategies and goals in the two sectors can conflict.
The main findings in this chapter are as follows.
25
26
Sweden has extensive DH networks and therefore better possibilities to efficiently

recover the energy content in the waste than countries with a less developed
infrastructure. There is a correlation between extensive DH networks and substantial
incineration as waste treatment method in Sweden, and the connection is both historical
and organisational. This correlation can not be unambiguously shown to exist in any
other EU country. In this context, Sweden differs from other Western European
countries, since relatively little DH is produced in CHP plants.
Waste incineration can decrease possibilities for producing CHP in DH networks and this
can be seen as a conflict between the need to treat waste in an acceptable way and the
goal of more CHP production in the energy system.
There is a conflict in the European Union between the internal market and waste
management policy, for example that waste should be treated close to its origin. This has
been solved by prohibiting exports of waste for disposal but not for recovery. A
Information about the ExternE project can be found at http://www.externe.info/
Positive external effects, for example on local employment, can also occur.
248
Kristina Holmgren
shortcoming in the directives is that they do not clearly define what an energy efficient
waste incineration plant is and hence not when a waste incineration plant should be
defined as recovery versus destruction.
The conflict between waste management goals and energy system goals when designing
policy instruments has been shown. When designing the tax on incinerated waste, the
energy system perspective was the predominant factor, the main objective being to
harmonize taxes on incinerated waste with taxes on other fuels. The incentive for
increasing material recovery and biological treatment was set aside, except in the case of
plastic waste. In the design of the electricity certificate system, the waste management
goals, for example more biological treatment, prohibits waste incineration plants from
receiving certificates even if this would increase the incentive to produce CHP, consistent
with the goals for the energy system.
The double function is also addressed when different models for assessing waste
incineration are reviewed; the importance of being aware of this and the impacts of
different assumptions are discussed. Various models deal with the double function in
different ways, and have their own strengths and weaknesses. It is also essential to be
aware of the importance of assumptions. A models construction and the results from it
should be seen as way of gaining knowledge of the system and as a support in decisionmaking. When actual decisions are to be made, there are other aspects that can be of
importance that has not been included in the model.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work was carried out under the auspices of The Energy Systems Programme, which
is financed by the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, the Swedish Energy Agency
and Swedish Industry. Tekniska Verken i Linkping AB is acknowledged for their financial
support. The author is grateful to Maria Saxe, Mats Bladh and Bjrn Karlsson for valuable
comments on the chapter.
REFERENCES
Berndes, G., Hoogwijk, M. & van den Broek, R. (2003). The contribution of biomass in the
future global energy supply: a review of 17 studies. Biomass and Bioenergy, 25:1-28.
Carlsson, A. (2002). Considering External Costs Their Influence on Technical Measures in
Energy Systems. Dissertation No 766, Linkping Institute of Technology, Linkping,
Sweden.
Elforsk. (2003). El frn nya anlggningar 2003. Jmfrelse mellan olika tekniker fr
elgenerering med avseende p kostnader och utvecklingstendenser. (Electricity from new
plants 2003. Comparison between different technologies for electricity generation with
regards to costs and development trends, in Swedish) Elforsk report no. 03:14,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Ericsson, K. & Nilsson, L. J. (2004). International biofuel trade A study of Swedish import.
Biomass and Bioenergy, 26:205-220.
249
Ericsson, K. & Nilsson, L. J. (2006). Assessment of potential biomass supply in Europe using
a resource-focused approach. Biomass and Bioenergy, 30:1-15.
Eriksson, O., Frostell, B., Bjrklund, A., Assefa, G., Sundqvist, J. O., Granath, J., Carlsson,
M., Baky, A. & Thyselius, L. (2002). ORWARE a simulation tool for waste
management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 36:287-307.
Euroheat and Power. (2003). District heating and cooling. Country by country 2005 survey.
Belgium.
European Commission. (2001). Environmental 2010: Our Future, Our Choices The Sixth
Environmental Action Programme. COM (2001) 31 final, Brussels, Belgium.
European Commission. (2004). Report from the Commission Annual Report on the
Implementation of the Gas and Electricity Internal Market. COM/2004/0863 final,
Brussels, Belgium.
European Commission. (2005). Communication from the commission to the council, the
European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the committee
of the regions: Taking Sustainable use of resources forward: A Thematic Strategy on the
prevention and recycling of waste, Brussels, Belgium.
European Council. (1993). Council Regulation (EEC) No 259/93 of 1 February 1993 on the
supervision and control of shipments of waste within, into and out of the European
Community. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (1975). Council Directive of 15 July 1975 on waste. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (1999). Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of
waste. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2000). Directive 2000/76/EC on the incineration of waste. Brussels,
Belgium.
European Union. (2001). Directive 2001/77/EC on the promotion of electricity produced from
renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2003a). Council Directive 2003/54/EC concerning common rules for the
internal market in electricity and repealing Directive 96/92/EC. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2003b). Council Directive 2003/96/EC restructuring the Community
framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2003c). Council Directive 2003/87/EC establishing a scheme for
greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council
Directive 96/64/EC. Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2004a). Directive 2004/8/EC on the promotion of cogeneration based on a
useful heat demand in the internal energy market and amending Directive 92/42/EEC.
Brussels, Belgium.
European Union. (2004b). Directive 2004/12/EC amending Directive 94/62/EC on packaging
and packaging waste. Brussels, Belgium.
Eurostat. (2005). Statistical data obtained from: http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/portal/
page?_pageid=1090,30070682,1090_33076576&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL. Site
visited December 2005.
Finnveden, G. & Ekvall, T. (1998). Life-cycle assessment as a decision-support tool the
case of recycling versus incineration of paper. Resources, Conservation and Recycling,
24:235-256.
Henning, D. (1998). Cost optimisation for a local utility through CHP, heat storage and load
management. International Journal of Energy Research, 22:691-713.
250
Kristina Holmgren
Henning, D. (1999). Optimisation of local and national energy systems: development and use
of the MODEST model. Dissertation No. 559, Linkping Institute of Technology,
Linkping, Sweden.
Holmgren, K. & Bartlett, M. (2004). Waste incineration in Swedish municipal energy systems
modelling the effects of various waste quantities in the city of Linkping. In: Afghan
NH, Bogdan Z, Duic N. Editors. Sustainable development of energy, water and
environment systems. Proceedings of the Conference, 2-7 June 2002, Dubrovnik,
Croatia.
Holmgren, K. & Gebremedhin, A. (2004). Modelling a district heating system: introduction
of waste incineration, policy instruments and co-operation with an industry. Energy
Policy, 32:1807-1817.
Holmgren, K. & Henning, D. (2004). Comparison between material and energy recovery of
municipal waste from an energy perspective. A study of two Swedish municipalities.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 43:51-73.
Holmgren, K. (2006). The role of a district heating network as a user of waste heat supply
from various sources the case of Gteborg. Applied Energy, in press.
Hrelja, R. (2006). I hettan frn ngpannan vetenskap, politik och milj kring en kommunal
energianlggning under tv decennier. (In the heat from the steam boiler science,
politics and environment surrounding a municipal energy facility during two decades, in
Swedish) Manuscript, coming dissertation from Linkping Universitet.
International Solid Waste Association. (2002). Energy from Waste, State-of-the art Report,
Statistics 4, Edition January 2002. Copenhagen, Denmark.
Korobitsyn, M. A, Jellema, P. & Hirs, G. G. (1999). Possibilities for gas turbine and waste
incinerator integration. Energy, 24:783-793.
Ministry of the Environment. (1994). Frordning (1994:1205) om producentansvar fr
returpapper (Ordinance 1994:1205 on producer responsibility for newspaper, in
Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of the Environment. (1997). Frordning (1997:185) om producentansvar fr
frpackningar (Ordinance 1997:185 on producer responsibility for packaging, in
Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of the Environment. (2001). Frordning (2001:512) om deponering av avfall
(Ordinance (2001:512) on landfill of waste, in Swedish) Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of the Environment. (2003a). Lag (2003:113) om elcertifikat (Law (2003:113) on
electricity certificates, in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of the Environment. (2003b). Frordning (2003:120) om elcertifikat (Ordinance
(2003:120) on electricity certificates, in Swedish, Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (1994). Lag (1994:1776) om skatt p energi. (Law (1994:1776) on tax
on energy. Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (2002). Skatt p avfall idag och i framtiden (Tax on waste today and
in the future, in Swedish) SOU 2002:9, Fritze, Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (2003). Svra skatter: betnkande frn Skattenedsttningskommittn.
(Difficult taxes, in Swedish). SOU 2003:38, Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (2005a). Lag (2005:962) om ndring i lagen (1999:673) om skatt p
avfall (Law (2005:962) on changes in the law (199:673) governing waste tax, in
Swedish), Stockholm, Sweden.
251
Ministry of Finance. (2005b). BRASkatt? beskattning av avfall som frbrnns (GOODtax?

taxation of incinerated waste, in Swedish.) SoU 2005:23. Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (2005c). Budgetpropositionen fr 2006 (Budget proposal 2006, in
Swedish) Prop, 2005/06:1. Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Finance. (2005d). BRASkatt?- beskattning av avfall som deponeras (GOODtax?
taxation of landfilled waste, in Swedish) SOU 2005:64. Stockholm, Sweden.
Ministry of Sustainable Development. (2005). Frslag om ett utvecklat elcertifikatsystem.
Proposal for a developed electricity certificate system, in Swedish) Ds 2005:29,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Olofsson, M. (2001). Linking the Analysis of Waste Management and Energy Systems.
ISRN CTH-EST-R-01/5-SE, Department of Energy Conversion, Chalmers University of
Technology, Gteborg, Sweden.
Olofsson, M., Sahlin, J., Ekvall, T. & Sundberg, J. (2005). Driving forces for import of waste
for energy recovery in Sweden. Waste Management and Research, 23:3-12.
Palm, J. (2004). Makten ver energin policyprocesser i tv kommuner 1977-2001.
(Influence over energy the process of policy in two municipalities 1977-2001, in
Swedish). Linkping Studies in Arts and Science 289. Linkpings Universitet, Linkping,
Sweden.
Profu. (2004). Evaluating waste incineration as treatment and energy recovery method from
an environmental point of view. Collected from home page www.profu.se.
Rydh, C. J, Lindahl, M. & Tingstrm, J. (2002). Livscykelanalys en metod fr
miljbedmning av varor och tjnster. (Life cycle assessment a method for
environmental assessment of goods and services, in Swedish), Studentlitteratur, Lund,
Sweden.
Sahlin, J., Knutsson, D. & Ekvall, T. (2004). Effects of planned expansion of waste
incineration in the Swedish district heating systems. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 41:279-292.
Sjdin, J. (2002). Swedish District Heating Systems and a Harmonised European Energy
Market Means to Reduce Global Carbon Emissions. Dissertation No. 795. Linkping
Institute of Technology, Linkping, Sweden.
Sundberg, J., Gipperth, P. & Wene, C. O. (1994). A systems approach to municipal solid
waste management: a pilot study of Gteborg. Waste Management and Research, 12:
73-91.
Swedish Association of Waste Management. (2000). Svensk Avfallshantering 2000 (Swedish
Waste Management 2000, in Swedish), Malm, Sweden.
Swedish Association of Waste Management. (2004). Avfallsfrbrnning. Utbyggnadsplaner,
behov och brist. (Waste incineration. Expansion plans, capacity need and lack thereof, in
Swedish) RVF-report 04:02. Malm, Sweden.
Swedish Association of Waste Management. (2005a). Avfall blir vrme och el. En rapport om
avfallsfrbrnning. (Waste turn into heat and electricity. A report on waste incineration,
in Swedish). RVF-report 2005:02. Malm, Sweden.
Swedish Association of Waste Management. (2005b). Svensk avfallshantering 2005 (Swedish
Waste Management 2005, in Swedish), Malm, Sweden.
Swedish District Heating Association. (2005). Kraftvrme och dess kopplingar till
elcertifikatsystemet. (Combined heat and power and the connection to the electricity
certificate system, in Swedish), Sweden.
252
Kristina Holmgren
Swedish Energy Agency. (2004). Energy in Sweden, 2004. Eskilstuna, Sweden.

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). Strategi fr hllbar avfallshantering.
(Strategy for sustainable waste management, in Swedish), Stockholm, Sweden.
Trygg, L. & Karlsson, B. G. (2005). Industrial DSM in a deregulated European electricity
market a case study of 11 plants in Sweden. Energy Policy, 33:1445-1459.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 8
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF A COMBINED

RECOVERY SYSTEM
R. Herrero Martn*
Departamento de Ingeniera Trmica y de Fluidos
Universidad Politcnica de Cartagena.
ABSTRACT
The present work is found in the field of energy recovery in air conditioning systems
to promote energy saving and improve environmental quality. Experimental research has
been carried out whose aim is the characterization of combined recovery equipment,
consisting of a ceramic semi-indirect evaporative cooler and a heat pipe device to recover
energy at low temperature in air conditioning systems. For characterization purposes, a
design of experiment (DOE) and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied with the
aim of better understanding the energy behaviour of the combined device. The combined
system built allows a feasible energy exchange between the supply airstream and the
return one, improving the operation in air-conditioning systems. It is a new alternative
device for use as a recovery system. The configuration chosen (crossed flow) is the most
adequate from an operational point of view. The characterization of the system was
carried out by employing experimental design methodology. A factorial design was
performed by analysing how the factors used affect the characteristics analyzed. The
contributions of the single factors and their interactions were presented by carrying out a
variance analysis. The superiority of the evaporative cooling device under the operating
conditions was clearly shown. An estimation of the energy saved by the combined system
was carried out, showing the possibilities of implementing this solution to save energy
and also to improve the indoor air quality by means of increasing the ventilation rates.
Keywords: energy recovery, evaporative cooling, heat pipes.
Corresponding author: C/ Dr. Fleming, s/n (Campus Muralla), 30202 Cartagena , Murcia (Espaa), Tel. +34-96832.59.85, Fax +34-968-32.59.99, E-mail: ruth.herrero@upct.es
254
R. Herrero Martn
INTRODUCTION
After the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent rise in fuel prices, there was a change in
approach on a world scale, both in political circles as well as among the population who
realised their dependency on oil producing countries. As a result of these events, interest has
grown in reducing energy demand at all levels, together with a search for more efficient
energy equipment. The circumstances currently favouring the use of conventional energy
sources not only involve facing up to increased costs as well as the foreseeable exhaustion of
sources, but also include the costs involved in environmental protection and the harmful
effects on the planet arising from their use (increase in the greenhouse effect due to greater
CO2 emissions into the atmosphere or the destruction of the ozone layer due to emissions
from coolants used in mechanical compression processes for cooling). Nowadays, energy
saving is not an option but rather a priority concern. Using energy efficiently is, in many
cases, the most effective and economic alternative for achieving environmental protection.
In HVAC installations, a solution in terms of improving energy efficiency is the use of air
conditioner recoverers. The systems used can be considered as heat recoverers when they use,
as secondary air, that which is provided by the air-conditioned premises, or just a mixture of
this and outdoor air.
This is the target of this work, in which experimental research has been carried out whose
aim is the energy study of combined recovery equipment, consisting of an evaporative cooler
and a heat pipe device to recover energy at low temperature in air conditioning systems. To
characterize the device empirically, an experimental design technique was employed by
calculating all the characteristics which are involved in the energy analysis developed.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS

Evaporative cooling offers an alternative for reducing water or air temperature in the
systems that operate using this principle, thus enhancing the performance of the air
conditioning installations in which they are used [1]. Traditionally, three different types of
evaporative cooling systems were available: Direct Systems, Indirect Systems or a multi-step
combination of both systems (Mixed Systems).
In Direct Systems, the water evaporates directly into the supplied air, cooling and
increasing the amount of water in this air in an adiabatic heating process; the air supplies heat
in order to evaporate the water, so the dry bulb temperature decreases and the humidity
increases. The quantity of heat exchanged from the air is equal to the quantity of heat
absorbed by the evaporation of water. If the water is recycled inside the device, its
temperature is almost the wet bulb temperature of the air used in the process.
In the Indirect evaporative coolers, water evaporation takes place in a secondary
airstream which only allows sensible heat exchange with the primary airflow using an
interchanger. The heat transfer surface is cooled by contact with this secondary airflow and
simultaneously, on the other side of the exchanger, the primary airstream is cooled (involving
just sensible heat so humidity is not added). This is the reason why this process is called
indirect and is especially used in those applications where humidity addition is not allowed in
255
the renewed air and the contamination risks are avoided (useful airflow does not come into
contact with the water that has been cooled evaporatively).
The mixed systems are a combination of direct and indirect systems, using sequential
modules in order to improve the performance and increase their utility in wet climates. Other
possibilities are heating exchange batteries and classical cooling systems.
As aforementioned, the evaporative systems can be considered as heat recoverers when
they use, as secondary air, the air provided by the conditioned premises, or just a mixture of
this air and outdoor air. These configurations are called regenerative or recoverable based on
the following explanations:
Indirect Regenerative Evaporative System: this is an Indirect Evaporative Cooler
where a percentage of the primary airstream is used as a secondary airstream, which allows an
increase in the cooling effect (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Indirect Regenerative Evaporative System.
Indirect Evaporative System with a Returning Air Recovery Configuration: this is an

Indirect Evaporative Cooler where the air that comes from the installation is used as a
secondary airstream. This is the configuration which we have used (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Indirect Evaporative System with a Returning Air Recovery Configuration.
256
R. Herrero Martn
As Johnson [2] et al. mentioned, most conventional direct evaporative cooling methods
involve collection and recirculation of water to keep the wetting media or misting region
saturated. There exists an environment of almost stagnant water in direct contact with the
outside air, which aids, if not properly maintained at significant costs, the spread of many
liquid phase-born bacterial diseases, most notably Legionnaires disease.
Due to this fact, indirect evaporative cooling application has been commonly used,
despite the fact that indirect systems have lower efficiency in comparison with direct systems
[3]. An evolution from indirect evaporative cooling systems is the semi-indirect evaporative
cooling system with porous media. The cooling effect of the impulsed air would thus be the
addition of two processes: the heat exchange between the two air flows (supply and return)
plus the heat exchange process, via evaporation, between the air supply and the external wall.
Depending on the permeability of the wall of the solid porous cooler which separates the two
air flows, there is greater or lesser liquid diffusion (water) with evaporation towards the air
flow supply from the external pores, in all cases. The absolute humidity of the air supply is
the controlling factor in this mass transport process, which is why it has been called semiindirect. The semi-indirect evaporative cooler works with the following mechanisms:
Heat and mass transfer in the return air flow.

