Aerodynamics

Lecture 1:
Introduction - Equations of
Motion
G. Dimitriadis

Definition

Aerodynamics is the science that analyses
the flow of air around solid bodies

The basis of aerodynamics is fluid
dynamics

Aerodynamics only came of age after the
first aircraft flight by the Wright brothers

The primary driver of aerodynamics
progress is aerospace and more
particularly aeronautics

Applications (1)
Basic phenomena:
Flow around a cylinder
Shock wave
Flow around an airfoil

Applications (2)
Low speed aerodynamics

Trailing vortices

High lift devices

Applications (3)
High speed aerodynamics

F14 shock wave causes

condensation

F14 shock wave visualized on

waters surface

Applications (4)
New concepts:
Blended wing body
Micro-air vehicles
Forward-swept wings

Applications (5)

Space: Rockets, spaceplanes, reentry,

Airship 1

Applications (6)

Non-aerospace applications: cars,

buildings, birds, insects

Categories of aerodynamics

Aerodynamics is an all-encompassing term

It is usually sub-divided according to the speed
of the flow regime under investigation:

Subsonic aerodynamics: The flow is subsonic over
the entire body

Transonic aerodynamics: The flow is sonic or
supersonic over some parts of the body but
subsonic over other parts

Supersonic aerodynamics: The flow is supersonic
over all of the body

Hypersonic aerodynamics: The flow is faster than
four times the speed of sound over all of the body

Flow type applications

Subsonic aerodynamics:

Low speed aircraft, high-speed aircraft flying at
low speeds, wind turbines, environmental flows etc

Transonic aerodynamics:

Aircraft flying at nearly the speed of sound,
helicopter rotor blades, turbine engine blades etc

Supersonic aerodynamics:

Aircraft flying at supersonic speeds, turbine engine
blades etc

Hypersonic aerodynamics:

Atmospheric re-entry vehicles, experimental
hypersonic aircraft, bullets, ballistic missiles,
space launch vehicles etc

Content of this course (1)

This course will address mostly
subsonic and supersonic aerodynamics

Transonic aerodynamics is very difficult
and highly nonlinear

Small perturbation linearized solutions exist
but their accuracy is debatable

Hypersonic aerodynamics is beyond the

scope of this course

Content of this course (2)

Subsonic aerodynamics

Incompressible aerodynamics

Ideal flow

2D flow

3D flow

Viscous flow

Viscous-inviscid matching

Compressibility corrections

Supersonic aerodynamics

2D flow

3D flow

Simplifications

The different categories of aerodynamics exist
because of the different amount of
simplifications that can be applied to particular
flows

Air molecules always obey the same laws,
irrespective of the size or speed of the object
that is passing through them

However, the way we analyze flows changes
with flow regime because we apply
simplifications

Without simplifications very few useful results
can be obtained

Full Navier Stokes Equations

The most complete model we have of the
flow of air is the Navier Stokes equations

These equations are nevertheless a
model: they are not the physical truth

They represent three conservation laws:
mass, momentum and energy

They are not the physical truth because
they involve a number of statistical
quantities such as viscosity and density

Navier Stokes for

Aerodynamicists

 (
u)  (
v )  (
w )
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z

 (
u)  (
u 2 )  (
uv )  (
uw )  xx  xy  xz

+
+
+
=
+
+
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
 (
v )  (
uv )  (
v 2 )  (
vw )  xy  yy  yz
+
+
+
=
+
+
t
x
y
z
x
y
z

 (
w )  (
uw )  (
vw )  (
w 2 )  xz  yz  zz
+
+
+
=
+
+
t
x
y
z
x
y
z

 (
E )  (
uE )  (
vE )  (
wE )  (
q)  (
uq)  (
vq)  (
wq)

+
+
+
=
+
+
+
t
x
y
z
t
x
y
z




+
u xx + v xy + w xz +
u xy + v yy + w yz +
u xz + v yz + w zz 



x
y
z



Nomenclature

The lengths x, y, z are used to define
position with respect to a global frame of
reference, while time is defined by t.


u, v, w are the local airspeeds. They are
functions of position and time.

p, ,  are the pressure, density and
viscosity of the fluid and they are
functions of position and time

E is the total energy in the flow.

q is the external heat flux

The stress tensor

Consider a small fluid element.

