EIS Study On The Corrosion Behavior of Rusted

Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials
EIS study on the corrosion behavior of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution
Jiayuan Hu Shun-an Cao Jianli Xie
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Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials, Vol. 60 Iss 2 pp. 100 - 105
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EIS study on the corrosion behavior of rusted

carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution
Jiayuan Hu and Shun-an Cao
College of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China, and
Jianli Xie
Suzhou Nuclear Power Research Institute, Suzhou, China

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the long-term corrosion behavior of carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution and evaluate the effect of rust
layer on the corrosion process.
Design/methodology/approach The corrosion behavior of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution was studied by means of infrared spectroscopy
(IR) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
Findings The results indicated that the corrosion of carbon steel was affected by chloride ion in initial immersion and then controlled by the rust
layer. The rust layer consisted of a thin outer layer (g-FeOOH layer) and a thick inner layer (Fe3O4 layer). The outer rust layer facilitated the cathodic
process via reduction of g-FeOOH, while the inner rust layer provided a large cathode area and oxygen could be reduced on its surface. As a result, the
corrosion rate of carbon steel was determined by the limiting diffusion rate of oxygen and stabilized at a high value.
Originality/value The corrosion model of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution was established. It is probable that the iron rust in all slightly
acidic water with low alkalinity can promote the corrosion process via reduction of g-FeOOH. Anti-corrosion measures for iron in this type of solutions
should be aimed to reduce the promoting effect of rust layer on the metal corrosion. The NaCl solution prepared from tap water is more suitable for the
substitution of artificial water than that prepared from deionized water.
Keywords Steels, Corrosion, Rust, Carbon steel, Rust layer, Corrosion mechanism, Artificial seawater
Paper type Research paper
infrared spectroscopy (IR) and electrochemical impedance

spectroscopy (EIS). The objectives of this work were to
analyze the long-term corrosion behavior of carbon steel and
explore the effect of the rust layer on the corrosion process.
1. Introduction
Carbon steel is widely used in marine environments. Because
the main salt of seawater is NaCl, 3% NaCl solution prepared
from deionized water is often used as artificial seawater to
research the corrosion behavior of carbon steel and choose
seawater corrosion inhibitors (Osorio et al., 2009; Abdallah
et al., 2006). Hence, 3% NaCl solution has become one of the
most commonly used of corrosion media.
A rust layer is formed easily on metal surfaces in corrosion
media and the corrosion of carbon steel under a rust
layer is the most common and important form of corrosion
(Zou et al., 2010). However, few researches have focused on
the corrosion process of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl
solution. When 3% NaCl solution is used to simulate
seawater to study the corrosion characteristics of carbon
steel and to select corrosion inhibitors, the corrosion
behavior of carbon steel will inevitably be affected by the
rust layer. Therefore, studying the corrosion process of
rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution can provide more
accurate data and is more representative of actual project
situations.
In this investigation, the corrosion behavior of rusted
carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution was studied by means of
2. Experimental procedure
2.1 Materials and solutions
The material under test was Q235A carbon steel, whose main
constituents were (in wt.%): C 0.10, Si 0.18, Mn 0.30, S 0.02,
P 0.02, and Fe balance. The dimensions of the test specimens
were 40 mm 13 mm 2 mm. All specimens were polished
through different grades of emery papers, and then scrubbed
with anhydrous ethyl alcohol and acetone. After that, the
specimens were put into a dryer and their size and weight
were measured before use.
The experimental medium was 3% NaCl solution prepared
from deionized water and reagent grade NaCl.
2.2 Rotary coupon test
Test specimens were suspended on a rotary coupon rack and
immersed in 3% NaCl solution. The rotary coupon rack had
12 rotating bars which moved clockwise with a speed between
45 and 180 rpm. The specimens were suspended at the
bottom of the bars and rotated in the NaCl solutions. Each
group of tests utilized 2 L NaCl solution and three duplicate
specimens. The experimental conditions were: the rotation
speed of the coupon rack was 95 rpm; the solution
temperature was set at 308C.
After exposure, the rust layers on metal surface were
collected, and then the specimens were dried and weighed.
The corrosion rate of the carbon steel was calculated from the
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60/2 (2013) 100 105
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0003-5599]
[DOI 10.1108/00035591311308074]
100
Corrosion behavior of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution
Jiayuan Hu, Shun-an Cao and Jianli Xie
Volume 60 Number 2 2013 100 105
weight loss of the specimens after exposure. The calculation