Spread of mass due to porosity and heat transport through the solid wall.
Evaporation or condensation as well as heat and mass exchange in the air flow
supply.
Figure 3. Evaporative Cooler: heat and mass transfer mechanisms.
All of these features are presented together, thus combining heat and mass transfer,
increasing the cooling effect of the air to be conditioned and achieving optimisation of the
thermal process [4] (See Figure 3).
257
Several prototypes for cooling building using porous ceramic materials as wetting media
in indirect evaporative cooling applications as this paper proposes, have been built in recent
years such as those by Ibrahim et al [5] or Riffat and Zhu [6] who also combined an indirect
evaporative cooler using porous ceramic as the cooling source and a heat pipe as the heat
transfer device.
The coolant material chosen yields low thermal resistance, high resistance to corrosion
and is also economical and offers high porosity. The geometric dimension and configuration
of the ceramic exchanger are shown in Table 1:
Table 1. Geometric dimensions of the evaporative cooler
Internal
diameter
(di)
15*10-3m
External
diameter
(de)
25*103
m
Thicknes
s
()
5*10-3m
Section T
(ST)
Section L
(SL)
Section D
(SD)
30*10-3m
25*10-3m
29,2*10-3m
Pipe
Lengt
h
0.6 m
Area
(Ao)
2.3
m2
Figure 4. Evaporative Cooler geometric configuration
Table 2.-Geometric configuration of the evaporative cooler

Arrangement
Staggered
Number of
columns
7
Number of rows
Number of pipes
49
Material
Ceramic
It is important to point out that this system allows water evaporation in the air supply, but
the ceramic material used has a pore diameter that prevents the exchange of harmful agents
through the porous structure, thus avoiding impulsed air contamination from the pollutants
carried by the return air. [7]
258
R. Herrero Martn
The following photograph (Figure 5) shows the semi-indirect evaporative cooler and its
arrangement above the tank that contains the water used in evaporative cooling.
Figure 5. The Evaporative Cooler device.
HEAT PIPE SYSTEMS

As Vasiliev [8] mentioned, the heat pipe or two-phase thermosyphon device is an
important concept in heat exchangers, which can be used in different branches of industry
such as metallurgy, power, oil-refining, glass, etc. There are many articles carried out in the
field of work of heating recovery using heat pipes such as the one by Shao et al [9] who
presented a low pressure-loss heat recovery device based on heat pipes which was suitable for
application in passive stack ventilation where a low pressure loss is essential. Lukitobudi et
al. [10] designed, constructed and tested an air-to-air heat exchanger using thermosyphon heat
pipes using water as the working fluid for heat recovery in industry, such as bakeries. NoieBaghban and Majideian [11] designed and constructed a heat pipe heat exchanger for heat
recovery in hospital and laboratories. In their research, the characteristic design and heat
transfer limitations of single heat pipes for three types of wick and three working fluids were
investigated using computer simulation. The experimental results presented agreed with the
data obtained through computer simulation. Abd El-Baky and Mohamed [12] investigated the
thermal performance and effectiveness of heat pipe heat exchanger for heat recovery in air
conditioning applications by measuring the temperature difference of fresh warm and return
cold air through the evaporator and condenser side. The heat transfer and enthalpy ratio
between heat recovery and conventional air mixing are also targeted. The optimum
259
effectiveness of heat pipe heat exchanger is calculated and compared with the experimental
results.
Numerous investigations have been made to obtain the thermal performance, ensure
efficient and reliable operation of heat pipe heat exchangers [1317]. Soleymez [18]
presented a thermoeconomic optimization analysis is presented yielding a simple algebraic
formula for estimating the optimum HPHE effectiveness for energy recovery applications.
Lin et al [19] also carried out a thermal model for simulating the performance of a heat pipe
system for recovering waste heat in the drying cycle in a domestic appliance. Noie [20]
presented experimental and theoretical research carried out to investigate the thermal
performance of an air-to-air thermosyphon heat exchanger. Many factors affect the thermal
performance of thermosyphon heat exchangers including velocity and temperature of input
air, type and filling ratio of the working fluid, and pipe material. Several experiments were
carried out under different operating conditions by varying the parameters in order to
determine and investigate their effect on the thermal performance of the thermosyphon heat
exchanger.
The heat pipe recuperator is a super-conducting device comprising of an array of tubes,
each of which is sealed at both ends. These tubes are the actual heat pipes. Each heat pipe
consists of an envelope (the tube), a wick, and a working fluid.
Heat applied to one end evaporates the working fluid from the wick, the vapour flows to
the cold end of the tube where it is condensed and returned by the wick to the hot end for reevaporation, thus completing the cycle.
The heat pipe device is arranged over a metal bank bench. The following photograph
(Figure 6) shows the heat pipe system and its set-up. The heat pipe exchanger built only
recovers sensible heat from the airstreams expelled outdoors.
Figure 6. The HP device.
260
R. Herrero Martn
Table 3 presents the main design characteristics of the heat pipe recoverer that has been
built. The tube bundle consists of 4 pipes per row, and three rows. The configuration chosen
is done taking into account boundary layer limitations. In order to decrease the convection
heat transfer resistance between the air and the heat pipes, both in the impulse air area as well
as the return air area, fins perpendicular to the heat pipes are located parallel to the air flow,
and built of layers of an aluminium-manganese alloy within which the heat pipes are inserted.
Table 3. Design characteristics of the heat pipe device
Maximum heat output (W) 85
Pipe wall thickness (m) 2.1 103
Wick porosity (m2) 5.3 1011
Inner radius (m2) 10.6 103
Pipe length (m) 0.62

Wick type 350, smooth
Wick material: Stainless steel
Working fluid water
EXPERIMENTAL INSTALLATION
Experiments were developed in the Air Conditioning Laboratory at the University of
Valladolid, Spain. As mentioned, the system is located in a recovery configuration to
condition a room. The recovery system plus the conditioned room takes up approximately 20
square metres.
The systems used to carry out the trials are the following: (Figure 7 -8)
Supply system: this has a fan with a potentiometer to keep the air flows under
control.
Air Handling Unit (A.H.U.): this equipment allows us to simulate the conditions of
the air supplied (temperature and humidity).
Air distributing System: all the measuring instruments are inserted here.
Water distribution System: there is a water pump to which a rotameter is joined. The
system also has a pressure spray system with downward directed nozzles and a water
droplet remover to avoid water loss.
A porous evaporative cooler with energy recovery. (E.C.)
A heat pipe device with energy recovery. (H.P.)
The conditioned room: the dimensions are 2x2x2.5 m, which contains an air to air
reversible heat pump inside to guarantee when needed necessary that the space is
properly conditioned.
Monitoring and Data-Acquisition system: a computer monitors and stores all the
results from the measuring instruments.
From the A.H.U. the air goes inside the EC. This main airstream is called the primary
airstream and when this airstream is conditioned in the SIEC it goes to the HP and after
passing through this device it enters the room. As was mentioned the system is located in a
recovery configuration.
261
Figure 7. Experimental Installation Schema.
Figure 8. Experimental Facility.
Thus, the air expelled from the room goes through the EC in a cross-flow, until it leaves
in the upper part, when it is impulsed into the heat pipe in a cross-flow in relation to the
primary airstream, ensuring non-dispersion of Legionella in the expelled air, which might
carry aerosols. After passing through the HP, it is impulsed to the exterior heat pump unit,
thus obtaining a three-recovering configuration.
262
R. Herrero Martn
The measurement sensors are shown in Figure 9:
T: temperature measuring sensor. (Accuracy: 0.1 C)

HR: relative humidity measuring sensor. (Accuracy: 2 % RH (0-100% RH))
Figure 9. Measurement Sensors.
EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
The characterization of the recovery system was carried out following the experimental
design method. A complete factorial design was developed, to analyse the total heat
recovered by the system in heating mode and in cooling mode. (See Figure 10)
There were two factors analyzed:
Air Flow
The airflow levels correspond to three levels: 300m3/h, 400m3/h and 500m3/h.
Temperature
The temperature levels correspond to summer and winter conditions in Valladolid (Spain)
in order to analyze the behaviour of the device in both working modes. The summers levels
are: 45C (T9), 40C (T8), 35C (T7), 30C (T6) and 25C (T5) and the winter levels are:
20C (T4), 15C (T3), 10C (T2) and 5C (T1).
From the experimental results, the following characteristics: sensible heat, latent heat and
total heat are evaluated separately to better explain the combined system behaviour.
263
Figure 10. Experimental Design Schema.
For the evaporative cooler, latent and sensible heat were considered in order to obtain the
total heat recovered. The heat pipe exchanger built only recovers sensible heat from the
airstreams expelled outdoors. The uncertainty values for the characteristics analyzed are
shown in Table 4, where UVi, represent the uncertainty values for each volumetric flow
described.
Table 4. Uncertainty values for the characteristics analyzed: sensible,
latent and total heat (GUM procedures with k=2) [21]
Sensible Heat
UV3
UV1
UV2
(%)
(%)
(%)
4.6
5.5
5.8
Latent Heat
UV1
UV2 UV3
(%) (%)
(%)
4.6
5.5
5.9
Total Heat
UV3
UV1
UV2
(%)
(%)
(%)
6.6
7.8
8.3
30
4.5
6.2
5.7
4.6
6.2
5.7
6.4
8.8
8.0
35
4.5
5.2
6.0
4.5
5.2
6.1
6.3
7.3
8.5
40
4.4
5.1
5.4
4.4
5.1
5.4
6.2
7.2
7.6
45
4.3
5.7
5.5
4.3
5.8
5.6
6.1
8.1
7.8
Temperature
(C)
25
The characteristics analysis was carried in two stages. Firstly, average values of the
single factors and their interactions are given and afterwards, final conclusions are supported
by the variance analysis. The conclusions derived by single factors and interaction values
inspection will not be accepted if the ANOVA analysis do not corroborate them.
264
R. Herrero Martn
The results will be presented in the following order:
Sensible heat
combined system analysis
evaporative cooler analysis
o heat pipes battery analysis
Latent heat
o evaporative cooler analysis
Total heat
o evaporative cooler analysis
SENSIBLE HEAT RECOVERED

Combined System
In Figure 11 the average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against single
factors levels (temperature (T) and airflow (V)), in Figure 12 the mean values of the
characteristic are plotted against factor interaction (VxT). The corresponding values are also
given. In table 6 the ANOVA is presented. In the ANOVA table column 1 shows the factors
analyzed, which are: volumetric flow rate (Vi), temperature and the interaction between the
aforementioned factors (VxT). Column 2 represents the degree of freedom (Dof) of the
factors analyzed. Column 3 shows the sum of squares (SS) of the factors column 4 gives the
associated variance values (V) and in column 5 the contributory percentage is given (%).
Furthermore, remarkable conclusions in terms of the most contributory factor are fully
addressed.
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Mean
Values
-1124.22
-1439.77
-1691.29
977.19
577.93
-203.78
-785.89
-1220.62
-1984.62
-2591.93
-3491.74
-4042.37
2000
S e n sib le H e a t R e co ve re d
( W ) ( A ve ra g e V a lu e s)
Factors
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
Single Factors
Figure 11. Average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against single factors levels.
T9
265

Table 5. VxT interaction mean values
Sensible Heat (W)
Factors
Mean Values
V1T1
1137.10
V1T2
608.00
V1T3
-79.89
V1T4
-784.19
V1T5
-972.33
V1T6
-1751.26
V1T7
-2125.84
V1T8
-2988.21
V1T9
-3161.36
Factors
V2T1
V2T2
V2T3
V2T4
V2T5
V2T6
V2T7
V2T8
V2T9
Mean Values
1039.37
571.05
-224.62
-705.10
-1136.68
-2059.50
-2548.11
-3563.80
-4330.53
Factors
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean Values
755.10
554.74
-306.84
-868.38
-1552.84
-2143.11
-3101.84
-3923.21
-4635.21
S e n sib le H e a t R e co ve re d
(W ) (A ve ra g e va lu e s)
2000
1000
0
V1
-1000
V2
-2000
V3
-3000
-4000
-5000
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature Factor
Figure 12. Average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against temperature factor.
(VxT interaction )
Table 6-. ANOVA results

Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoF
2
8
16
0
26
SS
1453205.1
73561119.0
1065784.6
0.0
76080109.0
V
726602.5
9195139.9
66611.5
0.0
2926158.0
%
1.9
96.7
1.4
0.0
100.0
266
R. Herrero Martn
Analysis of Results
Temperature
This is the most contributory factor with a percentage close to 97% (See Table 6). As in
common heat exchangers, since the heat transfer rate is related to the temperature difference,
when the temperature difference between the outdoor and the return airstreams rises, the
sensible heat recovered is higher. (See Figure 11).
Furthermore, next to temperature level 3 (T3) a change can be clearly observed, fact
which represents a different behaviour of the device from heating mode to cooling mode
falling from positive values to negative ones. (See Figure 11)
In Table 7 the average values of sensible heat recovered for the combined system and the
single systems are given and in Table 8 the corresponding ANOVA are shown. In Figure 13
the single devices contribution in comparison with combined system contribution is given.
Table 7. Single factors mean values for the combined system
and the single systems separately
Sensible Heat Recovered (W)
Combined System
Evaporative Cooling System
Mean
Factors
Factors
Mean values
Values
V1
-1124.22
V1
-1104.45
V2
-1439.77
V2
-1402.66
V3
-1691.29
V3
-1640.12
T1
977.19
T1
878.70
T2
577.93
T2
562.59
T3
-203.78
T3
-251.93
T4
-785.89
T4
-765.58
T5
-1220.62
T5
-1189.54
T6
-1984.62
T6
-1920.03
T7
-2591.93
T7
-2503.58
T8
-3491.74
T8
-3366.12
T9
-4042.37
T9
-3886.21
Heat Pipes System

Factors
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Mean Values
-19.77
-37.10
-36.35
98.49
59.79
48.14
-20.30
-31.07
-64.59
-88.35
-125.62
-156.16
Table 8. ANOVA (combined system and single systems separately)

Sensible Heat
Factors DoF
V
2
T
8
VxT
16
Error
0
Combined System
SS
%
1453205.1
1.9
73561119.0 96.7
1065784.6
1.4
0.0
0.0
Evaporative Cooler
SS
%
1296814.6
1.9
67024437.0 96.5
1102928.9
1.6
0.0
0.0
Heat Pipe System

SS
%
1727.2
0.9
181267.1 97.0
3956.1
2.1
0.0
0.0
Total
76080109.0
69424180.0
186950.5
26
100.0
100.0
100.0
267
When analyzing Figure 13, one conclusion is inferred, the dominant recovery system is
the evaporative cooler. This factor can be easily explained taking into account its location
within the test ring where the heat pipes battery works with lower temperature differences
during its operation cycles.
Sensible Heat Recovered

(W) (Average Values)
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Single Factors
Combined System
Heat Pipes
Evaporative Cooler
Figure 13. Evaporative Cooler and Heat Pipes contribution in global recovery.

(Average values)
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Factors Levels
Evaporative cooling system

In this subsection a detailed analysis for the evaporative cooling system was carried out.
Firstly, the corresponding results for both working modes are shown ( See Figure 14 and 17
and Tables 9-10), and secondly, these results are studied separately for heating mode
(See Figure 15 and 18 and Tables 11 and 13 ) and cooling mode (See Figure16 and 19 and
Tables 12 and 13).
268
R. Herrero Martn
Table 9. Single factors mean values
Sensible Heat (W)
Factors Mean Values
V1
-1104.45
V2
-1402.66
V3
-1640.12
T1
878.70
T2
562.59
T3
-251.93
Factors
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Mean Values
-765.58
-1189.54
-1920.03
-2503.58
-3366.12
-3886.21
1000
S e n sib le H e a t R e co ve re d (W )
(A ve ra g e va lu e s)
Sensible Heat (W)

Factors Mean Values
V1
174.58
V2
128.80
V3
14.45
T1
878.70
T2
562.59
T3
-251.93
T4
-765.58
800
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
Factors Levels
Figure 15. Heating Mode: Average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against single factors
levels.
0
S e n sib le H e a t R e co ve re d (W )
Calor Sensible (W)

Factores Promedio
V1
-2127.67
V2
-2627.83
V3
-2963.79
T5
-1189.54
T6
-1920.03
T7
-2503.58
T8
-3366.12
T9
-3886.21
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
-2500
-3000
-3500
-4000
-4500
V1
V2
V3
T5
T6
Factors Levels
T7
T8
T9
Figure 16. Cooling Mode: Average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against single factors
levels.
269

(Average values)
2000
1000
0
V1
-1000
V2
-2000
V3
-3000
-4000
-5000
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature factor
(VxT interaction)

Sensible Heat (W)
Factors
Mean value
Factors
Mean Value
Factors
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
1043.36
548.83
-124.42
-769.44
-954.20
-1712.27
-2074.65
-2887.95
-3009.28
V2T1
V2T2
V2T3
V2T4
V2T5
V2T6
V2T7
V2T8
V2T9
950.02
517.52
-266.02
-686.33
-1113.31
-1993.26
-2443.92
-3420.28
-4168.39
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean
Value
642.72
621.41
-365.35
-840.98
-1501.11
-2054.56
-2992.17
-3790.13
-4480.96

(Average values)
1500
1000
500
V1
V2
V3
0
-500
-1000
T1
T2
T3
T4
Temperature factor ( Heating Mode)
(VxT interaction in Heating Mode)
270
R. Herrero Martn
Sensible Heat (W)
Factors
Mean
Value
Factors
Mean Value
Factors
Mean
Value
V1T1
1043.36
V2T1
950.02
V3T1
642.72
V1T2
548.83
V2T2
517.52
V3T2
621.41
V1T3
124.42
V2T3
266.02
V3T3
365.35
V1T4
769.44
V2T4
686.33
V3T4
840.98

(Average values)
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
V1
-2500
V2
-3000
V3
-3500
-4000
-4500
-5000
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature factor ( Cooling Mode)
Figure 19. Average values of sensible heat recovered are plotted against temperature factor. (VxT
interaction in Heating Mode)
Factors
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
Mean value
-954.20
-1712.27
-2074.65
-2887.95
-3009.28
Sensible Heat (W)

Factors
Mean value
V2T5
-1113.31
V2T6
-1993.26
V2T7
-2443.92
V2T8
-3420.28
V2T9
-4168.39
Factors
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean value
-1501.11
-2054.56
-2992.17
-3790.13
-4480.96
Table 13. ANOVA (heating and cooling mode)
Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoFheat
2
3
6
0
11
DoFcool
2
4
8
0
14
Heating Mode
SS
54418,37
5079918,40
80448,80
0,00
5214785,60
V
27209,19
1693306,13
13408,13
0.00
474071,42
%
1,04
97,41
1,54
0,00
100,00
Cooling Mode
SS
1770189,60
14096108,00
494686,21
0,00
16360984,00
V
885094,80
3524027,00
61835,78
0,00
1168641,71
%
10,82
86,16
3,02
0,00
100,00
271
Analysis of Results
All the considerations mentioned for the combined system, are essentially linked to the
evaporative cooler behaviour.
Heating and cooling mode analysis

Temperature Factor:
Heating Mode: This is the most contributory factor. Its shows a lineal decreasing trend,
the transition between heating and cooling mode can be clearly appreciated next to
temperature level 3, where primary air and secondary air temperatures are very similar.
Cooling Mode: this is the most contributory factor. Its shows a lineal decreasing
trend, although this trend could be considered as increasing trend, due to the fact that
more negative values results in a gain in terms of energy recovered in cooling mode.
This fact can be easily explained in terms of thermal differences between primary
and secondary airstream when temperature factor is increased from T5 to T9.
Furthermore, the cooling mode potential in terms of energy recovery in comparison with
heating mode is clearly shown. Due to the aforementioned fact, a conclusion can be inferred,
the behaviour of the analyzed device can be considered as irreversible and thus it should be
operated under cooling conditions.
Heat Pipes System

In this subsection a detailed analysis for the heat pipes system was carried out. Firstly,
the corresponding results for both working modes are shown ( See Figure 20 and 23 and
Tables 14-15 and 18), and secondly, these results are studied separately for heating mode
(See Figure 21 and 24 and Tables 16 and 19) and cooling mode (See Figure22 and 25 and
Tables 17 and 20).
Table 14-. Single factors mean values
Factors
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
Sensible Heat (W)

Mean Values Factors
-19.77
T4
-37.10
T5
-36.35
T6
98.49
T7
59.79
T8
48.14
T9
Mean Values
-20.30
-31.07
-64.59
-88.35
-125.62
-156.16
272
R. Herrero Martn

(Average values)
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Factors Levels
120
(Average values)
Sensible Heat (W)

Factor Mean
s
Values
V1
45.67
V2
41.38
V3
52.54
T1
98.49
T2
59.79
T3
48.14
T4
-20.30
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
Factors Levels
levels.
Sensible Heat (W)

Mean
Factors
Values
V1
-72.13
V2
-99.89
V3
-107.46
T5
-31.07
T6
-64.59
T7
-88.35
T8
-125.62
T9
-156.16

(Average values)
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
V1
V2
V3
T5
T6
Factors Levels
T7
T8
T9
levels.
273

Factors
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
Mean Values
93.74
59.17
44.53
-14.75
-18.13
-38.99
-51.18
-100.26
-152.08
Sensible Heat (W)

Factors Mean Values
V2T1
89.35
V2T2
53.53
V2T3
41.40
V2T4
-18.77
V2T5
-23.36
V2T6
-66.24
V2T7
-104.19
V2T8
-143.52
V2T9
-162.14
Factors
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean Values
112.38
66.67
58.50
-27.39
-51.73
-88.55
-109.67
-133.08
-154.25

(Average values)
150
100
50
V1
V2
-50
V3
-100
-150
-200
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature factor
(VxT interaction)

(Average values)
120
100
80
60
V1
40
V2
20
V3
0
-20
-40
T1
T2
T3
T4
(VxT interaction in Heating Mode)
274
R. Herrero Martn
Factors
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
Mean Values
93.74
59.17
44.53
-14.75
Sensible Heat (W)

Factors
Mean Values
V2T1
89.35
V2T2
53.53
V2T3
41.40
V2T4
-18.77
Factors
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
Mean Values
112.38
66.67
58.50
-27.39

(Average values)
0
-20
-40
-60
V1
-80
V2
-100
V3
-120
-140
-160
-180
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
(VxT interaction in Cooling Mode)
Factors
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
Mean
Values
-18.13
-38.99
-51.18
-100.26
-152.08
Sensible Heat (W)

Mean
Factors
Values
V2T5
-23.36
V2T6
-66.24
V2T7
-104.19
V2T8
-143.52
V2T9
-162.14
Factors
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Table 18. ANOVA

Factors
DoF
1727.23
SS
863.62
%
0.92
181267.12
22658.39
96.96
VxT
16
3956.14
247.26
2.12
Error
0.0
0.0
0.00
Total
26
186950.49
7190.40
100.00
Mean
Values
-51.73
-88.55
-109.67
-133.08
-154.25
275
Table 19. ANOVA (heating mode)
Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoFheat
2
3
6
0
11
Heating Mode
SS
V
253.64
126.82
22034.72 7344.91
381.52
63.59
0.00
0.00
22669.87 2060.90
%
1.12
97.20
1.68
0.00
100.00
Table 20. ANOVA (cooling mode)
Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoFheat
2
4
8
0
14
Cooling Mode
SS
V
3460.31
1730.16
29148.66 7287.16
1587.91
198.49
0.00
0.00
34196.88 2442.63
%
10.12
85.24
4.64
0.00
100.00
Analysis of Results
Temperature
Heating Mode: This is the most contributory factor, with a percentage next to 97%.
When the temperature difference between the outdoor and the return airstreams rises,
the sensible heat recovered is higher. The transition between cooling and heating
modes occurs next to temperature level 4. (See figure 7)
Cooling Mode: This is again the most contributory factor, since the heat transfer rate
is related to the temperature difference, when the temperature difference between the
outdoor and the return airstreams rises, the sensible heat recovered is higher.
LATENT HEAT RECOVERED