In a general flow, each face of the element
experiences normal stresses and shear stresses

The three normal and six shear stress components
make up the stress tensor

More nomenclature

The components of the stress tensor:
u
v
w
 xx =
p + 2 , yy =
p + 2 , zz =
p + 2
x
y
z
 v  u 
 w  v 
 u  w 
 xy =  yx =  +  , yz =  zy = 
+  , =  xz =
+
 z  x
 x  y
 y z zx

The total energy E is given by:

E =e+

1 2
u + v2 + w2)
(
2

where e is the internal energy of the flow

and depends on the temperature and
volume.

Gas properties

Do not forget that gases are also
governed by the state equation:
p =
RT

Where T is the temperature and R is
Blotzmanns constant.

For a calorically perfect gas: e=cvT,
where cv is the specific heat at constant
volume.

Comments on Navier-Stokes
equations

Notice that aerodynamicists always include the
mass and energy equations in the NavierStokes equations

Notice also that compressibility is always
allowed for, unless specifically ignored

This is the most complete form of the airflow
equations, although turbulence has not been
explicitly defined

Explicit definition of turbulence further
complicates the equations by introducing new
unknowns, the Reynolds stresses.

Constant viscosity

Under the assumption that the fluid has
constant viscosity, the momentum
equations can be written as
 ( u)  ( u 2 )  ( uv )  ( uw )
  2 u  2 u  2 u
p
+
+
+
=
+  2 + 2 + 2 
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
 x
 ( v )  ( uv )  ( v 2 )  ( vw )
  2v  2v  2v 
p
+
+
+
=
+  2 + 2 + 2 
t
x
y
z
y
y
z
 x

 ( w )  ( uw )  ( vw )  ( w 2 )
  2w  2w  2w 
p
+
+
+
=
+  2 + 2 + 2 
t
x
y
z
z
y
z
 x

Compact expressions

There are several compact expressions
for the Navier-Stokes equations:
Tensor notation:
Vector notation:
Matrix notation:

 2 ui
Dui
p

=

+ 2
Dt
x i
x i
 u 1


+ u  u + (  u)  u =
p +  2u
 t 2

T
 u


+ T uuT =
p +  2 u
 t


Non-dimensional form

The momentum equations can also be
written in non-dimensional form as
 ( u)  ( u 2 )  ( uv )  ( uw )
p 1   2 u  2 u  2 u 
+
+
+
=
+
 2 + 2 + 2
t
x
y
z
x Re  x
y
z
 ( v )  ( uv )  ( v 2 )  ( vw )
p 1   2v  2v  2v 
+
+
+
=
+
+
+


t
x
y
z
y Re  x 2 y 2 z 2

 ( w )  ( uw )  ( vw )  ( w 2 )
p 1   2 w  2 w  2 w 
+
+
+
=
+
+
+


t
x
y
z
z Re  x 2 y 2 z 2

where

=

u
v
w
x
y
z
tL
p


, u=
,v=
, w=
, x= , y= , z= , t= , p=
U
U
U
L
L
L
U



U 2

Solvability of the NavierStokes equations

There exist no solutions of the complete
Navier-Stokes equations

The equations are:

Unsteady

Nonlinear

Viscous

Compressible

The major problem is the nonlinearity

Flow unsteadiness

Flow unsteadiness in the real world arises from
two possible phenomena:

The solid body accelerates

There are areas of separated flows

This course will only consider solid bodies that

do not accelerate

Attached flows will generally be considered

Therefore, unsteady terms will be neglected

All time derivatives in the Navier-Stokes equations
are equal to zero

Unsteadiness Examples

Flow past a circular cylinder

visualized in a water tunnel. The
airspeed is accelerating. The flow is
always separated and unsteady. It
becomes steadier at high airspeeds

Flow past an airfoil visualized in a

water tunnel. The angle of attack is
increasing. The flow attached and
steady at low angles of attack and
vice versa.

Viscosity

Viscosity is a property of fluids

All fluids are viscous to different
degrees

However, there are some aerodynamic
flow cases where viscosity can be
modeled in a simplified manner

In those cases, all viscous terms are
neglected.