formula of corrosion rate was as follows:
Figure 1 Relationship between corrosion rate of carbon steel and

immersion time in 3% NaCl solution
8:76 W 0 2 W 1
rSt
3.0
Corrosion rate/(mmy1)
where, V is the corrosion rate of carbon steel, mm y2 1; W0 and

W1 are the weight of specimen before and after experiment,
respectively, g; r is the density of metal, g cm2 3; S is the surface
area of specimen, m2; t is the corrosion time, h.
2.3 Rust layer analysis
The infrared spectroscopy (IR) analyses were performed in
the Analysis and Testing Center of Wuhan University. The
infrared spectrometer was a NICOLET 5700 FTIR.
Rust layers on the metal surface were collected using a
plastic spoon and were analyzed using IR spectroscopy.
2.5
2.0
1.5
200
400
600
800
1,000
t/h
2.4 Electrochemical tests

Electrochemical tests were carried out using a PGSTAT128N
Autolab electrochemical workstation (Metrohm China Ltd).
A three-electrode system was used. The working electrodes
were the carbon steel samples, which were covered by epoxide
resin to ensure that their working area was 1 cm2. The
reference electrode was a saturated calomel electrode with a
Luggin glass capillary, and the auxiliary electrode was a
platinum electrode. The testing medium, whose temperature
was 25 ^ 18C, was 3% NaCl solution.
Some working electrodes were immersed in NaCl solution
using the rotary coupon rack to form rust layers (the
experimental conditions were the same as that of the rotary
coupon test for specimens). Electrochemical tests were
performed after the rust layers were formed on the electrode
surfaces. All electrochemical tests were carried out in the
quiescent NaCl solution. The measuring frequency of AC
impedance was 100 kHz-0.01 Hz.
3.2 Compositions of the rust layer

In order to explore the effect of corrosion products on the
corrosion process it was necessary first to determine the
components of the rust layer. Hence, the rust layers were
analyzed by IR spectroscopy. Experimental results are shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 2 shows that the components of rust layers changed
significantly with increase in immersion time. After 24 h
immersion, the rust layer contained g-FeOOH (1,160, 1,020,
746 cm 2 1 ), Fe 3O4 (570 cm 2 1) and a little a -FeOOH
(880 cm2 1). As the immersion time was extended, the
absorption peak at 570 cm2 1 became stronger quickly, which
meant the relative content of Fe3O4 kept increasing. When the
immersion time was extended to 168 h, Fe3O4 had become the
main ingredient of the rust layer, while the content of g-FeOOH
decreased significantly. The experimental results indicated that
g-FeOOH was easily transformed to other products, so it could
not abound in the rust layer in 3% NaCl solution. The rapid
generation of Fe3O4 indicated that it was directly converted
3. Results
3.1 Corrosion rate of carbon steel
12 different immersion times were used for the rotary
coupon test for specimens;, i.e. 2, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 120, 168,
240, 360, 480 and 720 h. Experimental results were shown
in Figure 1.
The trace shown in Figure 1 shows that the corrosion rate
of carbon steel decreased sharply after initial immersion, and
stabilized subsequently at about 1.5 mm y2 1. The high rate
of corrosion during initial immersion indicates that the
corrosion process of carbon steel was enhanced significantly
by the chloride ions (Zheng and Yang, 2010). With increasing
immersion time, the rust layer forms on the metal surface and
then the promoting effect of the chloride ions is suppressed.
The corrosion rate of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution
reached 1.5 mm y2 1 which was close to the corrosion rate of
carbon steel determined by the limiting diffusion rate of oxygen
in water (Hu et al., 2012). Therefore, it can be inferred that the
rust layer can facilitate the corrosion process.
By observing the morphology of the rust layer, it was found
that the rust consisted of a black inner layer and a yellow outer
layer. The outer rust layer was very thin and the inner rust
layer was much thicker.
Figure 2 Infrared (IR) spectra of rust layers in 3% NaCl solution for