Latent heat is only recovered by the evaporative cooler device.
Firstly, the corresponding results for both working modes are shown ( See Figure 26 and 29
and Tables 21-22 and 25), and secondly, these results are studied separately for heating mode
(See Figure 27 and 30 and Tables 23 and 26) and cooling mode (See Figure 28 and 31 and
Tables 24 and 26 ).
276
R. Herrero Martn
Latent Heat (W)
Mean Values
Factors
671.29
T4
672.31
T5
473.95
T6
326.35
T7
321.36
T8
247.60
T9
Factors
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
Mean Values
516.25
699.80
827.53
811.22
997.64
704.90
Latent Heat Recovered (W)

(Average values)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Factors Levels
600
Latent Heat (W)

Mean
Factors
Value
V1
381.37
V2
385.66
V3
291.65
T1
326.35
T2
321.36
T3
247.60
T4
516.25

(Average values)
500
400
300
200
100
0
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
Factors Levels
levels.
277

1200
(Average values)
Sensible Heat
(W)
Mean
Factors
Value
V1
903.23
V2
901.63
V3
619.80
T5
699.80
T6
827.53
T7
811.22
T8
997.64
T9
704.90
1000
800
600
400
200
0
V1
V2
V3
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Factors Levels
levels.
Factors
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
Latent Heat (W)

Factors
Mean Value
V2T1
188.23
V2T2
433.75
V2T3
351.59
V2T4
569.06
V2T5
670.09
V2T6
1021.86
V2T7
942.50
V2T8
897.48
V2T9
976.24
Mean Value
424.04
359.07
234.05
508.31
914.48
846.11
946.76
1267.68
541.11
Factors
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean Value
366.78
171.25
157.17
471.39
514.82
614.63
544.41
827.77
597.35

(Average values)
1400
1200
1000
V1
800
V2
600
V3
400
200
0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature factor
(VxT interaction)
278
R. Herrero Martn

(Average values)
600
500
400
V1
300
V2
V3
200
100
0
T1
T2
T3
T4
(VxT interaction in Heating mode)

Sensible Heat (W)
Mean
Value
93.74
59.17
44.53
-14.75
Factors
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
Factors
Mean Value
Factors
Mean Value
V2T1
V2T2
V2T3
V2T4
89.35
53.53
41.40
-18.77
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
112.38
66.67
58.50
-27.39

(Average values)
1400
1200
1000
V1
800
V2
600
V3
400
200
0
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
(VxT interaction in Cooling mode)
279

Sensible Heat (W)
Factors
Mean Value
Factors
Mean Value
Factors
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
-18.13
-38.99
-51.18
-100.26
-152.08
V2T5
V2T6
V2T7
V2T8
V2T9
-23.36
-66.24
-104.19
-143.52
-162.14
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
Mean
Value
-51.73
-88.55
-109.67
-133.08
-154.25
Table 25. ANOVA

Factors
DoF
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
2
8
16
0
26
SS
234869.36
1676654.00
351256.57
0.0
2262779.9
117434.68
209581.75
21953.54
0.0
87029.99
10.38
74.10
15.52
0.00
100.00
Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
Heating Mode
DoF %
2
10.77
3
56.58
6
32.65
0
0.00
11
100.00
Cooling Mode
DoF %
2
39.66
4
26.23
8
34.11
0
0.00
14
100.00
Analysis of Results
All the factors and interaction with a percentage of contribution in the ANOVA higher
than 15% are considered.
Air Flow
Cooling Mode: This factor presents the highest contributory percentage (39%). A
priori, it is thought that when the airflow rises the latent heat recovered also does,
due to the increase in the mass heat coefficient, nevertheless, the convective mass
diffusion does not limit mass transport, thus it cannot be considered the controlling
resistance. It was observed that when increasing the airflow above 400 m3/h, the
humidity addition lowers (in absolute terms), this means that this airflow value can
be considered as a maximum, reaching this value the system behaves as a current
280
R. Herrero Martn
indirect evaporative cooler system, diminishing the latent heat recovered. To observe
the aforementioned fact (so called by-pass effect), a series of charts are provided (
See Tables 27-29). In this tables, in the last column the specific humidity values are
provided.
Table 27. Results for 300 m3/h.
T1
(C)
5.3
9.8
13.9
21.1
23.3
29.9
33.2
39.3
44.3
T2
(C)
8.9
11.7
13.5
18.4
20.0
24.0
26.1
29.4
34.0
x1
(gwater / kg dry air )
0.0035
0.0035
0.0037
0.0081
0.0083
0.0091
0.0087
0.0090
0.0101
x2
0.0041
0.0040
0.0040
0.0088
0.0096
0.0102
0.0100
0.0108
0.0109
T1-T2
(C)
-3.6
-1.9
0.4
2.6
3.3
5.9
7.1
9.9
10.2
x1-x2
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.7
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.7
0.7

T1
(C)
4.9
10.7
14.6
21.5
23.4
30.7
33.8
39.4
44.8
T2
(C)
7.3
12.0
13.9
19.9
20.7
25.3
28.2
31.6
33.9
x1
0.0035
0.0032
0.0036
0.0086
0.0078
0.0094
0.0093
0.0082
0.0099
x2
0.0037
0.0037
0.0039
0.0091
0.0084
0.0105
0.0102
0.0090
0.0109
T1-T2
(C)
-2.4
-1.3
0.7
1.6
2.6
5.4
5.6
7.8
10.9
x1-x2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.0

T1
(C)
4.2
10.1
14.3
19.6
25.4
30.1
34.5
39.1
44.5
x1
0.0034
0.0032
0.0035
0.0081
0.0076
0.0090
0.0087
0.0088
0.0087
T2
(C)
5.4
11.4
13.5
18.0
22.5
26.1
28.3
32.0
35.7
x2
0.0036
0.0033
0.0036
0.0085
0.0080
0.0095
0.0092
0.0094
0.0092
T1-T2
(C)
-1.21
-1.28
0.76
1.61
2.94
3.95
6.20
7.13
8.79
x1-x2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.5
281
Temperature
Both Modes analysis: this is the dominant factor. There are two different trends,
firstly, heating one, form levels 1 to 3, where latent heat decreases and secondly,
cooling one from level 4, where latent heat increases.
Heating Mode: evaporation is governed by the water vapour partial pressure

between the tubes surface and the primary airstream. The specific humidity levels of
the dates (See Tables 6-9) are closed, under these conditions, the heat exchanged is
mainly sensible heat, within this situation the saturation vapour pressure enables
water evaporation, (although temperature rises the corresponding relative humidity is
lower). Level 4 presents a different trend in comparison with levels 1 to 3).
Cooling Mode: The dates present low relative humidity values and high
temperatures, which corresponds to large evaporative capacity, whilst for lower
temperature levels (heating mode) the relative humidity levels associated are higher,
which corresponds to low evaporation capacity. Even next to saturation,
condensation conditions could occur, diminishing the latent heat exchanged.
VxT interaction
Heating Mode: When analyzing the data in detail, it is observed that T1 for V2
presents an anomalous value, lower than expected, fact which motivates the
intersection. Level 4 presents a different behaviour similar to the one observed in
cooling mode.
Cooling Mode: in this case an interaction occurs. When increasing airflow and
temperatures together with lower relative humidity levels, the latent heat recovered
rises. As previously discussed, this behaviour is limited by the maximum airflow
(V2).
TOTAL HEAT RECOVERED

Due to the fact that the combined system mostly reproduces the evaporative cooler device
behaviour (see Figure 32). The results offered corresponds to the evaporative cooler device.
The ANOVA also corroborates this fact. (See Table 30).
Evaporative Cooler
Firstly, the corresponding results for both working modes are shown ( See Figure 33 and
36 and Tables 31-33), and secondly, these results are studied separately for heating mode
(See Figure 34 and Table 34 ) and cooling mode (See Figure 35 and Table 34).
282
R. Herrero Martn
Total Heat Rec ov ered (W)

(Av erage Values )
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Single Factors
Combined System
Heat Pipes
Evaporative Cooler
Figure 32 Evaporative Cooler and Heat Pipes contribution to total heat recovered.
Table 30. ANOVA (combined system and single systems separately)

Total Heat
Total
Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
SS
2656919.8
56340888
1275887.2
0.0
60273695
DoF
2
8
16
0
26
%
4.41
93.48
2.12
0.00
100.00
Evaporative Cooler
Heat Pipes
SS
2446733.6
50688523
1274684.4
0.0
54409941
SS
1727.23
181267.12
3956.14
0.0
186950.49
%
4.50
93.16
2.34
0.00
100.00
Factors
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
Total Heat (W)

Mean Values
Factors
-433.16
T4
-730.35
T5
-1166.17
T6
1205.05
T7
883.94
T8
-4.33
T9
Mean Values
-249.33
-489.74
-1092.50
-1692.36
-2368.48
-3181.31
%
0.92
96.96
2.12
0.00
100.00
283

1500
Total Heat Recovered (W)
(Average values)
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
-2500
-3000
-3500
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Factors Levels
1400
1200
(Average values)
Total Heat (W)

Mean
Factors
value
V1
555.95
V2
514.46
V3
306.10
T1
1205.05
T2
883.94
T3
-4.33
T4
-249.33
1000
800
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
V1
V2
V3
T1
T2
T3
T4
Factors Levels
levels.
Total HeatW)
Mean
Factors
Value
V1
-1224.44
V2
-1726.20
V3
-2343.99
T5
-489.74
T6
-1092.50
T7
-1692.36
T8
-2368.48
T9
-3181.31

(Average values)
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
-2500
-3000
-3500
V1
V2
V3
T5
T6
Factors Levels
T7
T8
T9
levels.
284
R. Herrero Martn
Factors
Mean Value
V1T1
V1T2
V1T3
V1T4
V1T5
V1T6
V1T7
V1T8
V1T9
1467.40
907.90
109.63
-261.13
-39.72
-866.16
-1127.89
-1620.28
-2468.17
Total Heat(W)
Mean
Factors
value
V2T1
1138.25
V2T2
951.27
V2T3
85.57
V2T4
-117.26
V2T5
-443.22
V2T6
-971.40
V2T7
-1501.43
V2T8
-2522.80
V2T9
-3192.15
Factors
Mean Value
V3T1
V3T2
V3T3
V3T4
V3T5
V3T6
V3T7
V3T8
V3T9
1009.50
792.66
-208.18
-369.60
-986.29
-1439.93
-2447.75
-2962.35
-3883.62
To ta l H e a t R e co ve re d (W )
2000
1000
0
V1
-1000
V2
-2000
V3
-3000
-4000
-5000
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Temperature factor
(VxT interaction)
Table 33. ANOVA

Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoF
2
8
16
0
26
SS
2446733.6
50688523
1274684.4
0.0
54409941
V
1223366.8
6336065.4
79667.8
0.0
2092690
%
4.50
93.16
2.34
0.00
100.00
285

Factors
V
T
VxT
Error
Total
DoFheat
2
3
6
0
11
DoFcool
2
4
8
0
14
SS
143416.55
4360719.70
76221.97
0.00
4580358.20
Heating Mode
V
71708.28
1453573.23
12703.66
0.00
416396.20
%
3.13
95.20
1.66
0.00
100.00
SS
3144680.40
13361816.00
357099.39
0.00
16863596.00
Cooling Mode
V
1572340.20
3340454.00
44637.42
0.00
1204542.60
%
18.65
79.23
2.12
0.00
100.00
Analysis of Results
Airflow Analysis
Cooling Mode: its contribution is higher, around 18%. It is shown that, when the
airflow is increased, the total heat recovered rises, due to the increment of the film
coefficients: both the thermal coefficient, which characterises the sensible exchange,
as well as the mass coefficient linked to the latent exchange.
Temperature
Heating Mode: this is the most contributory factor, with a very high percentage of
approximately 95%. This value is increased for the highest temperature differences
between both airstreams (supply and return). The behaviour of the system is clearly
shown, which goes from the positive values that characterize the heating mode to the
negative ones which represent the cooling mode. The transition between these
behaviours occurs near the temperature level 3 which corresponds to 15C.
Cooling mode: this is the most contributory factor whose values are approximately
80%. In this factor, the effects produced by the temperature increments are cancelled
out by the sensible and latent heat recovered. The rising trend to negative values, the
continuity and the linearity that presents the evaporative cooler in this working mode
are clearly shown.
SUMMARY
In Table 35 the main conclusions from the analysis performed are summarized.
The legend to understand the following table is: x means no contribution (negligible
contribution in terms of variance analysis), as well as the white squares. The light-grey
coloured squares represent a medium contributory percentage, and the ones in dark grey are
the most contributory squares, their effects were previously explained.
286
R. Herrero Martn
Table 35. Summary of Results (combined system and single systems separately)
Factors
V
T
VxT
Factors
V
T
VxT
Factors
V
T
VxT
Sensible Heat
Evaporative Cooler
TOTAL
Heating
Cooling
Mode
Mode
Decreasing
x
x
(-)
Decreasing Decreasing
Decreasing
(+/-)
(+/-)
(-)
x
x
x
LATENT HEAT
Evaporative Cooler
Heating Mode
Decreasing (+)
Decreasing (+)
Corroborates individual factors
Total Heat
RESI
TOTAL
Heating
Cooling
Mode
Mode
Decreasing
x
x
(-)
Decreasing Decreasing
Decreasing
(+/-)
(+/-)
(-)
x
x
x
Heat Pipes
Heating
Cooling
Mode
Mode
Decreasing
x
(-)
Decreasing
Decreasing
(+/-)
(-)
x
x
Cooling Mode
By- pass efect
Increasing (+)
Interaction
H.P
Heating
Mode
x
Decreasing
(+/-)
x
Cooling
Mode
Decreasing
(-)
Decreasing
(-)
x
It should be mentioned as a general conclusion that level 4 is a discordant point of

the Heating mode behaviour.
The dominant recovery system is the evaporative cooler in terms of total heat
recovered.
Sensible Heat
Temperature is the most contributory factor in terms of sensible heat. A decreasing

trend is clearly observed from positive values (heating mode) to negative ones
(cooling mode).
Latent Heat
Heating mode: temperature was the most contributory factor.

Cooling mode: an important by-pass effect was found.
287
Total Heat
Temperature is the most contributory factor. This value is increased for the highest
temperature differences between both airstreams (supply and return).
CONCLUSIONS
The combined system built allows a feasible energy exchange between the supply
airstream and the return one, improving the operation in air-conditioning systems. It is a new
alternative device for use as a recovery system. The configuration chosen (crossed flow) is
the most adequate from an operational point of view.
The characterization of the system was carried out by employing experimental design
methodology. A factorial design was performed by analysing how the factors used affect the
characteristics analyzed. The contributions of the single factors and their interactions were
presented by carrying out a variance analysis. The superiority of the evaporative cooling
device under the operating conditions was clearly shown.
An estimation of the energy saved by the combined system was carried out, showing the
possibilities of implementing this solution to save energy and also to improve the indoor air
quality by means of increasing the ventilation rates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was developed thanks to the support of the Spanish Ministry of Education and
Science of Spain which awarded a Ph.D. scholarship with the reference number: AP20033730 IME in order to carry out the Ph.D. work entitled: Waste Energy Recovery using a
combined system: SIECHP.
REFERENCES
Watt, J. R. (1986). Evaporative Air Conditioning Handbook, Chapman & Hall, New York.
Johnson, D. W., Yavuzturk, C. & Pruis, J. (2003). Analysis of heat and mass transfer
phenomena in hollow fiber membranes used for evaporative cooling. Journal of
Membrane Science, vol. 227, Issues 1-2, 15 December, Pages 159-171.
Rey Martnez, F. J., Velasco Gmez, E., Herrero Martn, R., Martnez Gutirrez, J. & Varela
Diez, F. (2003). Comparative Study Of Two Different Evaporative Systems: An Indirect
Evaporative Cooler And A Semi-Indirect Ceramic Evaporative Cooler. Energy and
Buildings.
Kaviany, M. (1999). Principles of Heat Transfer in Porous Media. Springer-Verlag, New
York. ISBN 0-387-94550-4.
Ibrahim, E., Shao, L. & Riffat, S. B. (2003). Performance of porous ceramic evaporators for
building cooling application. Energy and Buildings, 35, 941-949.
288
R. Herrero Martn
Riffat, S. B. & Zhu, J. (2004). Mathematical model of indirect evaporative cooler using
porous ceramic and heat pipe Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 24, Issue 4, March,
Pages 457-470.
Robert, L. (2003). Minimizing Legionella concentration in cooling water systems, Water
Technol Mag.
Vasiliev, L. L. (2005). Heat pipes in modern heat exchangers. Applied Thermal
Engineering 25, 1-19.
Shao, L., Riffat, S. B. & Gan, G. Heat recovery with low pressure loss for natural
ventilation. Energy and Buildings, vol. 28, Issue 2, October 1998, Pages 179-184
Lukitobudi, A. R., Akbarzadeh, A., Johnson, P. W. & Hendy, P. (July 1995). Design,
construction and testing of a thermosyphon heat exchanger for medium temperature heat
recovery in bakeries Heat Recovery Systems and CHP, vol. 15, Issue 5,Pages 481-491.
Noie-Baghban, S. H. & Majideian, G. R. (1 October 2000). Waste heat recovery using heat
pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) for surgery rooms in hospitals Applied Thermal
Engineering, vol. 20, Issue 14, Pages 1271-1282
Mostafa, A. Abd El-Baky 1 & Mousa M. Mohamed. (2007). Heat pipe heat exchanger for
heat recovery in air conditioning. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, 795-801.
Larson, E. D. Nilsson, L. J. (1991). Electricity use and efficiency in pumping and air handling
system, ASHRAE Trans., 97 (part 2), 363-377.
Faghri, A. et al. Heat pipe for hands, Mech. Eng. 111 (6) (1989) 72-75.
Liu, G. et al. (1992). The application of heat pipe heat exchanger in exhaust gas heat recovery
system and its thermodynamic analysis, in: 8th International Heat Pipe Conference,
Beijing, China, 582585.
Dube, V., Sauciuc, I. & Akbarzadeh, A. (1996). Design construction and testing of a
thermosyphon heat exchanger for medium temperature heat recovery, in: 5th
International Heat Pipe Symposium, Melbourne, Australia.
Tan, J. O. & Liu, C. Y. (1990) Predicting the performance of a heat pipe heat exchanger using
the NTU method, Int. J. Heat Fluid Fl. 11 (4), 376-379.
Sylemez, M. S. (September 2003). On the thermoeconomical optimization of heat pipe heat
exchanger HPHE for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 44,
Issue 15, Pages 2509-2517
Lin, S., Broadbent, J. & McGlen, R. (January 2005). Numerical study of heat pipe
application in heat recovery systemsApplied Thermal Engineering, vol. 25, Issue 1,
Pages 127-133
Noie. S. H. (April 2006). Investigation of thermal performance of an air-to-air thermosyphon
heat exchanger using -NTU method. Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 26, Issues 5-6,
Pages 559-567
International Organization for Standardization. (1995). Guide to the expression of uncertainty
in measurement:101, ISO Geneva.
In: Energy Recovery

ISBN: 978-1-60741-065-2
Chapter 9
ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS FROM INDUSTRIAL

PLANT WASTE: PLANNING OF AN INDUSTRIAL PARK
LOCATED IN THE SOUTH OF ITALY
Silvana Khtz, Francesca Intini, Sara Bellini and
Giovanna Matarrese
Universit della Basilicata, Facolt di Ingegneria DIFA via Lazzazzera,
75100 Matera, Italy
ABSTRACT
In this chapter, we compare environmental and technological aspects of some
innovative energy recovery systems from industrial waste. We present the results of a
research study that we are conducting on an Italian firm that produces polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) supports for waterproof membranes from plastic bottles. For this firm
(and all of the firms in the same industrial park), the waste represents only an undesired
cost rather than a potential energy source. We first compared a traditional thermal waste
treatment with a molecular dissociator and then with a specific gasifier. All three
technologies can be fed with basically every type of waste, and can produce electric
and/or thermal energy. In particular, the latter two produce syngas that can be burned
after depuration to produce energy. A cost-benefit analysis is then carried out to plan how
the whole industrial park can use the industrial waste to produce the energy it needs, with
economic and environmental benefits for all.
INTRODUCTION
The gradual depletion of environmental resources is one of the most complex and
pressing problems facing the world today. Too often in the past people have failed to take into
account that the environment is not an inexhaustible resource and that its indiscriminate use
silvana.kuhtz@unibas.it
290
Silvana Khtz, Francesca Intini, Sara Bellini and Giovanna Matarrese
would have led sooner or later to a highly critical situation. Waste management in industrial
parks is a particularly relevant issue for the purpose of minimizing the global impact on the
environment and introducing an advanced model of industrial ecology.
The plans to set up a dense network of relations within an industrial park, aiming to
achieve shared goals of environmental and economic performance, have been carried out
through the creation of eco-industrial parks. In this chapter, we are going to analyze various
waste disposal methods by identifying their specific skills in the ecological exploitation of
waste products and the respective plant/environment interactions.
To this purpose, it is necessary to introduce innovative methods and tools of analysis,
design and planning, which take into account the complex relationships between the
environmental variables.
Life cycle assessment, combined with cost-benefit analysis, is part of the methodological
apparatus developed for an objective environmental assessment aimed at comparing
alternative scenarios, and it can be used as a decision support tool for the framing of industrial
and environmental policies.
In order to make our analysis more realistic, our comparative assessment of technological
and management aspects of the various systems present in the waste to energy sector has
referred to the results of a research study we have conducted on an Italian firm that produces
polyethylene terephthalate (PETP) support membranes from plastic bottles, and which
regards (like all of the firms in the same industrial park) industrial waste only as an undesired
cost, whereas it could represent an energy source.
1. A STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