Cases where viscosity is

important
Shock wave
Boundary layer

Wake

Euler equations

Neglecting the viscous terms, we obtain
the unsteady Euler equations:
  ( u)  ( v )  ( w )
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z

 ( u)  ( u 2 )  ( uv )  ( uw )

p
+
+
+
=

t
x
y
z
x
 ( v )  ( uv )  ( v 2 )  ( vw )
p
+
+
+
=

t
x
y
z
y

 ( w )  ( uw )  ( vw )  ( w 2 )
p
+
+
+
=

t
x
y
z
z

 ( E )  ( uE )  ( vE )  ( wE )

 ( up)  (vp)  ( wp)
+
+
+
=





t
x
y
z
x
y
z

Classic form of the Euler

equations

The Euler equations are usually written
in the form:

where

U
F
G
H
+
+
+
=0

t
x
y
z







u 

v 

w 





 
2 
p
+


u


uv


uw


u






 
2
U = 
v , F = 
uv , G =  p +
v , H = 
vw 





 
2 
p
+


uw


uw


w


w






 
 u
E + p 
 v
E + p 
 w
E + p 
)
)
)

E 
 (
 (
 (

Steady Euler Equations

Neglecting unsteady terms we obtain
the steady Euler equations:
 ( u)  ( v )  ( w )
+
+
=0
x
y
z
 ( u 2 )
x

 ( uv )  ( uw )
p
+
=

y
z
x

2
 ( uv )  ( v )  ( vw )
p
+
+
=

x
y
z
y

2
 ( uw )  ( vw )  ( w )
p
+
+
=

x
y
z
z

Example 1

Notice that in the steady Euler
equations, the energy equation has
disappeared.

Show that neglecting unsteady and
viscous terms turns the energy equation
into an identity if the airs internal
energy is constant in space.

Compressibility

The compressibility of most liquids is negligible
for the forces encountered in engineering
applications.

Many fluid dynamicists always write the NavierStokes equations in incompressible form.

This cannot be done for gases, as they are very
compressible.

However, for low enough airspeeds, the
compressibility of gases also becomes
negligible.

In this case, compressibility can be ignored.

Compressibility examples
Hypersonic
flow over
blunt wedge

Transonic flow
over airfoil
Supersonic
flow over
sharp wedge

Incompressible, steady Euler

Equations

The incompressible, steady Euler
equations become
u v w
+ +
=0
x y z
1 p
u
u
u
u +v +w =

x
y
z
 x
1 p
v
v
v
u +v +w =

x
y
z
 y
w
w
w
1 p
u
+v
+w
=

x
y
z
 z

Comment on the Euler

equations

The Euler equations are much more
solvable than the Navier-Stokes equations

They are most commonly solved using
numerical methods, such as finite
differences

There are very few analytical solutions of
the Euler equations and they are not
particularly useful

In order to obtain analytical solutions, the
equations must be simplified even further

Flow rotationality

Rotational flow:
Fluid rotation

Fluid particle,
time t1

Fluid particle,
time t2

Fluid particle,
time t3

Irrotational flow:
No fluid rotation

Fluid particle,
time t1

Fluid particle,
time t2

Fluid particle,
time t3

Irrotationality (1)

Some flows can be idealized as
irrotational

In general, attached, incompressible,
inviscid flows are also irrotational

Irrotationality requires that the curl of
the local velocity vector vanishes: 
u = 0

where u=ui+vj+wk and






 = i + j+ k

x
y

z

Irrotationality (2)

This leads to the simultaneous
equations:
w v
w u
v u


= 0,


= 0,


=0
y z
x z
x y

Integrating the momentum equations

using these conditions leads to the wellknown Bernoulli equation
1

( u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ) + P = constant
2

Example 2

Integrate the incompressible, steady
momentum equations to obtain
Bernoullis equation for irrotational flow

You can start with the 2D equations

Velocity potential

Irrotationality allows the definition of the
velocity potential, such that






u=- , v =- , w=x
y
z

It can be seen that all three irrotationality

conditions are satisfied by this function

Substituting these definitions in the mass
equation leads to
 2
 2
 2

+ 2 + 2 =0
2
x
y
z

Laplaces equation

The irrotational form of the Euler equations is
Laplaces equation.

This is an equation that has many analytical
solutions.

It is the basis of most subsonic, attached flow
aerodynamic assumptions.