immersion times of (a) 24 h, (b) 48 h, (c) 168 h, (d) 720 h
50
g -FeOOH
40
Transmittance/%
1.0
30
a
1,020
b
887 791
1,160
743
g -FeOOH
20
571
1,021
1,400
1,200
Fe3O4
1,000
800
s /cm1
101
473
a -FeOOH
10
568
600
400
Volume 60 Number 2 2013 100 105
from other corrosion products rather than generated in the

oxygen depleted environment (Zou et al., 2011).
According to the colors of the rust products, it was known
that the yellow g-FeOOH existed mainly in the outer rust
layer and the black Fe3O4 predominated in the inner layer.
Additionally, some researches showed that a-FeOOH also
was located in the inner rust layer (Kamimura et al., 2006).
Figure 4 Equivalent circuits of carbon steel electrodes in 3% NaCl

solution
3.3 Electrochemical characteristics of rust layer

In order to explore the electrochemical characteristics of rust
layers, EIS tests were performed. The AC impedance
measurements of electrodes with different times of
immersion were carried out. Experimental results are shown
in Figure 3.
It was found that the Nyquist curves varied significantly as a
function of immersion time. For a bare electrode and an
immersion time of 0.5 h, the Nyquist diagram illustrated only
one double-layer capacitive semicircle. As for the rusted
electrodes, each Nyquist curve consisted of a capacitance arc
and a line that represented the Warburg impedance.
The equivalent circuit for the naked electrode is shown in
Figure 4(a). By studying the properties of the rust layer in
seawater, many scholars thought that the rust layer could
behave as the capacitive reactance and impedance because
multi-capacitance arcs were found in the Nyquist curve.
However, each Nyquist curve for rusted electrodes shown in
Figure 3 exhibits only of a single capacitance arc and a line,
which showed that the rust layer generated in 3% NaCl
solution had different electrochemical characteristics to that
generated in seawater.
Bousselmi et al. (1999) proved that Fe3O4 layer could not
be distinguished from metal by electrical measurements, due
to its good electronic conductivity. Hence, it was believed that
the thick inner rust layer (Fe3O4 layer) in 3% NaCl solution
could not be detected by EIS tests.
Zeng et al. (1999) proved that the corrosion rate of metal
would be controlled by the limiting diffusion rate of oxidant in
the corrosion medium if the rust layer was porous and the
corrosion rate of the metal was high. Because the outer rust layer
in 3% NaCl solution was very thin, it could be inferred that the
outer rust layer could not hinder the diffusion process of oxygen
effectively. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 1, the corrosion
(a)
(b)
Notes: (a) Without rust layer; (b) with rust layer covered; where
Rs resistance of solution; Rt transfer resistance;
Cd capacitance of the electric double layer; Zd diffusion
impedance
rate of rusted carbon steel was very high. Consequently, it could
be inferred that the corrosion rate of carbon steel in 3% NaCl
solution was determined by the limiting diffusion rate of
oxygen. Hence, the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4(b) was
proposed for rusted electrodes. The fitting results proved that
these equivalent circuits were suitable, and the analytical results
were summarized in Table I.
As shown in Table I, the value of transfer resistance (Rt)
decreased sharply at the beginning and then trended to level
off. The change trend of Rt values showed that the rust layer
could promote the corrosion process of carbon steel
significantly at the beginning, and then the corrosion rate of
the steel would stabilize at a high value with the thickening of
rust layer.
The Rt value was large at the beginning, which was not
consistent with the results shown in Figure 1. It was found
that a high-concentration of chloride ions could promote
strongly the corrosion process of carbon steel in flowing
solution; but this enhancement effect became much smaller in
quiescent solution, so that the Rt values of electrode that were
measured in quiescent NaCl solution was large at initial
immersion. The Rt values of carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution
would decrease rapidly only after the rust layer had formed on
the electrode surface.
Figure 3 EIS diagrams of electrodes for different immersion times in