OF INDUSTRIAL PARKS
The environmental management of industrial parks was a new topic until some time ago.
The situation has evolved rapidly, thanks to the introduction of regulations and directives
concerning this sector, and it has increasingly drawn the attention of public and private
institutions which are becoming increasingly aware of the need to promote sustainable
development, especially in terms of energy saving and of improving life and work conditions.
These notions, that only a few years ago were considered too innovative and as potential
obstacles to industrial development, are today topics of wide interest.
1.1. Environmental Qualification of Industrial Parks

The issue of the environmental qualification of industrial sites is relatively new, even on
an international level: it is only since the early 1990s that the U.S., together with Asia and
Europe, has witnessed the spread of voluntary experimentations aimed at creating industrial
areas equipped with tools for minimizing the impact on the environment [1].
Eco-industrial parks (EIP), as theorized by Lowe [2], are networks of manufacturing
companies and service firms which are linked by a joint management and commit themselves
to improving their own environmental, economic and social performances, by collaborating
in dealing with environmental issues and resource use (including energy, water and
Energy Recovery Systems from Industrial Plant Waste: Planning
291
minerals). This integrated approach pursues collective benefits that are greater than the sum
of individual benefits that each company would obtain individually from the optimization of
its own performances. The strategies to achieve such a goal require a new design or a
revitalisation of infrastructures and of industrial park planning, cleaner production, protection
from pollution, energy efficiency and business cooperation.
We distinguish three basic categories of eco-industrial projects:
1. Eco-industrial park or estate (EIP) an industrial park developed and managed as a real
estate development enterprise and seeking high environmental, economic, and social
benefits as well as business excellence.
2. By-product exchange (BPX) a set of companies seeking to utilize each others byproducts (energy, water, and materials) rather than disposing of them as waste.
3. Eco-industrial network (EIN) a set of companies collaborating to improve their
environmental, social, and economic performance in a region (see Figure 1).
We believe these distinctions are important to maintain, although there are various ways
projects can overlap. EIPs and EINs may include by-product exchange programs. One or
more EIPs may participate in either a BPX or an EIN [3].
An eco-industrial network may include stand-alone companies, companies in industrial
parks, and the park management organizations. EIN members collaborate to enhance their
performance and to create shared services and facilities. One form of collaboration is to
exchange by-product materials, energy, or water among companies, when feasible.
Hence, the strategic objectives of environmental performance pursued by the EIPs are:
efficient resource use

environmental impact reduction
management of interactions between the environment and surrounding communities.
Some of the shared services may be: environmental management systems of a single
production cycle, logistics, by-products exchange, recruitment of other businesses, external
promotion, management of green areas, etc.
Figure 1. Eco-industrial network.
292
1.2. Principles of Industrial Ecology

Eco-Industrial Parks take up the principles developed by industrial ecology, which is the
study of material and energy flows, with the aim to reduce significantly resource use and
pollution. Indeed it proposes to apply to industrial systems and to their transformationproduction cycles the same rules and principles governing the functioning of non-human
biological systems that are the ecosystems, characterised by symbiotic relationships and by
the absence of the idea of waste: each waste product is put back into the system, to produce
energy or as a raw material, in order to start a process essential to maintain a global balance.
According to Allenbys scheme [4], traditional industry follows a linear process: the
consumption of energy and materials to produce goods and services generates a significant
amount of waste (Figure 2). Such a system could operate in a sustainable manner only if the
resources fed and the space to dispose of the waste are unlimited.
Figure 2. Traditional industry.
An ecological system, by contrast, is characterised by the right combination between

dynamic balance and closed loop, Figure 3. In a dynamic balance, energy and waste are
constantly recycled and reused by other organisms and processes within the system. In a
perfect closed-loop system, only solar energy (or other renewable energy sources) should
come from the outside, while all by-products should be constantly reused or recycled.
Nevertheless, a total cycle closure cannot be achieved at the level of eco-districts, because at
least the final products have to be released outside the system. This model brings about also
the mutual dependence between the various parts of the system, along with problems and
advantages connected to it.
Figure 3. Ecological system.
Figure 4. Eco-industrial parks.
293
Therefore the goal to be pursued is a limited use of inputs (virgin resources and
materials), a limited amount of waste discharged from the system and, above all, a
collaboration between the various components of the industrial ecosystem through the
exchange of energy and materials, Figure 4. This model goes beyond the principle of product
stewardship, as it also takes into account the whole process, along with its waste, and it
requires business cooperation, both vertical and horizontal.
There are therefore two possible approaches:
1. the creation of symbiotic production processes with regard to material flow (energy, heat,
water, waste, emissions, people, goods), whose aims of efficiency and effectiveness in
the use of materials and energy are the basis of business cooperation;
2. the planning of services and infrastructures within the industrial parks applying the
principles of environmental sustainability and closed-loop natural cycles.
Consequently, the main requirements for service sharing and for a successful industrial
symbiosis are the following:
complementary needs as far as material/energy are concerned;

physical proximity in order to implement cascade systems of energy and water
supply and to cut transport costs;
presence of a homogeneous service demand in order to obtain economies of scale;
importance of personal relationships between the various enterprises, also by means
of associations.
Industrial parks are important tools of economic and social qualification of an area but, at
the same time, they are potential sources of pressure on the environment and on surrounding
communities.
1.3. Ecologically Equipped Industrial Areas

The notion of industrial park as an eco-friendly place (as well as an area of economic and
urban development) has evolved in time and has led Italy to the construction of the so-called
Ecologically Equipped Industrial Areas (in the year 1998). The Italian production system,
organised into chains and districts, is characterised by a great flexibility and by the tendency
to networking.
But as regards the environmental field, the Italian business sector, whose main feature is
a high concentration of small and medium-sized enterprises, encounters a lot of difficulties in
implementing preventive measures, due to a lack of culture in such issues.
Joint environmental management, dialogue with local authorities and business
participation in the process are key elements in the enhancement of a new territorial
governance framing and supporting a sustainable environmental policy on industrial areas.
The Ecologically equipped industrial area may be regarded as a forum for environmental
dialogue where all the stakeholders involved in its constitution, development and activities
294
share their experiences, their resources and their goals and perform partnership actions aimed
at complying with regulations but, in broader terms, at meeting the environmental needs and
expectations of the resident industries and the local communities. Through a joint
management of shared infrastructures and services, planned in concert with the resident group
of enterprises, it is possible to create economies of scale allowing the environmental issues to
be settled with a reduction in cost. The introduction of Ecologically Equipped Industrial
Areas should not be viewed by stakeholders (enterprises, local authorities) as an external
constraint hindering economic development but rather as a tool for revitalizing the area and
increasing the enterprises production systems competitiveness. The aim of joint
environmental management is to provide mutual benefits to industries, public authorities and
local populations. The enterprise system is evolving and territories are being provided with
policies and tools aimed at their strengthening. Industrial parks as well may take part in this
change process, closely meeting businesses and citizens needs and becoming one of the most
effective strategies toward growing territorial competitiveness from an economic, social and
environmental point of view.
The introduction of this new concept of industrial area, provided with technical and
organisational tools aiming to minimize and manage jointly the pressures on the environment,
responds to the need to replace the so-called end of pipe approach (combating pollution as a
last stage of the process) with the precautionary principle preventing pollution. In particular,
it is not meant just to supply industries with specific environmental equipment, as it has been
so far, but to organize the industrial site so as to help, from an economic and technical point
of view, each enterprise in the area achieve their environmental goals, be they prescriptive or
voluntary.
1.4. Generation of Industrial Waste in Europe

Manufacturing industry waste comprises many different waste streams arising from a
wide range of industrial processes. Some of the largest waste generating industrial sectors in
Western and Central Europe include the production of basic metals, food, beverage and
tobacco products, wood and wood products and paper and paper products [5].
It has been estimated that over 33 million tonnes of industrial waste were generated in
Europe in 1998. Waste from the manufacturing sector continues to rise, despite national and
international declarations to reduce waste from manufacturing industry, to introduce cleaner
technologies and other waste minimisation initiatives and to work towards manufacturing
practices that are sustainable in the long term.
The manufacturing industry has a central role to play in the prevention and reduction of
waste as the products that they manufacture today become the wastes of tomorrow.
Manufacturers can achieve innovative solutions:
considering the impacts of their products throughout its life at the design stage of the
product (LCA);
using manufacturing processes that minimise material and energy usage;
eliminating or reducing where possible the use of substances or materials hazardous
to health or the environment;
manufacturing products in such a way that they last longer and may be recycled or
reused at the end-of-life stage.
295
EU and government policy across Europe is increasingly driven by the need to influence
manufacturing practices in an effort to decrease the environmental impact of products during
their manufacture, use and end-of-life.
The EU Strategy for Sustainable development emphasises the strategic target to break the
link between economic growth, the use of resources, and the generation of waste.
Therefore natural resources and wastes is one of four key environmental priorities
described in the 6th European Action Programme. The objective is to decrease the amount of
waste generated and to achieve a relative decoupling between economic growth and
generation of waste.
Europe aims to reduce the final amount of waste by 20% by the year 2010 and by 50% by
the year 2050.
Figure 5 shows the amounts of manufacturing waste generated in nine Western European
(WE) countries and seven Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries [6]. From 1996 to
2002 the generation of waste in the manufacturing sector increased by 15% in WE (from 123
Mtonnes to 141 Mtonnes) and by 42% in CEE (from 60 Mtonnes to 86 Mtonnes).
Due to lack of proper time series data from the large countries UK, France and Spain are
missing in the indicator. The three countries are responsible for about half of the
manufacturing waste generation in WE. The few data available from the countries indicate a
slight decrease in waste generation.
Figure 5. Manufacturing waste generation in Western Europe and Central Eastern Europe in Mtonnes.
Figure 6 depicts generation of manufacturing waste held against the gross value added in
the manufacturing sector in the years 1996 to 2002 in the 13 European countries for which
data are available. The gross value added by the manufacturing sector is steadily rising in the
period (6%), but not as much as the generation of manufacturing waste (24%).
296
Figure 6. Manufacturing waste generation in Europe compared to gross value in the manufacturing
sector.
This means that overall objective of decoupling waste generation in Europe from
economic development has failed as regards manufacturing waste. The European
manufacturing sector is very diverse and the individual countries have had very different
trends in the period analysed. The growth at European level can mainly be explained by the
massively rising waste amounts in the three countries Italy, Netherlands and Poland, while
most other countries have stagnating or even falling waste amounts.
Figure 7 shows the national differences in manufacturing waste generation per capita as
well as the temporal trends for 1996-2002 for a range of European countries. In nine countries
a declining or steady trend can be observed, while seven countries have increasing amounts of
manufacturing waste per capita. The manufacturing waste generation per capita is generally
higher in the CEE countries (1000 kg per capita) than WE countries (ca. 700 kg per capita).
Finland has a very high manufacturing waste generation per capita. However, Figure 7 does
not reveal the reasons for the observed trends and distributions, and establishing causal
relations to driving forces are beyond the scope of the indicator framework.
Theoretically, a given level of generation per capita could be explained by two factors:
1. the reliance of a country on the manufacturing sector (measured, e.g., as the share of the
sector in the total economy);
2. the resource efficiency of the manufacturing sector and the structure of the manufacturing
sector.
The above figure shows how important it is to also be aware of the trends inside the
countries since this varies a lot and perhaps shows how the resource efficiency varies and
changes within the countries.
297
Figure 7. Trends in generation of manufacturing waste per capita.
Figure 8 shows the manufacturing waste generated per gross value added1 in the
manufacturing sector.
Figure 8. Trends in manufacturing waste generation per gross value added in the manufacturing sector.
In national accounts such as the United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA) or the NIPAs, gross
value added is obtained by deducting intermediate consumption from gross output. Thus gross value added is
equal to net output. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_added)
298
It can be seen that relatively small decoupling is seen in Belgium, Denmark and Germany
while the waste intensity in the CEE countries (871 tonnes per million USD) are many times
higher than the WE countries (129 tonnes per million USD). Romania, Poland and Slovakia
have the highest waste intensity while Iceland, Norway and Denmark have the lowest. There
is a falling tendency in five countries while the waste intensity is increasing in five other
countries.
Manufacturing waste is typically heterogeneous and with differentiated range of potential
impact on the environment. Although different wastes cause different environmental impact
potential, there is also a quantitative aspect as more waste means potentially higher pressure
on the environment.
The industrial structure, in terms of the prevailing sectors and branches, is an important
factor for the amount and the kinds of waste generated, some sectors being the source of large
quantities of hazardous waste with high environmental impacts. Waste also represents a loss
of resources both in the form of materials and energy. Indeed, quantities of manufacturing
waste can be seen as an indicator of the material efficiency of the manufacturing sector.
Excessive quantities of waste result directly from a large industrial production and
inefficient production processes. Indirectly it reflects low durability of goods and
unsustainable consumption patterns leading to high demand for manufacturing products and
thereby potentially high waste quantities. Waste minimisation in manufacturing production
processes is an increasingly important objective of manufacturing environmental strategies
also in the framework of environmental certification. Different countries and industrial
sectors are differently positioned in the process of optimising resource use, factory-level
waste minimisation and the adoption of certification instruments.
2. THE MAIN FINAL THERMAL TREATMENTS OF WASTE

The thermal treatment which takes out energy from waste includes also combustion and
gasification processes. Combustion and gasification technologies of alternative fuels, like biomass, fuels from wastes and from other types of industrial wastes, are gaining importance.
The energy conversion technologies are increasingly constrained by environmental
regulations on regional, national and international level. So it is necessary to move towards
advanced technologies like gasification systems in combined cycles.
Combustion and gasification processes of non-conventional solid fuels increasingly
require the integration of different skills, due to the high variability of physicochemical
parameters of the initial fuels. The nature of fuels influences choices in the processes and
systems. The complicated fluid-dynamic behaviour of multiphase systems is another factor of
influence [7]. So, when analysing the thermo treatment processes with energy recovery from
solid urban wastes and industrial wastes it is necessary to look for their environmental and
energetic performances.
The three technologies analyzed in this chapter are: a waste to energy plant of the latest
generation, a molecular dissociator and a gasifier licensed in Italy. The three of them aim to
dispose of every kind of waste, at the same time producing electricity and/or thermal energy
but in different ways and with different results.
299
2.1. Waste to Energy Plant System a

Although the traditional waste to energy plant uses a more obsolete technology, studying
it helps to understand evolution and innovations in energy efficiency occurred in the last few
years [8].The primary purpose of waste to energy plants, also called incinerators (waste
burning plants) with energy recovery, is to burn waste (at 9001000C) and make it
biologically and chemically inert, by reducing its volume, with a great advantage that is the
production of electricity and thermal energy. The heat produced by the combustion, generates
steam which is used for energy production and for the heating [9].
Municipal waste incineration is a controlled combustion process which oxidizes the
organic substances contained in waste, producing simple molecules in a gaseous state at
standard temperature (gas): organic carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen to
water (H2O) and sulphur to sulphur dioxide (SO2); generally the inorganic part of the waste is
not subject to reactions and becomes a solid waste to be disposed of and/or to be recovered
(ash or slag). Also unpleasant chemical transformations take place, such as the creation of
nitrogen oxide (NO), hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, which toxic characteristics.
The cycle of wastes combustion is divided into the following phases:
acceptance and storage;

feeding;
combustion;
cooling of combustion smokes and warmth recovery;
treatment of combustion rests: ashes, smokes, slags, waste waters.
Waste combustion phase is performed in furnaces and it involves three phases: drying,
starting and combustion. In order to meet various needs, several kinds of furnaces have been
introduced: moving grid, fluid bed and rotary drum. During combustion the smokes come out
at a temperature of 1000C, so it is necessary an intermediate phase of cooling in a
combustion section and the extraction of heat from the smokes. But these smokes embed
pollution elements. It is possible to treat these smokes. Polluting gas control equipment can
be performed by mixing smokes with chemical elements (solids, liquids or gas) able to
remove one or more polluting components. Often the absorption process on solids are used,
like active carbon.
Another problem of wastes incineration is due to solid residual products and to their
impact on the environment. The incinerators produce two kinds of solid wastes: slags
discharged by furnaces, and fine particles (flying ash mixed to smoke) seized by smoke
treatment. It is difficult to manage them because they embed large quantities of toxic
compounds, like heavy metals and organ chlorinated compounds easily released in the
environment through percolation.
2.2. Molecule Dissociation System b

The molecular dissociation process includes the thermo chemical conversion of a carboncomposite into a burning gas [10].
300
Briefly, the process consists in a chemical splitting up of complex organic molecules into
simpler ones through thermal gasification at low temperature (T = 400500C) performed in
controlled conditions of warmth and oxygen availability (max. 34% of O2) inside a locked
cell. Here, carbon chemical links are broken and simpler molecules take origin, thanks to
warmth effect during starting phases of fuel use (i.e., methane gas). The process is very slow
and the whole cycle lasts 24 hours; furthermore, the reduced turbulence and the flames
absence lessen the powder presence in smokes. After breakdown, carbon matrix changes from
a solid condition into a gas one, by producing a synthesized gas (syngas) with good
combustible characteristics. The synthetic gas after depuration stage can be burnt in the
presence of air (T1100C) in a following stage, where there are thermodynamic cycles, like
co-generator cycle. The systems can use several thermodynamic cycles, consequently they are
more flexible in regulation between heat and electricity production. The remaining waste is
composed of ash, inert and non toxic, and it can be disposed of in a dump or used for tiles
construction or mixed with asphalt.
2.3. Gasifier Licensed in Italy System c

A gasifier with a new technology was licensed in Italy. It is different from the traditional
gasifier and the molecular dissociation thanks to the gasification reactor and to different
conditions of management and control.
Gasification is a chemical decomposition produced by thermal energy. Without a surplus
of air and oxygen, gasification produces thermo chemical decomposition of wastes organic
matter and change this matter into syngas [11].
The system which produces the above-mentioned process involves a lot of sections, that
can be listed according to their functions:
materials preparation section: this involves the storage building and machinery
where wastes are treated and stored (raw materials for the plant) in order to make
their size suitable for feeding the reactor where the gasification process takes place.
These treatments are usually meant to transform the waste into waste fuels (dry and
crushed municipal solid waste).
gasification section: this is the technological heart of the system. Thanks to the
technology licensed in Italy, a specific reactor has been designed (with new
characteristics), with vertical development, descending flow and best temperature of
process at 1200C. The waste is fed at the top of reactor and by falling down from
top to bottom (as a fluid bed) is covered by flames come out from thermic lances
which are tangentially in reactor. These lances produce high turbulences which create
an immediate gasification. Thermic lances fed by pure methane and oxygen
characterize this process which grant high ecological and energetic results. Another
peculiarity of this reactor is that it can be fed continuously, wih all the wastes
categories independently from their calorific value and chemical composition.
energy generation section: it is the final step where the syngas is used. Nowadays the
groups with endothermic/alternator engine are more used thanks to their high electric
(about 38% compared to the fuel input) and global efficiency. Thermal recovery
301
takes place during the cooling cycle (engine side, smoke side and oil engine side) of
the machine. This brings to total efficiency even higher than 80/90%. The
temperature of the thermal energy recovery is about 80C in case of water use, or 68
bar of pressure in case of steam production.
The solid wastes of gasification are transformed into glass, thanks to high temperatures,
and are completely inert.
2.4. Comparison among Systems for Waste Disposal with Energy Recovery
It is necessary to point out which is the most efficient technology from an environmental
and an energetic point of view. This comparison considers the following aspects:
structure-process;
performance;
environmental impact.
From the structural-processing point of view, system a (waste to energy plant described
on paragraph 2.1 and here called system a) reduces waste in ash, by using again combustion
smokes to produce electric and/or thermal energy, whereas system b (dissociator, described in
paragraph 2.2 and here called system b) and system c (gasifier, described in paragraph 2.3 and
here called system c) transform (in different ways) the raw material into a synthetic gas used
then as a fuel.
The main body of system a is the furnace of combustion, in system b is the cell and in
system c is mono-tube reactor with vertical development, the last two produce syngas.
Another important aspect is the very high chimney for system a compared to the chimney a
few meters high for system b.
Despite the fact that the final product is the same, there are a lot of differences between b
and c systems: the main body of the system, the working temperature, the procedures and the
scheme for syngas production.
System b works at about 400C, in presence of oxygen at 45%, so the raw material
transformation is exothermic; so it only triggers the reaction with a moderate electric
resistance (200-300kW per 100 t/g of waste).
System c has a different mechanism. Its reactor has a variable thermic profile (optimum
temperature at 1200C). The waste falls down in the reactor from top to bottom, and it is
burnt by flames generated by thermic lances which are fed with methane and oxygen. This
lets the process be controlled, independently from changes of waste calorific value, but with
unavoidable economic consequences (262 m3/h of methane and 560 m3/hof oxygen per 3 t/h
of input waste are necessary).
System b has a lower self-consumption (less than 2%) and it can treat any kind of waste
without a pre-treatment. Furthermore, both the gasification technologies dimensions fill a
minimum space, and have a modular process; system a does not present these advantages. The
energetic results depend on the choice of the system for the production of electric and/or
thermic energy. Analysis results, listed in Figure 9, show how syngas brings higher
302
efficiencies. Moreover, system b produces very low percentages of inert ashes, about the 3
4%, compared to 30% of toxic wastes produced by system a.
For systems b and c its important to emphasize the conversion energetic efficiency, that
is 0.98 for the first and 0.68 for the latter, and also the percentage composition of syngas, (see
Figure 10).
System c offers a cleaner gas compared to system b, with high concentrations of hydrogen
and carbon monoxide, and low percentage of nitrogen and negligible sulphur compounds.
Figure 9. Energy efficiencies (expressed in percent) of system a and b.
Figure 10. Percentage composition of syngas.
Despite the sophisticated instruments for the reduction of smokes, from an environmental
point of view, the smokes of system a present organic material deriving from uncompleted
combustion or thermic synthesis reaction. Systems b and c generate syngas in good
conditions, so they do not give rise to hazardous dioxins and furans. Experimental data
demonstrate that emissions to atmosphere generated by the combustion of the synthetised gas
of system b and c are lower than emissions produced by system a, especially when it comes to
sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine compounds.
303
3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT METHODS