The equation is linear, therefore its solutions
can be superimposed

The complete flow problem has been reduced
to a single, linear partial differential equation
with a single unknown, the velocity potential.

Potential flow

Incompressible, inviscid and irrotational flow is
also called potential flow because it is fully
described by the velocity potential.

The first part of this course will look at potential
flow solutions:

First in two dimensions

Then in three dimensions

Potential flow solutions have provided us with the

most useful and trustworthy aerodynamic results
we have to date.

Their limitations must be kept in mind at all times.

Potential flow solutions

We now have a basis for modelling the
flow over 2D or 3D bodies. All we need
to do is:

Solve Laplaces equation

With two boundary conditions (2nd order
problem):

Impermeability: Flow cannot enter or exit a
solid body

Far field: The flow far from the body is
undisturbed.

Boundary conditions (1)

Neumann boundary condition
n: unit vector normal to the surface
qn: normal flow velocity component
qt: tangential flow velocity component
Impermeability:
The normal flow
velocity component
must be equal to
zero.



qn =
=0
n surface

qn

n

qt

Boundary conditions (1bis)

Dirichlet boundary condition
An alternative form of
the impermeability
condition states that
the potential inside
the body must be a
constant:

i(x,y,z)=constant

(x,y,z)

i(x,y,z)

Boundary conditions (2)

r2=x2+y2+z2

Far field: Flow far from

the body is undisturbed.
This usually is expressed
as:

r


*  0, as r  

r

2D Potential Flow

Two-dimensional flows dont exist in reality
but they are a useful simplification

Two-dimensionality implies that the body
being investigated:

Has an infinite span

Does not vary geometrically with spanwise
position

As examples, consider an infinitely long

circular cylinder or an infinitely long
rectangular wing

2D Potential equations

Laplaces equation in two dimensions is
simply
 2
 2

x

y

=0

While the irrotationality condition is

v u

=0
x y

We still need to find solutions to this

equation.

Streamlines

A streamline is a curve that is
instantaneously tangent to the velocity
vector of the flow
x is the position
vector of a point on
a streamline,
u is the velocity
vector at that point
and s is the
distance on the
streamline of the
point from the origin

u

x

s

Streamline definition

A streamline is defined mathematically
dx
as:
=u
ds

Where u has components u, v, w and x

has components x, y, z.

It can be easily seen that the definition
leads to:
dy
dz
dx dy dz
dx
= u,
= v,
= w, and therefore
=
=
ds
ds
u
v
w
ds

The stream function

The stream function is defined at right
angles to the flow plane, i.e.

u=


Where u=[u v 0] and
=[0 0
]. It can
be seen that




u=
, v =y
x

The stream function is only defined for

2D or axisymmetric flows.

Properties of the stream

function

The stream function automatically
satisfies the continuity equation.
u v          2  2
+
=   + 
 =


=0
x y x  y y  x xy xy

The stream is constant on a flow

streamline


d =
dx +
dy =
vdx + udy
x
y
dx dy
a streamline u = v

But, on

Therefore

d =
udy + udy = 0

Elementary solutions

There are several elementary solutions
of Laplaces equation:

The free stream: rectilinear motion of the
airflow

The source: a singularity that creates a
radial velocity field around it

The sink: the opposite of a source

The doublet: a combined source and sink

The vortex: a singularity that creates a
circular velocity field around it.

Historical perspective

1738: Daniel Bernoulli developed Bernoullis principle, which leads to
Bernoullis equation.

1740: Jean le Rond d'Alembert studied inviscid, incompressible flow and
formulated his paradox.

1755: Leonhard Euler derived the Euler equations.

1743: Alexis Clairaut first suggested the idea of a scalar potential.

1783: Pierre-Simon Laplace generalized the idea of the scalar potential
and showed that all potential functions satisfy the same equation:
Laplaces equation.

1822: Louis Marie Henri Navier first derived the Navier-Stokes equations
from a molecular standpoint.

1828: Augustin Louis Cauchy also derived the Navier-Stokes equations

1829: Simon Denis Poisson also derived the Navier-Stokes equations

1843: Adhmar Jean Claude Barr de Saint-Venant derived the NavierStokes equations for both laminar and turbulent flow. He also was the first
to realize the importance of the coefficient of viscosity.

1845: George Gabriel Stokes published one more derivation of the NavierStokes equations.