3% NaCl solution
1,200
Z''/( cm2)
300
1,000
Z''/( cm2)
800
200
100
0
0
100
600
200
300
Z'/( cm2)
400
0.5 h
72 h
168 h
240 h
720 h
fitting results
Table I Analytical results of Nyquist curves of electrodes for various

immersion time
400
200
0
200
400
600
800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600
Z'/( cm2)
102
t/h
Rs/(V cm2)
Rt/(V cm2)
Y0/(V2 1 cm2 2 S2 0.5)
0.5
72
168
240
360
480
720
2.64
4.73
6.13
5.16
5.89
6.42
6.12
1,813
967
60.46
78.71
39.62
52.07
46.85
0.1079
0.10896
0.08761
0.11298
0.09450
0.13182
Volume 60 Number 2 2013 100 105
Warburg coefficient (Y0) could represent the diffusion ability of

oxygen. The experimental results in Table I show that the Y0
value was about 0.1 V2 1 cm2 2 S2 0.5 which was much larger
than the Y0 value for oxygen transferring in rust layer
(Melchers, 2003). Additionally, the value of Y0 did not
change with increase in thickness of the rust layer. Hence,
it could be inferred that oxygen did not need to permeate the
rust layer in order to participate in the corrosion reaction.
Whether or not oxygen can be reduced on the surface of
rust layer can be proved by calculating the value of diffusion
coefficient of oxygen (D).
The Warburg coefficient (Y0) could be expressed as follows:
p
n2 F 2 AC D
Y0
2
aRT
The Rt value of an electrode covered by the inner rust layer

was much smaller than was that of a bare electrode, which
indicated that the inner rust layer could accelerate the
corrosion of carbon steel significantly.
Therefore, it was found that both the outer rust layer
(g-FeOOH layer) and the inner rust layer (Fe3O4 layer) had
the ability to facilitate the corrosion of carbon steel in
3% NaCl solution.
4. Discussion
After carbon steel was immersed in NaCl solution, the
corrosion reactions could occur as follows:
Anode region:
where, n is the number of the exchange charge; A is the area of

the working electrode in cm2; C is the reactant concentration in
mol cm2 3; D is the diffusion coefficient of oxygen in cm2 s2 1;
usually a 0.5; and T is the absolute temperature, in degrees K.
The diffusion coefficient of oxygen (D) was calculated as
follows:
D
Y 20 a2 R2 T 2
n4 F 4 A2 C 2
Fe ! Fe2 2e
O2 2H 2 O 4e ! 4OH 2
Cathode region:
Before a rust layer is formed on the metal surface, chloride ion

is easy to absorb onto the metal surface and forms the soluble
compounds (FeCl2) with iron ions. By accelerating the
dissolution of iron, chloride ions can facilitate the corrosion of
the carbon steel (Zheng and Yang, 2010):
In the experiments, the values of parameters in equation (3)

were as follows: A 1 cm2; C 2.03 102 7 mol cm2 3 (the
oxygen concentration was about 6.5 mg L2 1); T 298.15 K;
in
Table
I
was
the
average
value
of
Y0
0.1072 V2 1 cm2 2 S2 0.5.
The value of the diffusion coefficient of oxygen (D),
calculated by equation (3), was 1.93 102 5 cm2 s2 1 which
was very close to the diffusion coefficient of oxygen (D) in
water (1.9 102 5 cm2 s2 1). This result indicated that the
diffusion process of oxygen in solution determined the
corrosion rate of carbon steel and oxygen could be reduced on
the surface of rust layer directly.
The rust layer of carbon steel consisted of a thick inner layer
and a thin outer layer. In order to explore the effect of each
layer on the corrosion process, the electrode for 600 h
immersion was treated as follows before EIS tests: removal of
the outer layer; removal of the inner layer. The surface
morphologies of electrode are shown in Figure 5. The results
of EIS tests are shown in Figure 6 and Table II.
As shown in Table II, the Rt value became much larger
when the outer rust layer was removed. It was concluded that
the corrosion process of carbon steel became more difficult
after the outer rust layer was removed, which proved that the
outer rust layer could promote the corrosion process.
Fe2 2Cl 2 4H 2 O ! FeCl 2 4H 2 O