In the industrial areas analysis, the relationship between industry and its local
environment misses a main dimension of sustainable development: the environmental
protection, that is the connection between products and pollution phenomena linked to them.
The main purpose of a sustainable development consists in granting a high quality level
of life to all people, by taking less natural resources and using them as efficiently as possible.
In other words the energetic resources management needs measures and means related to
industrial systems eco-efficiency.
The environmental and economic assessment methods let the industries analyse the
environmental matters considering not only the production but also the resources that is
possible to re-use and save (energy, materials, water, natural resources).
The decision-taking processes in the environmental field depend on the purposes to be
attained, as those purposes determine the demands which to answer to, the actions to
undertake and the analytical and procedural means to use [12].
A large number of instruments have been created as methodological aid for strategies and
techniques of environmental management. The choice of the most appropriate instrument
depends first of all on the object to be studied, on the purpose of decision process, the space
and time context of the project, the available information about environment impacts, and on
the doubts about costs and benefits. Anyway, a unique method to establish the most
appropriate instrument does not exist, therefore often multiple instruments with the same
technical aids and the same information are used in an integrated way. Life Cycle Assessment
and Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) are the major instruments, which emphasise environmental
and socio-economic aspects in order to make the best choice.
3.1. Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is the broadest indicator and an internationally standardized
method (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044). It not only evaluates the impact on climate change, but
also other impact categories such as acidification potential, eutrophication potential, ozone
depletion potential, and ground level ozone creation. For each of these impact categories, the
product or system is evaluated over its complete life span, from the extraction of raw material
and manufacturing, to the use of the product by final consumers and end-of-life processes like
recycling, energy recovery, and ultimate waste disposal. The ISO standards provide robust
and practice-proven requirements for performing transparent LCA calculations. Moreover,
one can make use of extensive databases containing life cycle profiles of many goods and
services, as well as many of the underlying materials, energy resources, transport systems,
etc. Nevertheless, LCA calculations remain very complex [13].
In order to achieve the established purposes in a transparent and comprehensible way, it
is necessary to take into consideration and describe the following elements:
The function unit: measurement of input and output flow of the product system;
The product system: an ensemble of processes linked by flows of matter, energy,
wastes;
304
The systems borders: selection of productive processes and environments;

High quality and reliability of data (data bank, temporal, geographic and
technological coverage).
The inventory analyse involves the construction of reality analogical model. First of all
the flow-chart including the product systems processes is necessary [14]. Consequently, the
second step is data collection, that is direct surveys, estimations, medium values or values
from literature and data bank. The inventory aim is to get objective data, which, later on,
would be processed in order to take useful assessments for an improvement of processes
analyse (see Figure 11).
The environmental and energetic allocation could be carried out as:
physical quantity, such as mass, volume and energy;

economic values of the products.
The results are estimated and associated under their effects on the environment, such as
greenhouse gas effect or stratospheric ozone deletion. Environmental effects can be on global,
regional, local scale: for example GHG effect has global effects, while a noise has local
effects.
Figure 11. Inventory analysis.
305
Nowadays in life cycle analyses the main impact categories are:
greenhouse effect;
stratospheric ozone deletion;
acidification;
eutrophication;
photochemical oxidant formation;
human and environment toxicity;
The environmental impacts quantification is performed in the phase of distinction thanks

to scientific models and correspondences factors, on an international level (i.e., greenhouse
effect follows global warming potential, that is, the equivalent CO2 quantity). To synthesize
the analysis and compare it with more productive systems, it is necessary to make the data
normal (i.e., to estimate the pro-capite environmental charge) and to carry out a weighing in
order to get a single index of impact. In the last phase of LCA, that is the interpretation, the
results of inventory analysis are correlated with those ones of impacts analysis, to propose
better measures for a reduction of environmental charges.
Life cycle assessment is used for more aims: processes improvement, products
innovation under new standards of production, assessment of carbon footprint, progress of
environmental policy strategies.
On a planning and organizing level it is very hard to reach a production improvement,
which consists in choosing the solutions to be applied to productive system and suitable to
maximize the global environmental energetic efficiency.
LCA application does not always guarantee a reduction of energy consumption or
emissions, but it allows people to evaluate a service or a product in a total way, in order to
avoid a wrong interpretation, i.e. an improving intervention that moves a problem from the
analysed area to another one.
3.2. Cost Benefit Analysis CBA

CBA is one of the most popular method for investment assessment, especially when they
refer to support measures on territory; it chooses the best proposal, or, in case the proposal is
only one, it verifies the project costs, that should be lower than the benefits, in order to
improve the general social and economic welfare of the project context [15].
CBA is divided into three phases:
1. identification of all positive and negative effects of the project. The negative effects
involve: water consumption, wastes production, etc. The positive effects could be:
employment, water availability for civil agricultural or industrial use, the creation of a
green area or a system for waste water conditioning.
2. quantification of effects from the previous phase. The costs and the benefits of a project
are expressed in monetary terms, while the other effects are expressed in their own
measure units (jobs number, decibel of produced noise, etc.).
306
3. interpretation in monetary terms of all the effects measured in quantification phase.

There are direct financial costs and benefits (expenses and revenues of project) and
indirect economical ones (damages and benefits caused by project to other activities).
CBA must pay attention to the beneficiary of project benefits, and to the supporters of
direct and indirect costs. When the best project is chosen an ongoing process is established,
and it involves more phases, including identification and assessment which are the most
important. Identification means to consider demographic, social, cultural and economic aspect
of social groups.
It is important to include stakeholders in decisional process as they could be stimulated
through offsetting measures.
To let the changes in life and habits be accepted, it is important to give population a right
information about benefits project, and to establish an active cooperation between population
and public decision-maker (particularly regarding rural population); furthermore,
identification must show eventual project damages on environment, and suggest some ways
to reduce them (external effects).
The more the identification reaches a high and complete level of information, the less the
decision-makers have the possibility to discuss faults. The identification phase requires a lot
of time in order to avoid errors, as they are expensive and resources are very few.
After realizing the project, benefits could be:
(a) transitory they can be carried out only during project realization;
(b) lasting linked to the entire life of the project. These lasting benefits are direct, when
they give advantages to receivers, and indirect, when they are in favour of the
community;
(c) concrete they can be quantified;
(d) intangible of intangible quantification.
And costs can be divided into:
(a) monetary supported directly by public administration and related to complete
realization of project, its maintenance and management;
(b) social supported by community. They are primary if they refer to projects costs that
the community supports by renouncing other alternative projects; or secondary if they
refer to external effects on people or things, but they have no influence on the market.
4. CASE STUDY
The examined case study is an industry leader in the world for production of polyester
nonwovens with high toughness by continuing thread and flake. The firm produces an
industrial fabric that is a supporter for bituminous membranes destined to waterproofing of
roads and roofs, as PET bottle after use. This firm is located in the south of Italy within a
technological park that is managed by a company that provides services for the firms in the
307
industrial area, such as electric and thermal energy, technical gas (i.e., steam overheated) and
industrial water, with advantageous conditions for the industries, and also sustains the
territory industrialization by giving services and utilities similar to the most industrialized
areas of the country. Furthermore, it treats the waste of the industrial activities of the
industrial area, and also waste coming from activities of regional and extra-regional territories
with specific authorization codes (EWC European Waste Catalogue).
The firm in this case study is a partner of the manager company and purchases from it
steam, water and electric energy. Before the final discharge, it sends the wastes to the
treatment plant [16][17].
The industrial process of nonwovens production is divided into the following phases:
bottle washing and flake production: from plastic bottles PET material is selected and
sent to a washing centre and then to the mill to be reduced into little pieces; at the
end bottles are centrifugated to set apart the water, and sent to a washing section. The
obtained product is called flake.
polyester drying-up and extrusion by forming threads set in a random way on a
sucked carpet: flakes are heated until they become crystals, then they are dried and
extrapolated. After extrusion, the melted polymer gives rise to a film;
mechanical binding process (needlepunch technology);
glass thread inclusion between the two films and further mechanical binding;
thermo-fixture and longitudinal cut, and consequent selvedge production;
thermal consolidation and product incorporation in resins.
To summarize, the analysis of life cycle defines the functional unit as 1 m2 of fixed and
reinforced nonwoven, and considers one years time for the system and the process.
In the following inventory analysis, data are collected, measure units are converted, and
data refer to their functional unit, as shown in Figure 12.
The diagram in Figure 12 summarizes resources, energy consumption, all emissions (to
air, water and ground) and production of waste.
Thanks to software, it has been possible to assess the impacts on the environment (i.e.,
CO2eq, CH4, SOX e PM10, COD, BOD and solids).
Industrial waste referred to in the considered firm are divided into two categories:
waste products: these are not dumped, but used again in the production cycle or sold
for other purposes (polymer badge, nonmelted selvedges, melted selvedges, felts, roll
line starts);
wastes of various origin (residues of the washing system, iron waste, wood waste,
paper, some oils, etc.)
For an economic-environmental assessment, it is necessary to incorporate the system

analysis with a cost/benefit analysis by emphasising emissions and energy savings.
If the analysis is extended to the whole area where the firm is located, the processes of all
the productive activities have to be analysed in order to find the the best area for fuel coproduction.
308
Figure 12. Flow diagram of nonwoven production.
To carry out an energy system from wastes in an industrial park, it is necessary:
to verify the area and examine the physicochemical characteristics of the wastes;
to find out the critical elements of the system;
to study the draw-plate for waste treatment after production and their technologies;
to make a hypothesis about the logistics of the waste collection;
to give the system dimensions;
to assess possible environmental effects in the neighbouring area (air quality; impacts
on territory, on noise, on waters, on ground, etc.)
to emphasize relief and reward measures of impacts, both environmental and social;
to study the economic/financial feasibility and analyse the economic new effects in
the industrial area.
309
The main benefits of this system are to close the waste cycle at local level, and to use
energetic and economic benefits from waste use for energy purposes. Furthermore the
disposal of wastes at a local level means a reduction of costs, as otherwise transport costs,
eco-tax and local duties must be introduced.
CONCLUSION
Because of the continuing increase in population, the resources of our natural
environment are limited: most of the materials we use to create products come from natural
sources, and several production systems stil require virgin products rather than recycled ones..
To overcome the crisis of waste management, it is necessary to introduce a Zero Waste
strategy. This consideration involves rejecting the whole notion of waste, and moves the
problem towards the starting point of an industrial eco-system [18].
The traditional industrial system is based on a unique direction: take-transform-dump
Materials are taken from the earths crust, moved to firm, used to produce finished goods and
waste, destined to the disposal or waste to energy plant. Extraction, production, transport, and
removal of resources are causes of environmental destruction and global heating.
It is necessary to revise the unidirectional industrial system and form a closed circular
one by recycling the resources dumped from community to industries. The economic and
social system must know that the circular course of nature is the most efficient, less expensive
and more profitable, and avoids the environments deterioration.
In the end, it is important to integrate the responsibilities of community, industry and
government in order to make a zero wastes strategy feasible.
REFERENCES
Corsari, L. and Stracchini, V. (2006). Linee guida per la realizzazione di Aree Produttive
Ecologicamente Attrezzate della Provincia di Bologna. Bologna: Delibera della Giunta
Provinciale N. 407 del 21 novembre 2006, in Italian.
Lowe, E. (1997). Creating by-product resource exchanges: strategies for eco-industrial parks.
J.Cleaner Prod., vol. 5, n. 1-2.
Lowe, E. (2001). Eco-industrial Park Handbook for Asian Developing Countries. A Report to
Asian Development Bank, Environment Department. Oakland,CA: Indigo Development.
Allenby, B. (1992). Industrial Ecology: The Materials Scientist in an Environmentally
Constrained World, Materials Research Bulletin, 17 (3), pp 46-51.
EEA European Environment Agency (2006). Generation of manufacturing waste. Indicator
fact sheet.
European Topic Centre on Resource and Waste Management/EIONET. Industrial waste.
11/04/2008. Available from: http://waste.eionet.europa.eu/waste.
Chitone, R. and Russo, G. (2001). Trattamento termico di rifiuti solidi industriali e civili con
recupero di energia. Ricerca e Futuro, Number 20, in Italian.
Cammarata, G. (2006). Impianti di Termovalorizzazione, Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Industriale e Meccanica-Sezione di Energetica Industriale ed Ambientale-Univerisit
310
degli Studi di Catania, Materiale didattico a sostegno del corso di Complementi di

Impianti Termotecnica, in Italian.
Arena, U. and Mastellone, L. (1998). Centrali di termovalorizzazione di rifiuti solidi urbani.
La Termotecnica, 48 (1), in Italian.
BIODEC and EPPM AG (2008). Gasification System- Relazione sulla dissociazione
molecolare. Private communication.
Ecologia Informatica (2008). The Waste Remedy. Private communication. Available from
http://www.ecologiainformatica.com
Breedveld, L. (2006). Analisi del Ciclo di Vita (LCA): Metodologie di Valutazione
Ambientale. Milano: Franco Angeli, in Italian.
SETAC Society of Environment Toxicology and Chemistry (1990). A technical Framework
for Life-Cycle Assessment. Workshop report from Pensacola FL USA; August 18-23.
ISO 14040 (2006). Valutazione del ciclo di vita, principi e quadro di riferimento; CEN, EN
ISO 14040:2006.
Brisighella, L. and Bonanno, C. (2006). Tecniche di valutazione: Metodologie di Valutazione
Ambientale [DVD]. Milano: Franco Angeli, in Italian.
The Freudenberg Politex Group (2007). Gestione Rifiuti. Private communication.
The Freudenberg Politex Srl (2006). Documento di Valutazione del rischio. Private
communication.
Incerti, M. (2008). Rifiuti zero? Serve realismo. Il resto del carlino, 26/01/2008, in Italian.
INDEX
A
absorption, 49, 299
access, 236
accuracy, 37, 49, 93, 181
acetate, 15, 44, 64
acetic acid, 13, 19, 25, 43, 45, 71, 112, 192
acid, ix, 12, 13, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29, 30, 31, 43, 45, 50,
52, 61, 70, 71, 97, 101, 103, 105, 106, 107, 110,
111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122,
123, 124, 126, 128, 134, 139, 172, 192, 211, 299
acidic, 19, 25, 29, 31, 113, 193
acidification, 246, 247, 303, 305
acidity, 19, 25
activated carbon, 193, 209
activation, 193, 209
acute, 9
additives, 60, 120, 123
adhesives, 100, 108, 123
adiabatic, 217, 254
administration, 306
administrative, 4
adsorption, 32, 49
aerobic, x, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 21, 24, 31, 37,
41, 44, 54, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67, 70, 189,
204, 213, 215
aerobic bacteria, 24
aerosols, 261
affect, 242
Africa, 246
age, 13, 33, 42, 62
agent, 112, 119, 120
agents, 257
agricultural, 59, 60, 99, 100, 103, 106, 136, 210, 305
agricultural crop, 100
agricultural residue, 106
agriculture, 99, 103, 105, 139, 188
agroindustrial, 106
aid, 160, 164, 181, 209, 303

air, vii, x, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 21, 26,
27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 46, 49, 50, 54, 55,
57, 58, 59, 60, 70, 120, 122, 124, 133, 156, 173,
175, 177, 191, 195, 202, 205, 206, 207, 217, 219,
220, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 271,
280, 287, 288, 300, 307, 308
air emissions, 4
air pollutants, 11, 32
air pollution, 191, 206
air quality, xi, 3, 5, 47, 120, 253, 287, 308
Alberta, 1, 58
alcohol, 50, 51, 100, 105, 114, 117, 119, 210
alcohols, 110, 112, 114, 119, 199
aldehydes, 114
alfalfa, 106
algae, 105, 138
alkali, 112, 196, 210
alkaline, 112, 116, 118, 120, 124, 129, 196, 201
alkaline earth metals, 201
alkalinity, 29, 61
alkanes, 101
alternative, viii, x, xi, 31, 51, 97, 98, 100, 114, 122,
199, 203, 213, 215, 240, 253, 254, 287, 290, 298,
306
alternative energy, 199
alternatives, viii, 41, 51, 97, 98, 111, 122
aluminium, 60, 260
ambient air, 35, 36, 37, 49
amendments, 7
amine, 112
amino, 103, 106
amino acids, 106
ammonia, 14, 19, 34, 35, 36, 70, 110, 112, 210, 212
ammonium, 8, 19, 25
Amsterdam, 228
anaerobes, 8, 19, 71
anaerobic, vii, x, 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20,
21, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, 41, 43, 44, 54, 56,
312
Index
57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 70, 71, 75, 76, 108, 110,
111, 116, 119, 129, 138, 187, 189, 190, 194, 203,
204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 213, 215, 222,
225, 226, 227
anaerobic bacteria, 8, 24, 71
anaerobic digesters, 203
anaerobic sludge, 29
analysis of variance, x, 253
animals, 36, 231
anomalous, 281
ANOVA, x, 253, 263, 264, 265, 266, 270, 274, 275,
279, 281, 282, 284, 285
anoxic, 194
anthracene, 199
anthropogenic, vii, 1, 2, 14
API, 173
application, viii, ix, 62, 69, 72, 76, 81, 82, 83, 88, 93,
94, 108, 110, 125, 128, 129, 130, 136, 142, 155,
165, 172, 175, 182, 185, 196, 203, 206, 208, 210,
214, 222, 227, 256, 258, 287, 288, 305
aqueous solution, 115
aquifers, 54
Arabia, 141
archaea, 203
argument, 183
arid, 105
Army, 72, 75, 94
Army Corps of Engineers, 94
ash, 29, 191, 192, 194, 195, 211, 217, 299, 300, 301
Asia, 290
Asian, 61, 309
Aspergillus niger, 139
asphalt, 300
assessment, 37, 103, 115, 122, 134, 136, 203, 211,
246, 249, 251, 290, 303, 305, 306, 307
assignment, 242
assumptions, 3, 15, 37, 77, 189, 222, 246, 248
ASTM, 61, 63, 76
atmosphere, vii, 1, 14, 23, 24, 26, 27, 47, 48, 86, 92,
93, 102, 118, 122, 199, 200, 205, 207, 230, 235,
254, 302
atmospheric pressure, 12, 27
attacks, 173
attention, 72, 230
attractiveness, 234
Australia, 288
Austria, 97, 134, 135, 238
availability, viii, 2, 19, 28, 71, 77, 85, 97, 98, 135,
137, 214, 246, 300, 305
avoidance, 185, 215
awareness, ix, 187, 214
B
bacteria, vii, 1, 8, 14, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30,
31, 37, 43, 44, 54, 55, 59, 71, 118, 203, 222
bacterial, 22, 36, 37, 53, 72, 75, 110, 203, 256
barrier, 31, 47
barriers, 7, 31, 47, 241
base case, 174, 175, 177, 180
batteries, 255
battery, 264, 267
behavior, 45, 63
behaviours, viii, 69, 73, 79, 285
Beijing, 136, 288
Belarus, 246
Belgium, 65, 135, 238, 249, 298
beneficial effect, 87
benefits, ix, xi, 7, 10, 40, 54, 90, 98, 100, 102, 119,
122, 124, 125, 129, 138, 160, 211, 227, 244, 289,
291, 294, 303, 305, 306, 309
benign, 199
benzene, 13, 15, 34, 35, 119, 124, 196
beverages, 41, 42
binding, 307
bioconversion, 137
biodegradability, viii, 15, 69, 77, 78, 87, 222
biodegradable, vii, viii, x, 2, 4, 5, 16, 21, 22, 46, 56,
60, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 81, 101, 110,
213, 215, 222, 229, 236, 244
biodegradable wastes, 2, 16, 70
biodegradation, viii, 7, 8, 10, 16, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26,
28, 29, 30, 31, 43, 44, 45, 53, 56, 58, 60, 61, 62,
69, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 90, 93,
203
biodiesel, 100, 101, 105, 111, 114, 134, 137, 138,
139
biodiversity, 103, 247
bioethanol, ix, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 107, 112, 115,
116, 118, 119, 120, 123, 125, 126, 130, 131, 132,
133
biofuel, 100, 101, 110, 112, 120, 121, 134, 232, 248
biofuels, ix, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107,
108, 109, 114, 115, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125,
127, 128, 131, 133, 138
biogas, x, 8, 16, 43, 44, 55, 61, 66, 95, 100, 106, 108,
110, 111, 118, 119, 120, 134, 203, 204, 213, 215,
222, 223, 225, 236, 244
Biogas, v, 1, 62, 65, 95, 111, 136, 205
biological activity, 16, 28
biological processes, 2, 34, 65, 70, 222
biological systems, 292
biomass, ix, 43, 44, 45, 54, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102,
103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114,
115, 116, 118, 119, 122, 124, 127, 130, 131, 133,
Index
134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 188, 189, 191, 192,
193, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 203, 206, 207, 208,
209, 210, 211, 212, 227, 228, 233, 243, 244, 246,
248, 249
biomass growth, 45
biomaterials, 100
bioreactor, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 28, 29, 30, 54, 56, 57,
58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 94
Bioreactor, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 65
bioreactors, 7, 10, 11, 29, 30, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 61,
62, 65, 94
biorefinery, ix, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 115, 116, 118, 119,
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137
biotechnology, 137
bisphenol, 123
body temperature, 77
boilers, 49, 50, 51, 53, 141, 185, 193, 231, 234, 242,
243
boiling, 180
bonds, 214
boreholes, 33, 58
bottleneck, 124
Brazil, 2, 95, 100
breakdown, 24, 36, 107, 110, 300
breathing, 35, 36
Brussels, 62, 65, 135, 249
buffer, 29, 30, 31
building blocks, 98
buildings, 36, 47, 230
Bulgaria, 238, 246
burn, 191, 235, 299
burning, 38, 50, 51, 110, 172, 206, 299
butyric, 19, 24
by-products, 55, 103, 172, 185, 291, 292
C
cadmium, 194, 209
calcium, 21, 25, 196, 210
Canada, 1, 3, 54, 55, 58, 63, 65, 96, 135, 137, 187,
207
capital cost, 161, 165, 172, 184, 185, 206
caps, 46
carbohydrate, 192
carbohydrates, 19, 98, 103, 106
carbon, vii, 1, 3, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 24, 25, 33,
35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 64, 66, 70, 71, 72, 77, 81, 86, 99, 102,
103, 104, 122, 126, 130, 139, 172, 193, 196, 197,
203, 206, 209, 211, 214, 219, 221, 226, 227, 232,
240, 242, 247, 299, 300, 302, 305
313
Carbon, 6, 12, 13, 14, 34, 35, 41, 66, 67, 71, 209,
216, 217, 242, 251
carbon dioxide, vii, 1, 3, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 24,
25, 33, 35, 37, 38, 43, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 70,
71, 72, 77, 81, 86, 103, 172, 196, 197, 203, 232,
240, 242, 247, 299
carbon fixation, 122
carbon monoxide, 14, 50, 51, 70, 193, 196, 302
carbonization, 189
carboxyl, 113
carboxylic, 19, 119
carboxylic acids, 19
cardboard, 41, 42, 60, 78, 87, 88, 89, 216, 223
case study, 3, 95, 99, 115, 122, 134, 252, 306, 307
catalyst, 100, 112, 117, 196, 197, 199, 201, 210
category d, 240
cavities, 32
C-C, 192
CEE, 237, 240, 295, 296, 298
cell, 3, 15, 28, 30, 31, 45, 50, 52, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59,
60, 63, 71, 105, 135, 195, 300, 301
cell growth, 15
cellulose, 15, 22, 99, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 111,
112, 113, 117, 118, 130, 135, 192, 193, 209, 210,
212
Cellulose, 106, 107, 109, 210
cellulosic, 101
cement, 47, 60, 108
Central Europe, 294
ceramic, x, 253, 257, 287, 288
CERCLA, 4, 6, 66
cereals, 106
certificate, 242, 244, 248, 251
certification, 298
CH3COOH, 71
CH4, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 8, 13, 15, 16, 21, 37, 39, 41,
42, 53, 66, 70, 79, 81, 110, 111, 112, 118, 119,
126, 127, 128, 129, 192, 193, 195, 221, 223, 307
chain molecules, 214
charcoal, 101, 110, 192, 196
chemical composition, 42, 43, 77, 78, 300
chemical industry, 119
chemical oxidation, 190
chemical properties, 16, 102, 109, 124
chemical reactions, 16, 23, 26, 52, 53, 105, 111, 114,
130, 134, 207, 214
chemical structures, 103, 123
chemicals, ix, 11, 32, 34, 50, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102,
106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 116, 119, 123, 124,
125, 131, 133, 136, 193
China, 136, 288
chloride, 13, 15, 19, 37, 118, 209
Chloride, 25
314
Index
chlorinated hydrocarbons, 32
chlorine, 302
CHP, 128, 130, 160, 175, 233, 236, 237, 240, 241,
242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 249, 288
chromatography, 33
chromium, 209
Cincinnati, 209
circulation, 20, 54, 57, 173
citizens, 294
classes, ix, 20, 97, 102
classical, 255
classification, 246
clay, 23, 27, 47
Clean Air Act, 2, 3, 66
Clean Development Mechanism, 40, 66
Clean Water Act, 2, 3, 66
cleaning, 100, 112, 183, 184, 194, 206, 229, 231
cleanup, 51, 196
cleavage, 210
climate change, 247, 303
closed-loop, 292, 293
closure, 3, 4, 11, 13, 28, 33, 37, 39, 40, 70, 75, 92,
93, 292
clusters, 102
Co, 135, 138, 139, 199
CO2, vii, 1, 8, 13, 15, 16, 24, 25, 39, 66, 70, 79, 81,
86, 92, 93, 98, 102, 110, 111, 112, 116, 117, 118,
119, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133,
138, 172, 175, 192, 193, 195, 218, 220, 221, 222,
223, 224, 226, 227, 254, 299, 305
coal, 101, 129, 195, 198, 210, 236
coatings, 100
cobalt, 25
codes, 307
collaboration, 291, 293
collateral, 53
Colorado, 138
Columbia, 59
combustion, vii, x, 38, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 70, 86,
92, 93, 101, 102, 110, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122,
127, 128, 130, 133, 135, 138, 172, 173, 188, 190,
192, 195, 202, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,
224, 225, 226, 231, 235, 298, 299, 301, 302
combustion chamber, 217
combustion characteristics, 135
combustion processes, 172, 173
commodity, 114, 119, 126
common rule, 249
communication, 234, 310
communities, 36, 291, 293, 294
community, 36, 54, 98, 159, 306, 309
community support, 306
compaction, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 71, 72
competition, 25, 100, 105, 234, 241, 246

competitiveness, 294
compilation, 115
complex systems, 245
complexity, 3, 37, 93
compliance, 3, 4, 5
components, 12, 14, 17, 21, 22, 27, 32, 33, 51, 53,
55, 62, 65, 71, 72, 73, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 99, 100,
101, 102, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 124, 126, 192,
193, 196, 197, 245, 293, 299
composition, x, 3, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 38,
39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 53, 55, 57, 70, 71, 72, 77,
78, 79, 81, 87, 88, 89, 102, 103, 106, 108, 109,
111, 114, 116, 194, 209, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
218, 220, 222, 223, 240, 300, 302
compost, 54, 55, 59, 60
composting, 30, 31, 57, 60, 63, 231, 236
compounds, 13, 14, 16, 19, 25, 26, 49, 51, 64, 71, 72,
77, 100, 102, 103, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115,
117, 119, 191, 196, 206, 212, 214, 219, 220, 221,
299, 302
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act, 4, 66
concentration, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 44, 45, 47, 49, 89,
101, 160, 193, 199, 200, 204, 288, 293
concrete, 123, 165, 306
condensation, 32, 47, 256, 281
conditioning, vii, x, 52, 253, 254, 258, 287, 288, 305
confidence, 231
configuration, viii, xi, 58, 69, 84, 86, 93, 182, 196,
253, 255, 257, 260, 287
conflict, x, 229, 234, 235, 241, 243, 244, 247, 248
Congress, 228
Connecticut, 36
conservation, 87, 103, 172
consolidation, 307
constraints, 30, 85, 152, 153, 165, 167, 174
construction, 10, 27, 32, 42, 55, 60, 65, 91, 155, 188,
248, 288, 293, 300, 304
construction materials, 60
consumers, 241, 242, 243, 303
consumption, viii, ix, 97, 98, 103, 116, 118, 119,
122, 125, 134, 142, 157, 158, 172, 174, 175, 177,
183, 189, 192, 194, 198, 203, 217, 218, 225, 244,
247, 292, 297, 298, 301, 305, 307
consumption patterns, 298
contaminant, 63, 196
contaminants, 49, 51, 112
contamination, 2, 7, 53, 54, 60, 255, 257
context, 247
continuity, 285
315
Index
control, vii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37, 46,
47, 51, 54, 55, 62, 63, 64, 141, 165, 189, 191,
193, 195, 210, 249, 260, 299, 300
convection, 260
convective, 279
conversion, viii, ix, 7, 8, 13, 20, 24, 25, 51, 52, 53,
70, 71, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99,
101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 115,
116, 118, 120, 124, 126, 130, 133, 135, 137, 139,
160, 192, 195, 196, 199, 201, 209, 221, 223, 224,
242, 243, 244, 298, 299, 302
conversion rate, 7, 199
cooling, xi, 59, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 156, 157,
159, 163, 164, 165, 167, 172, 173, 175, 177, 181,
182, 219, 249, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 262,
266, 267, 270, 271, 275, 279, 281, 285, 286, 287,
288, 299, 301
Copenhagen, 63, 64, 136, 137, 250
copper, 25, 209, 234
corn, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 109
correction factors, 40, 41
correlation, 42, 237, 239, 245, 247
correlation analysis, 42
corridors, 46
corrosion, 158, 233, 257
corrosive, 49, 51, 114, 193, 199
cost-benefit analysis, xi, 289, 290
cost-effective, 208
costs, 3, 11, 28, 49, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 153, 161, 188,
206, 214, 233, 235, 236, 241, 243, 247, 248, 254,
256, 293, 303, 305, 306, 309
Council of Ministers, 137
coupling, 227
covering, 5, 21, 23, 40, 46, 67, 92
Cp, 192
CPC, 164
cracking, 193, 196
CRC, 134, 211
critical temperature, 196
Croatia, 250
crop production, 246
crops, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 108, 124, 139
cross-border, 241
crude oil, 101, 102, 111, 173, 183, 185, 199
crust, 309
crystals, 307
cultivation, 98, 118
culture, 293
customers, 133
cycles, 103, 221, 267, 292, 293, 298, 300
cycling, 53
Cyprus, 238, 246
Czech Republic, 191, 238, 240
D
dairy, 108
danger, 27
Darcy, 26
data collection, 304
database, 116, 125
death, 35, 36, 44
decay, viii, 3, 37, 39, 59, 69, 72, 75, 76
decibel, 305
decision makers, 175, 185
decision making, 230
decision support tool, x, 229, 230, 245, 290
decisions, x, 229, 230, 245, 248
decomposition, vii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16,
17, 19, 21, 23, 30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 54,
56, 58, 61, 67, 70, 76, 103, 192, 196, 203, 209,
210, 212, 300
decoupling, 295, 296, 298
deficiency, 151, 152
deficit, 175, 234
definition, viii, 69, 84, 99, 101, 115, 116, 156, 189,
235, 246
degradation, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24,
25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 41, 43, 45, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61,
63, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73, 77, 79, 90, 95, 96, 103,
192, 203, 222
degradation pathway, 22
degradation rate, 79
degrees of freedom, 153
dehydration, 192, 199
delivery, 8, 116, 129, 133
demand, 230, 244, 245, 246, 249
denitrification, 63, 103
Denmark, 136, 238, 240, 250, 298
density, 8, 11, 12, 22, 24, 31, 57, 90, 111, 196, 202
density values, 24
Department of Energy, 11, 22, 65, 135, 251
depolymerization, 114, 199, 210
deposition, 20, 22, 206
depreciation, 85, 86, 91
depression, 36
derivatives, 19, 20, 98, 103
designers, 161, 182
destruction, 10, 49, 51, 172, 196, 206, 208, 210, 238,
240, 248, 254, 309
detergents, 100
developed countries, 21
developing countries, 2
devolatilization, 191
dew, 42
diesel, 101, 102, 114, 141
diesel engines, 141
316
Index
diesel fuel, 102, 114

differentiation, 241
diffusion, 23, 26, 31, 32, 47, 231, 256, 279
diffusivity, 196, 202
digestion, vii, x, 108, 110, 111, 116, 118, 119, 129,
138, 187, 189, 190, 194, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208,
209, 211, 213, 215, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, 236
dioxin, 50, 51, 240
dioxins, 50, 231, 302
directives, 235, 248, 290
discharges, 4
Discovery, 207
dispersion, 261
dissociation, 299, 300
distillation, ix, 111, 118, 141, 142, 180, 181, 182,
185
distribution, 23, 30, 31, 45, 71, 73, 120, 122, 128,
139, 260
district heating, x, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236,
245, 246, 247, 250, 251
division, 167
dizziness, 36
draft, 100
drainage, 27
dry ice, 51
dry matter, 118, 119
drying, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198, 206, 259, 299,
307
DSM, 252
dumping, 2, 40, 53
durability, 298
duration, 8, 36, 71, 77
duties, 156, 161, 165, 171, 177, 180, 309
dyes, 100
E
earnings, 85, 86
ears, 91
earth, 196, 309
Eastern Europe, 237, 295
ecological, 72, 103, 137, 290, 292, 300
Ecological models, 72
ecology, 290, 292
economic development, 294, 296
economic growth, 295
economic performance, 136, 290, 291
economic welfare, 305
economics, 137, 188, 209
economies of scale, 293, 294
ecosystem, 96, 293
ecosystems, 292
Education, 1
EEA, 309
effluent, 6, 202, 204, 212
egg, 36
Egypt, 1, 185
elaboration, 161
electric energy, viii, 69, 70, 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93,
220, 307
electric power, 110
electricity, vii, ix, x, 3, 50, 51, 52, 91, 92, 97, 99,
100, 101, 102, 108, 111, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120,
121, 123, 126, 129, 130, 131, 133, 160, 175, 193,
205, 207, 222, 229, 230, 231, 233, 235, 236, 237,
240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249,
250, 251, 252, 298, 299, 300
electrolysis, 112, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 129, 138
e-mail, 97
emission, viii, ix, 3, 5, 32, 33, 37, 38, 42, 54, 55, 60,
70, 81, 86, 92, 93, 94, 119, 126, 127, 128, 129,
131, 133, 142, 195, 224, 227, 235, 236, 242, 249
employment, 247, 305
endothermic, 191, 192, 195, 300
energy consumption, ix, 98, 116, 118, 122, 125, 142,
174, 175, 177, 183, 189, 192, 194, 198, 224, 305,
307
energy density, 110
energy efficiency, 93, 118, 130, 172, 173, 185, 189,
190, 194, 201, 205, 207, 235, 243, 245, 254, 291,
299
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 135
energy recovery, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, 1, 3, 11, 37, 46,
48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 69, 70, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89,
91, 93, 94, 95, 159, 173, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190,
191, 193, 200, 203, 206, 207, 210, 212, 213, 214,
215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224,
225, 226, 227, 232, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 250,
251, 253, 259, 260, 271, 289, 298, 299, 303
energy supply, 130, 133, 246, 247, 248
engines, viii, x, 49, 50, 51, 69, 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93,
141, 213, 215
England, 135
enterprise, 291, 294
Enthalpy, 143, 144, 145, 155
entropy, 158
environment, vii, 2, 3, 4, 7, 20, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
46, 76, 110, 115, 172, 173, 196, 208, 231, 250,
256, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294, 298, 299, 303, 304,
305, 306, 307, 309
environmental awareness, ix, 187
environmental conditions, 25
environmental effects, 247, 308
environmental factors, 16
317
Index
environmental impact, viii, 62, 64, 70, 93, 94, 103,
115, 122, 124, 125, 133, 173, 174, 237, 245, 246,
291, 295, 298, 301, 305
environmental influences, 64
environmental issues, 290, 294
environmental policy, 293, 305
environmental protection, 254, 303
Environmental Protection Agency, 3, 5, 37, 66, 244,
252
environmental regulations, 2, 3, 188, 298
environmental resources, 289
environmental standards, ix, 187
environmental sustainability, 293
enzymatic, 107
enzymes, 23, 110, 111
EPA, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 38, 42, 50, 51, 63, 66, 72, 76,
79, 94, 95, 209
epoxy, 123, 126, 133
epoxy resins, 123, 126, 133
equilibrium, 16
equipment, 91, 231
EST, 251
esters, 111, 114, 119
estimating, viii, 2, 3, 15, 24, 37, 69, 76, 86, 93, 125,
259
Estonia, 238
ethane, 13, 14, 23, 34, 203
ethanol, 101, 102, 103, 110, 112, 113, 118, 134, 137,
139, 212
Ethanol, 130, 136, 137
Europe, 2, 56, 100, 139, 188, 191, 234, 236, 241,
244, 249, 290, 294, 295, 296
European Commission, 235, 236, 241, 249
European Community, 249
European Environment Agency, 309
European Parliament, 249
European Union, x, 66, 210, 229, 230, 233, 235, 236,
240, 241, 243, 244, 247, 249
Eurostat, 238, 249
eutrophication, 246, 303, 305
evaporation, 13, 103, 120, 192, 194, 205, 207, 254,
256, 259, 281
evolution, 72, 256, 299
exchange rate, 232
exercise, 175
experimental design, xi, 253, 254, 262, 287
exploitation, viii, 85, 97, 100, 103, 290
explosions, 34
exports, 246, 247
exposure, 12, 32, 36, 64
external costs, 247
external environment, 214
extraction, 2, 23, 26, 32, 47, 55, 56, 58, 111, 208,
299, 303
extrusion, 307
F
fabric, 47, 306
factorial, xi, 253, 262, 287
failure, 7
family, 70, 106, 136
FAO, 135
farms, 108
fast food, 105
fat, 100, 244
fatigue, 35
fats, 98, 103, 105, 106, 134
fatty acid, 105, 111, 113, 114
faults, 306
fax, 97, 229
February, 135, 249
fee, 5, 243
feeding, 60, 189, 215, 299, 300
feedstock, ix, 54, 60, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119,
122, 124, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 135, 137, 189,
192, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 206
fees, 241, 243
feet, 11
fermentation, 19, 20, 43, 64, 71, 103, 107, 110, 112,
116, 118, 131, 133, 139
ferrous metal, 60
ferrous metals, 60
fertility, 98
fertilizer, 116, 203, 229, 236
fertilizers, 101, 119
fiber, 103, 287
fiber membranes, 287
fibers, 106
fillers, 100
film, 285, 307
filters, 53
filtration, 49
financial support, 248
financing, 234
Finland, 238, 240, 296
fire, 3, 47, 50, 195
fires, 231
firms, xi, 289, 290, 306
first generation, 98
fixation, 103, 122
flame, 33, 38, 49, 50, 158
flame ionization detector, 33
flare, 49, 50, 51, 52, 70, 91, 173
318
Index
flexibility, 293
flood, 24
flora, 76
flotation, 60
flow, xi, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 31, 42, 43, 45, 47, 49, 57,
65, 67, 84, 85, 102, 117, 147, 148, 156, 157, 181,
190, 191, 193, 201, 203, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220,
221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 253, 256, 260, 261,
263, 264, 287, 293, 300, 303, 304
flow rate, 26, 42, 57, 67, 84, 85, 215, 216, 217, 218,
220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 264
flue gas, 156, 158, 191, 206, 231
fluid, 258, 259, 260, 298, 299, 300
fluidized bed, 191, 193, 195, 198
flushing, 63
food, 10, 21, 39, 41, 42, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 108,
119, 137, 203, 244, 246, 294
food industry, 104, 105, 119, 244
food production, 108, 246
forecasting, 72
forestry, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106
formaldehyde, 112
fossil, viii, ix, 87, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 106, 110,
116, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129,
130, 133, 138, 172, 173, 191, 232, 236, 240, 241,
242, 243, 244, 247
fossil fuel, viii, 87, 97, 98, 101, 102, 110, 116, 122,
172, 191, 232, 236, 240, 241, 243, 244, 247
fossil fuels, viii, 87, 97, 98, 101, 102, 110, 172, 191,
232, 236, 240, 241, 243, 244
fouling, 183, 184, 196
fractionation, 173
fragmentation, 114
framing, 290, 293
France, v, 97, 134, 138, 209, 238, 240, 295
free radicals, 202, 206
free trade, 235, 236
freedom, 153, 167, 264
fructose, 103
fruits, 108, 115
fuel, vii, viii, ix, 3, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 60, 97,
100, 101, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 120,
122, 123, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 173, 191, 193,
194, 195, 198, 199, 212, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237,
240, 243, 245, 246, 247, 254, 300, 301, 307
fuel cell, 51, 52, 135, 195
fugitive, 11
fumaric, ix, 97, 115, 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 126
furan, ix, 97, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120, 123, 125, 130,
131, 133
furnaces, 141, 160, 185, 230, 299
G
G8, 135
garbage, 14
gas chromatograph, 33
gas phase, 194
gas separation, ix, 141, 142, 173, 175, 185
gas turbine, 49, 50, 123, 141, 195, 250
gaseous waste, 52, 102
gases, vii, 1, 2, 14, 26, 27, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 45, 46,
47, 49, 50, 52, 60, 70, 110, 173, 192, 195, 196,
197, 201, 214, 217, 246
gasification, vii, x, 108, 110, 111, 112, 135, 138,
187, 189, 190, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 205, 207,
208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221,
224, 225, 226, 298, 300, 301
gasifier, xi, 196, 198, 208, 210, 289, 298, 300, 301
gasoline, 101, 102, 120, 123, 126, 128, 129, 132, 133
GCC, 141, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 176
generation, vii, viii, 2, 3, 7, 11, 12, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 27, 29, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,
47, 50, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 67, 70, 71, 75,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 88, 94, 95, 98, 100, 101, 111,
114, 119, 138, 156, 160, 172, 189, 191, 192, 195,
197, 199, 203, 204, 210, 211, 248, 295, 296, 297,
298, 300
Geneva, 288
geology, 34
Geomembranes, 26
Georgia, 59, 66
geothermal, 94, 244
Germany, 100, 191, 237, 238, 240, 298
GHG, vii, ix, 1, 14, 67, 97, 102, 116, 118, 119, 122,
123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
133, 134, 138, 141, 142, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177,
180, 182, 183, 185, 304
glass, 21, 33, 60, 258, 301, 307
global warming, 14, 53, 126, 172, 305
Global Warming, 40, 67, 70, 126
Glucan, 109
glucose, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110, 111, 118, 136, 212
glycerin, 105, 114
glycerine, 111
glycerol, 110
glycol, 112
goals, x, 229, 235, 242, 244, 247, 248, 290, 294
goods and services, 251, 292, 303
governance, 293
government, 231, 242, 243, 244, 295, 309
government budget, 242
government policy, 295
GPS, 57
grain, 26
Index
grains, 36, 100, 102, 104
graph, 142, 143, 153, 156, 157, 159, 162, 168, 177
grass, 106
grasses, 98, 102, 104, 115
grassroots, 185
gravity, 120, 121, 194
Greece, 238
greenhouse, vii, ix, 1, 4, 49, 53, 95, 97, 116, 125,
134, 137, 138, 172, 185, 198, 246, 249, 254, 304,
305
Greenhouse, viii, 69, 70, 93, 94, 95, 135
greenhouse gas, vii, ix, 1, 49, 53, 95, 97, 116, 125,
134, 138, 172, 185, 198, 246, 249, 304
greenhouse gas (GHG), ix, 97, 116, 125
greenhouse gases, vii, 1, 246
groundwater, 4, 7, 27, 47, 53, 54
grouping, 92
groups, 8, 14, 51, 104, 114, 119, 123, 124, 203, 300,
306
growth, 15, 22, 25, 28, 37, 43, 44, 45, 72, 75, 103,
231, 295, 296
growth rate, 43, 44, 45
guidance, 4
guidelines, 101, 136, 162
H
H1, 144, 147, 168, 169, 170
H2, 25, 70, 110, 112, 117, 118, 120, 122, 123, 126,
128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 144, 168, 169, 170, 171,
192, 193, 195, 199, 200, 201, 205, 220, 221
halogenated, 51, 191
handling, 8, 111, 230, 242, 288
hands, 288
harmful effects, 254
harvesting, 106, 122
hazardous substances, 231
hazardous wastes, 203
hazards, vii, 1, 3, 34, 35, 36, 46, 47
HDPE, 60, 67
headache, 36
health, vii, 2, 4, 14, 33, 36, 46, 51, 247, 294
health effects, 36
heart, 300
heartbeat, 35, 36
heat capacity, 192
Heat Exchangers, 160
heat loss, 189
heat release, 44, 217
heat storage, 249
heat transfer, 161, 162, 163, 254, 257, 258, 260, 266,
275
319
heating, x, 13, 70, 84, 92, 114, 118, 121, 125, 147,
152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163, 164,
165, 166, 167, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 180,
181, 182, 184, 185, 192, 194, 196, 199, 202, 214,
215, 217, 221, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236,
245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 254, 255, 258, 262,
266, 267, 270, 271, 275, 279, 281, 285, 286, 299,
309
heating oil, 173, 175, 177, 180
heating rate, 192
heavy metals, 25, 108, 194, 231, 299
heavy oil, 101, 123, 133, 193, 199, 200
height, 54, 59
hemicellulose, 99, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 110, 111,
112, 114, 117, 130, 131
hemicellulose hydrolysis, 117
hemp, 106
herbicide, 113
heterogeneity, 45, 66
heterogeneous, 17, 21, 25, 26, 298
heuristic, 165, 167
hexachlorobenzene, 203
high pressure, 173
high temperature, 110, 192, 193, 195, 196, 205, 206,
207, 214, 281, 301
hips, 240
holistic, 54, 134
holistic approach, 54, 134
Holland, 240
homogeneity, 22, 30
horizon, 126
hospital, 258
hospitals, 288
host, 90
hot water, 137, 231, 242, 243
House, 139
household, 36
households, 105, 126
human, vii, 2, 4, 33, 46, 125, 126, 305
humanity, 134
humidity, 87, 254, 256, 260, 262, 279, 281
Hungary, 238
hybrid, 7, 10, 54
hydraulic fluids, 100
hydro, 19, 32, 37, 110, 141, 180, 193, 194, 196, 212,
214
hydrocarbons, 19, 32, 37, 110, 180, 194, 196, 214
hydrochloric acid, 299
hydrofluoric acid, 299
hydrogen, ix, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 24, 34, 35, 36, 42,
51, 70, 71, 97, 99, 101, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115,
116, 120, 123, 125, 193, 195, 196, 199, 202, 205,
212, 214, 219, 299, 302
320
Index
hydrogen gas, 71, 205