2
FeCl 2 4H 2 O ! FeOH2 2Cl 2H 2H 2 O
6
7
Therefore, the corrosion rate of carbon steel was very high at

initial immersion in the flowing 3% NaCl solution. With the
corrosion continuing, the corrosion promoting effect of
chloride ion could be suppressed by the rust layer, so that
the corrosion rate of the carbon steel decreased.
The ferrous ions (Fe2 ), which do not form compounds
with chloride ions, will form hydrated ions in solution:
Fe2 H 2 O ! FeOH H
The intermediate corrosion products FeOH and Fe(OH)2

can be oxidized quickly by O2 and converted into g-FeOOH
(Zou et al., 2011):
2FeOH O2 2e ! 2g 2 FeOOH
4FeOH2 O2 ! 4g 2 FeOOH 2H 2 O
10
Hence, g-FeOOH accumulates on the metal surface and

forms the early rust layer (the outer rust layer). By studying
on the atmospheric corrosion of carbon steel, it was proved
Figure 5 Pictures of carbon steel electrodes
(a)
(b)
(c)
Notes: (a) Rust layer covered; (b) removal of the outer layer; (c) removal of the inner layer
103
Volume 60 Number 2 2013 100 105
Figure 6 Nyquist plots of carbon steel electrode after rust layer

treatment
proved also that the rate of g-FeOOH reduction was directly

proportional to the electrolyte pH.
The 3% NaCl solution prepared from deionized water is
slightly acidic because it is easy for CO2 to dissolve into it. It is
known that slightly acidic conditions of NaCl solution are good
for the reduction reaction of g-FeOOH. Due to the reduction of
g-FeOOH, it cannot abound in rust layer, so that the outer rust
layer is very thin in 3% NaCl solution. Furthermore, Fe3O4 can
be converted rapidly from g-FeOOH. Hence, Fe3O4 can
accumulate at the interface between the outer rust layer and the
metal, forming the inner rust layer.
Evans (1965) concluded that ferrous ions and electrons could
pass through an Fe3O4 layer due to the good conductivity of the
Fe3O4, and hence the cathodic reaction would occur on the
surface of Fe3O4 layer. The experimental results in Table II
indicate that the inner rust layer (Fe3O4 layer) could facilitate
significantly the corrosion of carbon steel. Meanwhile, it has
been proved that oxygen was reduced on the surface of the rust
layer by calculating the value of the diffusion coefficient of
oxygen (D). Therefore, it can be concluded that the Fe3O4 layer
works as a large cathode area and oxygen is reduced on its
surface in 3% NaCl solution, so that the corrosion of carbon
steel can be promoted significantly.
Because of the reduction of the g-FeOOH layer and the
large cathode area of Fe3O4 layer, the corrosion process of
carbon steel was accelerated greatly. Hence, although the
corrosion rate decreased on initial immersion, the corrosion
rate of rusted carbon steel could still stabilize at a high value
in 3% NaCl solution. Finally, the corrosion rate of carbon
steel was determined by the limiting diffusion rate of oxygen
from solution to Fe3O4 layer. The limiting diffusion rate
current density can be expressed as:
600
Z''/( cm2)
200
Z''/( cm2)
500
400
150
100
50
0
0
50
300
100 150
Z'/( cm2)
200
rust layer covered

removal of outer layer
removal of inner layer
fitting results
200
100
0
100
200
300
Z'/(
400
500
600
cm2)
Table II Analytical results of Nyquist curves of electrodes

Rs/(V cm2) Rt/(V cm2) Y0/(V2 1 cm2 2 S2 0.5)
State
Rust layer
covered
Removal of the
outer layer
Removal of the
inner layer
5.12
44.86
0.14172
4.93
68.11
0.09399
3.68
1,995
that the g-FeOOH layer, which was in electrical contact with

the metal, could be reduced (Hoerle et al., 2004).
The reduction reaction for g-FeOOH is:
3g 2 FeOOH H e ! Fe3 O4 2H 2 O
i L 2nFD
Eu
RT
aFeOOH 3 aH
ln
aFe3 O4
nF
RT
ln aH
F
12
The equation (12) also can be expressed as:

E FeOOH=Fe3 O4 E u 2
2:303RT
pH
F
14
where, D is the diffusion coefficient of oxygen; C0 is the

concentration of oxygen in solution; and d is the thickness of
diffusion layer.
The values of all parameters in equation (14) are constant
with all experimental conditions unchanged, and hence iL is a
certain value. Therefore, the corrosion rate of carbon steel
would stabilize at a high value. These conclusions are
consistent with the experimental results in Figure 1.
The corrosion model of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl
solution can be expressed as Figure 7.
On the basis of conclusions mentioned above, the reduction
potential of g-FeOOH is related to the electrolyte pH which is
directly related with the alkalinity of solution. Meanwhile,
Lahav and Birnhack (2007) also found that iron was corroded
badly in natural low salinity terrestrial waters that were
slightly acidic with low alkalinity. Therefore, it is probable that
the rust layer generated in all slightly acidic waters with low
alkalinity can promote the corrosion of carbon steel via
reduction of g-FeOOH. Therefore, anti-corrosion measures
for iron in these types of solutions should be aimed to reduce
the promoting effect of the rust layer on the corrosion process.
Adding corrosion inhibitors into the corrosion medium,
which can isolate the metal and the rust layer from the
solution, is a good choice. Furthermore, for pipes that have
been in water service for a long time, it is better to clean the
rust layer from the inner wall of pipe.
11
As shown in Table II, the g-FeOOH layer could promote the

corrosion of carbon steel. Meanwhile, the analysis results
from IR spectroscopy indicate that Fe3O4 was converted
directly from other corrosion products. Therefore, it can be
believed that the reaction of equation (11) can occur in 3%
NaCl solution.
The Nernst equation of the reduction reaction of
g-FeOOH is:
E FeOOH=Fe3 O4 E uFeOOH=Fe3 O4
C0
d
13
As shown in equation (13), the reduction potential of

g-FeOOH is related directly to the electrolyte pH. When the
reduction potential of g-FeOOH is higher than the corrosion
potential of carbon steel in solution, g-FeOOH can be
reduced and will work as an oxidant. Hoerle et al. (2004)
104
Volume 60 Number 2 2013 100 105
Figure 7 The corrosion model of rusted carbon steel in 3% NaCl

solution
for carbon steel corrosion in 3.5 percent NaCl solution,

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Many researches have demonstrated that the rust layer

generated in seawater could inhibit the corrosion of carbon
steel. However, the rust layer generated in 3% NaCl solution
prepared from deionized water could facilitate the corrosion
process. Considering the important influence of water
alkalinity on the rust layer, the NaCl solution prepared from
tap water is more suitable than that prepared from deionized
water to be used as artificial seawater.
5. Conclusion
The corrosion behavior of carbon steel in 3% NaCl solution is
controlled by chloride ions during initial immersion and the
rust layer at the stable stage of corrosion, respectively.
Because of the promoting effect of the rust layer on the
corrosion process, the corrosion rate of rusted carbon steel
can be accelerated significantly and finally is determined by
the limiting diffusion rate of oxygen. It is probable that the
rust layer generated in all slightly acidic waters with low
alkalinity can promote corrosion of carbon steel via reduction
of g-FeOOH. Anti-corrosion measures for iron in this type of
solution should be aimed to reduce the corrosion promoting
effect of the rust layer. The NaCl solution prepared from tap
water is more suitable for the substitution of artificial seawater
than that prepared from deionized water.
References
Corresponding author
Abdallah, M., El-Etre, A.Y., Soliman, M.G. and Mabrouk, E.M.

(2006), Some organic and inorganic compounds as inhibitors
Jiayuan Hu can be contacted at: jiayuanhu@yeah.net
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This article has been cited by:
1. K. Zakowski, M. Narozny, M. Szocinski, K. Darowicki. 2014. Influence of water salinity on corrosion riskthe case of the
southern Baltic Sea coast. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186, 4871-4879. [CrossRef]
2. Jiayuan Hu, Shun-an Cao, Li Yin, Yang Gao. 2014. Electrochemical study on the corrosion of rusted carbon steel in dilute NaCl
solutions. Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials 61:3, 139-145. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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