hydrogen peroxide, 202
hydrogen sulfide, 12, 14, 34, 35, 36, 51
hydrogenation, 107, 111, 112, 199
hydrological, 45
hydrolysis, 8, 19, 20, 30, 43, 44, 45, 71, 107, 111,
113, 116, 117, 118, 136, 137, 203, 205, 209
hydrolyzed, 108, 113, 117
hydropower, 244
hydrothermal, 110, 137, 189, 202
Hydrothermal, 203
hydroxide, 118, 128
hypothesis, 80, 308
I
ice, 51
identification, 115, 124, 305, 306
IEA, 99, 100, 136, 195, 209
imbalances, 72
implementation, 5, 6, 7, 102, 185, 207, 236, 241, 246
imports, 240
impurities, 52, 53, 102, 110, 118, 233
in situ, 28
incentive, 227, 234, 243, 248
incentives, 244
incineration, vii, x, 1, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192,
193, 194, 205, 207, 210, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233,
235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 299
inclusion, 307
indication, 33, 85, 247
indicators, x, 31, 116, 213
indices, 116
indigenous, 231
industrial, ix, xi, 60, 97, 99, 102, 106, 116, 122, 124,
138, 142, 154, 159, 172, 173, 181, 183, 185, 187,
188, 189, 210, 227, 237, 242, 289, 290, 291, 292,
293, 294, 298, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309
industrial application, ix, 142, 172, 181, 183
industrial chemicals, 102
industrial production, 298
industrial sectors, 294, 298
industrial wastes, 106, 298
industrialization, 307
industry, ix, 3, 37, 51, 60, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105,
106, 111, 119, 141, 142, 162, 185, 189, 191, 205,
210, 231, 234, 244, 250, 258, 292, 294, 303, 306,
309
inequality, 152, 164, 165, 166
inert, 2, 32, 38, 41, 42, 47, 78, 87, 88, 89, 160, 199,
200, 205, 206, 215, 217, 222, 299, 300, 301, 302
influence, 234, 235, 243, 245
infrastructure, 103, 112, 120, 240, 241, 247

inhalation, 36, 47
inhibition, 43, 44, 45
inhibitors, 23, 25
inhibitory, 44
injection, 9, 53, 57, 59
innovation, 64, 134, 305
inoculum, 29
inorganic, 17, 45, 196, 202, 206, 299
input, 72, 78, 79, 81, 88, 90, 91, 93
inspection, 263
institutions, 290
instruments, x, 33, 229, 230, 232, 242, 245, 248,
250, 260, 298, 302, 303
insulation, 189
intangible, 306
integrated waste management, 214
integration, ix, 142, 143, 155, 159, 160, 172, 173,
174, 175, 177, 185, 215, 250, 298
integrity, 51, 77
interaction, 263, 264, 265, 269, 270, 273, 274, 277,
278, 279, 281, 284
interactions, xi, 253, 263, 287, 290, 291
interest, 231, 241, 243
interface, 156
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
3, 37, 39, 136
internal combustion, 49, 50
International Organization for Standardization, 288
interphase, 44
interpretation, 244
interval, 144, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 155, 185,
243
intervention, 8, 305
investment, x, 85, 86, 90, 92, 142, 172, 174, 175,
177, 182, 185, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 243, 305
ionization, 33
ions, 19
IPCC, vii, 1, 2, 39, 40, 41, 42, 67, 75, 95, 100, 126,
136
IPPC, 5
Ireland, 238
iron, 25, 196, 210, 212, 307
irrigation, 203
ISO, 115, 124, 135, 136, 246, 288, 303, 310
Israel, 211
Italy, v, 23, 61, 62, 63, 69, 80, 94, 95, 137, 213, 227,
238, 240, 289, 293, 296, 298, 300, 306
J
Japan, 191
Jatropha, 105, 134
321
Index
jobs, 102, 305
jurisdictions, 3
K
kerosene, 102
ketones, 114
kinase, 139
kinetic equations, 43
kinetic model, 136
kinetics, 43, 44, 45, 72, 75, 222
knowledge, 230, 245, 248
Kyoto protocol, 233, 236
L
labor, 141
lack of confidence, 231
lactic acid, 103, 106, 112
land, vii, 1, 5, 14, 21, 60, 98, 100, 104, 188, 202,
203, 246
land disposal, 5, 21
land use, 246
landfill gas, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34,
35, 36, 37, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69, 70, 93, 94
landfill management, 62
landfills, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 17, 18,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39,
42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 59, 60, 61,
62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 72, 75, 77, 84, 87, 93,
94, 95, 96, 188, 230, 231, 236
large-scale, 64
Latvia, 238
law, 4, 215, 250
laws, 4
LCA, ix, 97, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 124, 131, 133,
134, 135, 139, 246, 247, 294, 303, 305, 310
leachate, viii, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 21, 25, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 56,
57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 87, 88,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94
leachate recirculation, viii, 7, 9, 28, 29, 43, 53, 54,
57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 70, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
92, 93, 94
lead, 241, 247
leakage, 32
leaks, 33
Legionella, 261, 288
legislation, x, 207, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235, 241
life cycle, 115, 122, 125, 126, 134, 135, 303, 305,
307
Life Cycle Assessment, (LCA)ix, 97, 99, 103, 115,
138, 228, 303
life-cycle, 4, 134
lifetime, 14, 37
lignin, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 108, 111, 114,
116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 127, 128, 135, 137, 193,
204, 210
limitation, 23
limitations, 99, 246, 258, 260
limiting oxygen, 24
linear, 57, 72, 245, 292
linear programming, 245
links, x, 229, 300
lipids, 19, 22, 103, 105
liquefaction, vii, x, 187, 190, 198, 199, 200, 201,
205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212
liquefied natural gas, 52
liquid fuels, 135, 195, 206
liquid phase, 115, 199, 256
liquids, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 26, 136, 299
Lithuania, 238
local authorities, 293
logging, 240
logistics, 291, 308
London, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 139, 208
long period, 7, 33
losses, 193, 217
lover, 106
low-density, 31
low-level, 36
low-permeability, 47
low-temperature, 199, 211
lubricants, 100
lubricating oil, 92, 102, 119
Luxembourg, 238
lysimeter, 54, 65
lysine, 103
M
machinery, 300
machines, 92
Madison, 65
magnesium, 22, 25, 196
magnetic, 60, 215
maintenance, 7, 85, 86, 92, 141, 182, 183, 233, 306
Malta, 238, 246
maltose, 103
management, viii, ix, x, 2, 3, 4, 10, 53, 54, 60, 61,
62, 64, 65, 69, 94, 95, 136, 187, 188, 189, 203,
207, 208, 211, 228, 229, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236,
322
Index
240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252,
290, 291, 293, 300, 303, 306, 309
manganese, 260
man-made, 32
manufacturing, 60, 128, 231, 290, 294, 295, 296,
297, 298, 303, 309
manufacturing companies, 290
manure, 36, 108, 203
market, x, 100, 105, 106, 119, 120, 125, 126, 135,
226, 229, 230, 234, 235, 237, 239, 240, 241, 247,
249, 252, 306
market penetration, 106, 120
market share, 119, 237, 239, 240
market structure, 241
market value, 125
markets, 119, 126, 138, 234, 236
Maryland, 62, 64
mass transfer, 44, 191, 256, 287
mathematical programming, 153, 154
matrix, 26, 55, 300
maturation, 71
measurement, 262, 288, 303
measures, 4, 5, 33, 34, 57, 231, 233, 245, 293, 303,
305, 306, 308
media, 25, 43, 173, 175, 256, 257
medicine, 106, 119
Mediterranean, 210
megawatt, 175, 185
melt, 60
melting, 172
membranes, xi, 49, 289, 290, 306
mercaptans, 36, 71
mercury, 194, 209
metabolic, 8
metabolism, 14
metal ions, 19
metallurgy, 258
metals, 25, 60, 123, 194, 201, 215, 231, 294
methane, vii, x, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35,
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67,
68, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 86, 87, 94, 110, 112, 118,
172, 193, 197, 203, 213, 215, 236, 300, 301
methanogenesis, 8, 10, 20, 24, 43, 44, 45
methanol, 51, 52, 105, 110, 112, 192, 195
methodology, 230, 246, 247
methylene, 13
methylene chloride, 13
microalgae, 134
microbes, 11
microbial, 23, 29, 43, 44, 45, 54, 61, 70, 76, 103, 222
Microbial, 61, 65, 94, 138
microbial community, 54
micronutrients, 22
microorganisms, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28,
30, 45, 71, 110, 112, 131
migration, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 6, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 46,
47, 65
milk, 60
mineralization, 103
minerals, 21, 291
mining, 3, 54, 59, 60, 64, 66
Ministry of Education, 287
Minnesota, 56
misleading, 125
missions, 51, 133, 138, 172, 226, 247, 254
MIT, 202
mixing, 25, 72, 258, 299
mobility, 11, 235
modeling, 45, 64, 66, 139
models, viii, x, 3, 37, 56, 69, 72, 76, 79, 80, 81, 83,
84, 91, 93, 216, 222, 229, 230, 245, 246, 248, 305
modern society, 229
modules, 255
moisture, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30,
31, 37, 39, 43, 44, 45, 47, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 63,
71, 72, 77, 78, 108, 193, 196, 197, 216, 217, 219,
222
moisture content, 8, 10, 11, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30,
31, 45, 47, 54, 56, 63, 71, 77, 108, 193, 196, 197,
216, 217, 219, 222
molar ratio, 197
molar ratios, 197
molecular mass, 71, 108
molecular oxygen, 124
molecular structure, 106
molecular weight, 41
molecules, 8, 14, 101, 102, 104, 106, 109, 114, 119,
126, 214, 299, 300
money, 172
monitoring, 235
monomer, 107, 112, 203
monomers, 107, 112, 117, 118, 123
monosaccharide, 104
movement, 3, 23, 26, 28, 32, 46, 63
MSW, 2, 5, 7, 8, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31,
38, 41, 57, 61, 67, 70, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 108,
214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227
municipal sewage, 198, 199, 204, 208
municipal solid waste, (MSW)vii, viii, 2, 7, 11, 13,
21, 23, 26, 37, 38, 43, 46, 55, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
65, 66, 69, 70, 209, 212, 228, 240, 251, 300
myopic, 172
Index
N
natural, 10, 13, 14, 27, 32, 34, 36, 37, 46, 49, 50, 52,
53, 87, 101, 103, 106, 110, 112, 120, 122, 123,
126, 128, 129, 133, 135, 172, 173, 195, 203, 233,
234, 237, 241, 288, 293, 295, 303, 309
natural environment, 309
natural gas, 13, 37, 49, 50, 52, 53, 101, 110, 112,
120, 122, 123, 126, 128, 129, 133, 135, 173, 195,
203, 233, 234, 237, 241
natural resources, 87, 103, 106, 172, 295, 303
nausea, 36
needs, 230, 244
negotiation, 241
Netherlands, 135, 228, 238, 296
network, ix, 84, 142, 156, 160, 161, 163, 165, 167,
168, 170, 171, 172, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 231,
234, 237, 241, 250, 290, 291
networking, 293
New Jersey, 57, 63
New Orleans, 96
New York, 62, 64, 65, 95, 138, 287
New Zealand, 185
newspaper industry, 60
newspapers, 234
Ni, 117, 196, 209
nickel, 209, 210
NIPA, 297
nitrogen, 14, 19, 25, 42, 51, 103, 109, 112, 124, 299,
302
nitrogen oxides, 51
noise, 304, 305, 308
non invasive, 95
non toxic, 300
non-hazardous, vii, 2, 5, 8, 46, 80
non-human, 292
normal, 8, 35, 36, 305
norms, 125
North America, 7, 58, 67, 187
Norway, 238, 240, 298
NTU, 288
nutrient, 7, 25, 56
nutrients, 15, 16, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 53, 71, 72
O
obligate, 71
observations, 21
obsolete, 299
occupational, 32
octane, 120
odors, vii, 1, 7, 36, 37, 47
323
OFS, 194
oil, ix, 92, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
108, 110, 111, 114, 119, 121, 122, 123, 128, 129,
131, 133, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 156, 160, 173,
175, 177, 180, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 192, 194,
198, 199, 200, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 231,
232, 237, 240, 246, 254, 258, 301
oil production, 199
oil refining, 182, 183
oils, 103, 105, 114, 134, 138, 193, 198, 199, 200,
212, 307
oilseed, 100, 105, 114
oligomers, 210
onion, 138
operator, 3, 206
opposition, 7
optimization, 7, 141, 152, 153, 154, 160, 172, 173,
185, 247, 259, 288, 291
organ, 299
organic, vii, x, 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19,
20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 39, 40, 41, 44,
45, 49, 50, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66,
70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 102, 103, 104, 108, 110,
111, 112, 114, 115, 119, 123, 138, 139, 188, 191,
192, 193, 196, 199, 201, 202, 203, 206, 207, 209,
213, 214, 215, 228, 232, 299, 300, 302
organic chemicals, 11
organic compounds, vii, 1, 10, 12, 13, 14, 28, 49, 50,
61, 196, 203
organic matter, vii, 1, 25, 30, 36, 45, 62, 70, 103,
192, 203, 204, 209, 300
organic polymers, 203
organic solvent, 199
organic solvents, 199
organism, 20
output, 72, 236
oxidants, 202
oxidation, vii, x, 32, 70, 117, 187, 189, 190, 192,
202, 203, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214
oxidative, 119
oxide, 52, 299
oxides, 51
oxygen, ix, 8, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 34, 35, 37,
42, 54, 59, 70, 97, 99, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116,
119, 124, 131, 192, 196, 199, 202, 203, 205, 207,
214, 217, 222, 236, 300, 301
Oxygen, 6, 14, 24, 34, 35, 66, 71, 125, 135, 205,
216, 217
oxygenation, 111, 119, 124
ozone, 172, 254, 303, 304, 305
324
Index
P
packaging, 60, 100, 234, 236, 242, 249, 250

PAFC, 52, 67
paints, 100
Pap, 211
parameter, 43, 45, 58
Paris, 138, 209
Parliament, 249
particles, 32, 53, 111, 299
particulate matter, 51, 203
partnership, 294
passenger, 118, 123, 128
passive, 27, 47, 258
pathogens, 203
pathways, 17, 27, 32, 34, 107, 112, 133
peat, 244
per capita, 296, 297
percolation, 22, 43, 299
performance indicator, 224, 225, 227
periodic, 58
permeability, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 47, 256
permit, 5
personal relations, 293
personal relationship, 293
perspective, 234, 243, 247, 248, 250
PET, xi, 289, 306, 307
petrochemical, 106, 111
petroleum, 98, 101, 102, 114, 119, 133, 139, 193,
194
Petroleum, 138
petroleum products, 139
pH, 6, 16, 20, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43, 44, 45, 194,
199, 204, 211
pharmaceutical, 114
phenol, 123
phenolic, 108
Philadelphia, 63
phosphate, 19
phosphoric acid fuel cell, 52
phosphorous, 25
photochemical, 305
photosynthesis, 103, 122
photosynthetic, 102, 103
physical properties, 14, 119, 125, 193
physicochemical, 298, 308
physiological, 14
pig, 203
pilot study, 251
pipelines, 51
planning, 290, 291, 293, 305
plants, 36, 87, 90, 91, 92, 102, 105, 110, 173, 175,
185, 187, 188, 195, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237,
240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 252, 299
plasma, 196
plastic, xi, 33, 41, 42, 47, 60, 100, 215, 242, 243,
248, 289, 290, 307
plastics, 21, 41, 60, 101, 114, 240, 243
platforms, ix, 97, 99, 111
play, 98, 119, 294
poison, 51
poisoning, 112
Poland, 237, 238, 240, 296, 298
polar ice, 172
polar ice caps, 172
polarity, 102
policy instruments, x, 229, 230, 232, 242, 245, 248,
250
politics, 250
pollutants, 6, 66, 191, 257
pollution, 4, 50, 188, 191, 206, 210, 291, 292, 294,
299, 303
polyamides, 114
polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), 191
polycondensation, 119
polyester, 119, 306, 307
polyethylene terephthalate, xi, 289, 290
polymer, 52, 104, 113, 123, 192, 307
polymer molecule, 104
polymerization, 117, 119, 123, 192
polymers, 100, 103, 108, 118, 123, 192, 202, 203
polyphenols, 103
polysaccharides, 104, 111
polyurethanes, 114
poor, 29, 35, 105, 188
population, 166, 254, 306, 309
pore, 26, 46, 257
porosity, 26, 256, 257, 260
porous, 33, 43, 256, 257, 260, 287, 288
porous media, 43, 256
portfolio, 103
Portugal, 134, 238
potassium, 22, 25, 118
potential energy, xi, 289
powder, 201, 212, 300
power, x, 3, 46, 52, 63, 64, 98, 110, 114, 122, 136,
159, 160, 175, 190, 195, 199, 203, 204, 208, 217,
218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 229,
230, 231, 233, 235, 236, 242, 244, 245, 251, 258
power generation, 3, 46, 63, 64, 191, 195, 199, 204
power plant, 122, 195, 208, 231, 233, 242
power plants, 195, 231, 233
precipitation, 24, 32, 42, 103
prediction, 62, 72, 76, 134
Index
preference, 172
pressure, 12, 13, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 47, 104, 110,
120, 121, 159, 173, 175, 194, 196, 199, 200, 205,
207, 217, 218, 219, 221, 258, 260, 281, 288, 293,
298, 301
prevention, 236, 249, 294
preventive, 293
prices, ix, 126, 138, 187, 188, 232, 233, 234, 236,
237, 241, 254
private, 290
probability, 27
process gas, 219
producers, 100, 234, 237, 244
product market, 106
profit, 85, 86
profits, viii, 69, 84, 85, 93
program, 5, 33, 42, 138, 208
programming, 152, 245
propagation, 185
property, 3, 194
propionic acid, 24
proposition, 231, 242
propylene, 112
protection, 254, 291, 303
protective coating, 123
protein, 16
proteins, 19, 22, 98, 103, 106, 111, 115
Proteins, 19
protocol, 233, 236
public administration, 306
public health, 3, 36
pulp mill, 191, 203, 210
pumping, 47, 288
purification, 52
PVC, 60
pyramidal, 54
pyrolysis, vii, x, 51, 108, 110, 114, 134, 135, 136,
138, 139, 187, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198,
205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 220, 221,
224, 225, 226, 227, 228
Q
quality loss, 173
questionnaire, 245
R
radial distance, 57
radius, 27, 260
rain, 172
rainfall, 21
325
random, 307
range, 2, 13, 16, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 32, 36, 38,
39, 50, 59, 75, 89, 98, 102, 106, 110, 114, 133,
158, 161, 181, 196, 203, 225, 294, 296, 298
raw material, ix, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105,
106, 108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 122, 124, 130, 133,
188, 191, 234, 292, 300, 301, 303
raw materials, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106,
108, 112, 115, 116, 122, 124, 133, 191, 300
RCRA, 2, 3, 4, 5, 67
reactant, 72
reactants, 118
reaction mechanism, 113, 123
reaction medium, 199, 202, 206
reaction rate, 88, 110
reaction temperature, 189
reactive sites, 105, 114
reactivity, 113, 114, 196
real estate, 291
reality, 24, 77, 304
recognition, vii, 1, 46
reconcile, 184
reconstruction, 188
recovery, vii, viii, ix, x, 3, 11, 26, 32, 42, 46, 52, 54,
55, 59, 60, 65, 69, 70, 72, 77, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89,
91, 93, 94, 95, 133, 142, 156, 159, 161, 165, 166,
172, 174, 182, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 203, 213,
214, 215, 216, 217, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231,
232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243,
247, 248, 250, 251, 253, 254, 258, 260, 262, 267,
286, 287, 288, 299, 300
recovery technology, 3, 46
recyclables, 59, 60
recycling, vii, 1, 29, 60, 135, 207, 234, 240, 243,
246, 249, 303, 309
redox, 25
reduction, 70, 86, 90, 93, 95
reference system, ix, 97, 99, 116, 121, 122, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 130, 133
refineries, 102, 139
refining, 114, 122, 135, 182, 183, 258
refrigeration, 156, 157, 160
regression, 3
regular, 55
regulation, 4, 5, 300
regulations, 4, 5, 6, 191, 232, 243, 290, 294
regulatory framework, 4
relationship, 41, 57, 125, 303
relationships, 125, 290, 292, 293
reliability, 214, 226, 304
remediation, 4
renewable energy, 100, 130, 133, 236, 244, 246, 249,
292
326
Index
renewable resource, viii, 97, 103, 112

replacement rate, 119
research and development, 98, 103, 110
residential, 54
residues, ix, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108,
116, 119, 121, 124, 127, 133, 135, 188, 191, 205,
208, 210, 211, 214, 219, 220, 240, 307
resins, ix, 97, 114, 115, 117, 119, 122, 123, 125, 128,
130, 131, 132, 133, 307
resistance, 46, 257, 260, 279, 301
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 2, 3, 67
resources, viii, 53, 60, 87, 97, 98, 102, 103, 106, 108,
133, 141, 172, 173, 233, 236, 245, 249, 289, 292,
293, 294, 295, 298, 303, 306, 307, 309
respiration, 8, 35, 103
responsibility, 236, 250
restaurants, 105
restructuring, 249
rice, 212
rice husk, 212
risk, vii, 2, 4, 46, 215
risks, 11, 214, 231, 255
robustness, 246
Romania, 238, 240, 246, 298
Rome, 135, 137
room temperature, 189, 204
routing, 71
rubber, 60, 119, 240
rule of law, 4
runoff, 4, 6, 103
rural, 102, 133, 306
rural areas, 102, 133
rural population, 306
Russian, 139
ruthenium, 197
S
safety, 3, 174
saline, 105
salt, 206
sample, 33, 109
sand, 47, 60
satisfaction, 171
saturation, 54, 219, 281
Saudi Arabia, 141
savings, ix, 97, 98, 126, 129, 130, 133, 155, 177,
224, 243, 307
schema, 249
scholarship, 287
scientific community, 98
SCW, 196, 202
sea level, 172
search, 254
seasonal variations, 23, 27
Second World War, 231
sediment, 61
seeds, 100
selecting, 93, 146, 159
selectivity, 160
self, 235
semiarid, 105
semi-arid, 105
sensitivity, 43, 125, 246
sensors, 262
separation, ix, 49, 102, 111, 136, 141, 142, 160, 173,
175, 185, 189
septic tank, 29
services, 105, 127, 131, 133, 235, 246, 251, 291,
292, 293, 294, 303, 306
sewage, 7, 8, 29, 61, 108, 188, 193, 194, 196, 198,
199, 203, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212
shape, 54, 111
shares, 99, 124, 128, 131, 237
sharing, 293
shock, 206
short period, 117
short run, 119
shortage, 190
shortness of breath, 36
Short-term, 12, 210
shoulder, 243
Siemens, 207
signals, 245
simulation, 61, 64, 181, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219,
220, 221, 249, 258
simulations, 217, 218, 219, 221
sites, vii, 1, 2, 6, 8, 20, 21, 22, 32, 33, 37, 47, 61, 64,
96, 105, 114, 290
skills, 290, 298
slag, 299
Slovakia, 238, 240, 298
Slovenia, 238
sludge, vii, ix, 7, 8, 10, 28, 29, 61, 78, 108, 138, 187,
188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199,
200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 212
smog, 51, 172
smoke, 299, 301
SO2, 50, 202, 206, 299
social benefits, 291
social factors, 247
social group, 306
social performance, 290
social problems, 247
sodium, 25, 118, 128
Index
sodium hydroxide, 118, 128
software, 76, 80, 116, 118, 122, 135, 153, 154, 161,
168, 185, 217, 218, 220, 307
soil, 3, 4, 7, 27, 28, 31, 32, 37, 40, 46, 47, 55, 60, 67,
95, 98, 103, 104, 105, 188, 203, 210, 236
soil particles, 32
soils, 46, 92, 210
solar, 244, 292
solar energy, 292
solid matrix, 26
solid waste, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 21, 23, 26, 27,
37, 38, 40, 43, 45, 46, 53, 55, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63,
64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 76, 94, 95, 203, 206, 209, 212,
214, 222, 228, 240, 251, 299, 301
solubility, 19, 196
solvent, 114, 199, 208, 209
solvents, 2, 100, 210
sorbents, 100
sorbitol, 112
sorting, x, 59, 60, 213, 214, 215, 216, 231, 240
Southampton, 64
soybean, 100
Spain, 238, 260, 262, 287, 295
species, 138, 196, 203
specific gravity, 120
specific heat, 147, 148, 181
specificity, 93
spectrum, 99, 102, 108
speed, 53
stability, 38
stabilization, 7, 10, 11, 16, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43, 57,
62, 64, 65, 66, 203, 205
stabilize, 7, 30, 173
stages, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 43, 45, 47, 75, 115,
122, 126, 129, 175, 197, 198, 200, 263
stakeholders, 293, 306
standards, ix, 4, 6, 124, 187, 235, 246, 303, 305
Standards, 5, 67
starch, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 112, 212
starches, 98
state aid, 241
statistics, 239
steady state, 57
steel, 33, 234, 260
sterile, 206
Stochastic, 66
storage, 9, 54, 57, 59, 122, 249, 299, 300
stormwater, 10
strategies, 116, 247, 291, 294, 298, 303, 305, 309
streams, x, 99, 108, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148,
153, 156, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,
167, 168, 170, 173, 174, 175, 181, 184, 196, 211,
213, 217, 294
327
subjective, 246, 247

subsidies, 235, 244
subsidization, 243
substances, 14, 22, 111, 114, 125, 191, 294, 299
substitution, ix, 98, 124
substrates, 15, 28, 71, 72, 110, 111, 112
sucrose, 138
sugar, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 112, 118, 137,
210
sugar beet, 104, 106
sugar cane, 100, 104, 137
sugars, 19, 98, 104, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112,
113, 114, 116, 117, 131, 137, 192
sulfate, 43
Sulfide, 12, 67
sulfur, 42, 51
sulfur oxides, 51
sulfuric acid, 117, 128
sulphate, 19, 21, 25
sulphur, 109, 299, 302
summer, 55, 262
Sun, 117, 139
sunflower, 105
supercritical, vii, x, 187, 189, 196, 199, 200, 202,
203, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212
superheated steam, 219
superiority, xi, 253, 287
supervision, 249
supplemental, 49
suppliers, 241
supply, x, xi, 7, 101, 102, 104, 115, 118, 143, 146,
174, 175, 184, 213, 214, 220, 230, 232, 233, 236,
237, 240, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 256, 257,
285, 287, 293, 294
surface area, 22, 30, 161, 162, 174, 177, 180
surface component, 27
surface water, 4, 7, 60
surgery, 288
surplus, 153, 155, 237, 300
sustainability, 134, 173, 293
sustainable development, 290, 303
Sweden, x, 100, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236,
237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252
Switzerland, 238, 240
symbiosis, 293
symbiotic, 292, 293
symbols, 66
symptoms, 36
syndrome, 7
synthesis, ix, 107, 111, 112, 113, 136, 139, 142, 160,
161, 174, 182, 195, 302
system analysis, 245, 264, 307
328
Index
systems, x, 93, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 240, 241,

242, 245, 246, 247, 250, 251
T
Taiwan, 139
tanks, 59
tar, 192, 194, 195, 196, 208, 209, 214
tar removal, 196, 209
targets, 4, 5, 99, 154, 156, 157, 161, 162, 173, 175,
181, 185, 205, 207, 246
tariffs, 100
taxation, 232, 240, 241, 242, 243, 249, 251
taxes, 240, 241, 242, 243, 248, 250
technological advancement, 205
technology, 231
Teflon, 33
TEM, 185
temporal, 72, 296, 304
Tennessee, 58
territorial, 293
territory, 305, 307, 308
Texas, 203
textiles, 21, 41, 60
thermal decomposition, 192
thermal efficiency, 193, 195
thermal energy, xi, 50, 51, 110, 173, 214, 217, 289,
298, 299, 300, 301, 307
thermal resistance, 257
thermal treatment, x, 191, 213, 214, 215, 226, 227,
298
thermodynamic, 44, 215, 216, 219, 288, 300
thermodynamic cycle, 300
thermodynamics, 125, 134
Thermophilic, 204, 205
threat, 3, 51
threats, 2, 47
threonine, 103
threshold, 14, 37
time, viii, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 84, 85,
86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 230, 233, 234, 242
time frame, 11, 101
time series, 295
tobacco, 41, 42, 294
TOC, 6, 67
Tokyo, 138
toluene, 13, 196
topographic, 57, 59, 92
topology, 161, 183
total energy, 122, 195, 198, 246
total product, 43, 100
toughness, 306
toxic, 2, 3, 25, 32, 50, 191, 299, 302
toxic gases, 3
toxicity, 11, 305
TPA, 181
trade, 160, 161, 183, 230, 235, 236, 241, 248
trade-off, 161, 183
trading, x, 229, 230, 235, 236, 242, 249
trans, 15
transesterification, 100, 111
transfer, 33, 54, 146, 161, 162, 163, 254, 257, 258,
260, 266, 275
transformation, 28, 227, 292, 301
transformations, 299
transition, 70, 271, 275, 285
transparent, 303
transport, 3, 12, 16, 26, 43, 45, 49, 53, 62, 65, 99,
126, 128, 139, 256, 279, 293, 303, 309
transport costs, 293, 309
transportation, ix, 59, 97, 98, 99, 100, 110, 112, 115,
119, 120, 121, 123, 128, 131, 133, 136, 229, 243
transshipment, 152
traps, 173
travel, 26, 27, 47
treatment methods, vii, ix, 111, 187, 190, 206, 207,
231, 239
trees, 136
trend, 232
trial, 45, 204
trial and error, 45
triggers, 301
triglyceride, 105
triglycerides, 103, 105, 106, 114
Triglycerides, 114
turbulence, 300
Turkey, 238
typology, 72
U
Ukraine, 246
uncertainty, viii, 2, 21, 37, 66, 263, 288
UNFCCC, 39
uniform, 26
United Kingdom, 54
United Nations, 39, 67, 135, 297
United States, 2, 6, 54, 64, 100
urban areas, 191
urea, 118, 128
US Army Corps of Engineers, 12, 13, 65
USEPA, 50, 57, 59, 65
329
Index
V
vacuum, 9, 27, 141, 193
values, viii, 12, 13, 24, 26, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45, 56,
58, 70, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 85, 94, 122, 125,
126, 131, 165, 166, 167, 195, 199, 216, 217, 224,
263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272,
273, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283,
284, 285, 286, 304
vapor, 13, 16, 21, 26, 47, 49, 124
variability, 42, 50, 298
variables, 42, 152, 153, 160, 290
variance, x, 253, 263, 264, 285, 287
variation, 241
VAT, 241
vegetable oil, 98, 100, 103, 111
vegetables, 115
vegetation, vii, 1
vehicles, 100, 120, 236
velocity, 45, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 259
ventilation, xi, 253, 258, 287, 288
Victoria, 1, 137
vinyl chloride, 13, 37
viscosity, 12, 202
vision, 35, 103
voids, 31
volatilization, 16
vomiting, 35
W
waste disposal, vii, 1, 2, 21, 39, 40, 61, 66, 129, 290,
303
waste disposal sites, vii, 1, 21, 61
waste imports, 240
waste incineration, x, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235,
236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246,
247, 248, 250, 251, 299
waste management, ix, x, 2, 3, 4, 53, 65, 95, 187,
189, 203, 207, 214, 229, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236,
240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252,
309
waste products, 290, 307
waste treatment, x, xi, 64, 196, 226, 227, 229, 230,
231, 232, 233, 235, 237, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246,
247, 289, 308
wastes, vii, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 13, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 32,
44, 47, 60, 61, 65, 70, 102, 108, 193, 195, 196,
203, 294, 295, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 305, 307,
308, 309
wastewater, ix, 10, 129, 138, 187, 188, 189, 202,

203, 204, 211
wastewater treatment, ix, 10, 129, 187, 188, 189,
202, 203, 211
wastewaters, 116, 118, 119
water evaporation, 192, 254, 257, 281
water gas shift reaction, 112
water quality, 6
water quality standards, 6
water table, 26, 27
water vapor, 13, 21
water vapour, 49, 79, 281
water-soluble, 192, 200
web, 134, 203
wells, 8, 9, 10, 32, 33, 47, 55, 59
Western Europe, 247, 295
wetting, 256, 257
wheat, 104, 108, 109, 210
wind, viii, 97, 98, 244
winter, 57, 262
Wisconsin, 30, 65
wood, ix, 39, 41, 42, 60, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 108,
128, 129, 130, 137, 192, 193, 199, 208, 209, 210,
215, 240, 244, 294, 307
wood products, 41, 42, 294
wood waste, 192, 244, 307
woods, 240
word of mouth, 13
work, 231, 248
workers, 32, 36
World Bank, 138
World Health Organization, 64
writing, 242
X
Xylan, 109
xylene, 196
Y
yield, 3, 12, 15, 16, 62, 76, 105, 114, 117, 130, 193,
195, 196, 199, 200, 205, 207
Z
zeolites, 49, 212
zinc, 25, 209

Energy Recovery

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Recovery

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ENERGY RECOVERY

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Copyright 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

Landfill Gas: Generation Models and Energy Recovery

Energy and Material Recovery from Biomass: The Biorefinery

Pinch Technology for Waste Heat Recovery Applications

Treatment of Secondary Sludge for Energy Recovery

Energy Recovery from Waste: Comparison

Energy Recovery from Waste Incineration: Linking

Experimental Analysis of a Combined Recovery System

Energy Recovery Systems from Industrial Plant Waste:

Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier

Edgard DuBois and Arthur Mercier

including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, direct liquefaction, supercritical water

In: Energy Recovery

BIOGAS RECOVERY FROM LANDFILLS

Sherien A. Elagroudy and 2Mostafa A. Warith*

Civil Engineering Department, Ain Shams University Univeristy,

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

provides a broad overview on Landfill gas (LFG) characteristics, composition, LFG

II. REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC

A brief summary of these regulations applicable is presented in the following section.

A. U Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) found at 40 CFR Part 60

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

III. SANITARY AND BIOREACTOR LANDFILLS

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

1. Anaerobic bioreactor landfills

2. Aerobic bioreactor landfills

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

Figure 1. Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)

Figure 2. Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

3. Aerobic-anaerobic bioreactor landfills

C. Features Unique to Bioreactor Landfills

Figure 3. Aerobic-Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill (U.S EPA 2004)

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

D. Potential Advantages of Bioreactor Landfills

Decomposition and biological stabilization in years vs. decades in dry tombs

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

IV. LANDFILL GAS (LFG)

A. Landfill Gas Characteristics

1. Density and viscosity

Forms explosive mixture with

Source: US Army Corps of Engineers (2008)

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

Table 2. Typical Values for Gas Density and Viscosity at (00C)

Source: US Army Corps of Engineers (2008)

2. Heat value content

3. Non-methane organic compounds

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

B. Landfill Gas Composition

Percent (volume basis)

Biogas Recovery from Landfills

C. Landfill Gas Yield

Sherien A. Elagroudy and Mostafa A. Warith

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.