Grouting Piscsalko

9.
0:Inspection
INTRODUCTION
ACIPpiletrends:
Largerdiameter
Greaterlengths
Highercapacities
Qualitycontrolandinspectioniscritical
DFIisproactiveindevelopingqualitycontrol
guidelines
INTRODUCTION
DFIReferences:
ACIPPileManual,SecondEdition(2003)
InspectorsguidetoACIPPiles(2010)
ACIPPileSpecialtySeminarProceedings
(1997,1998,2000 2008)
ACIPPileInstallationVideo(1998)
INTRODUCTION
DFIReferences:
InspectorsGuidetoACIPPilesVideo(2001)
InspectorsGuideandVideoonCDRom
(2001)
GuideforInterpretationofNondestructive
IntegrityTestingofACIPandDDPiles(2011)
Additionalreference:
FHWAGECno.8
9.1:ManualPileInspection
PREPARATION
Beforearrivingtothesiteobtainandreview
GeotechnicalReport
PilePlansandSpecifications
DFIReferences:
ACIPPileManual
ACIPPileSpecialtySeminarProceedings
ACIPPileInspectionVideo
InspectorsGuideandVideoonCD ROM
ContractorsSubmittals
Personal/SafetyEquipment
PREPARATION
PreConstructionMeeting
Whoshouldattend?
GeotechnicalEngineer
Inspector
GeneralContractor
PilingContractor
TestingAgency
Discussinspectionprocedures
Reviewpileconstructionprocedure/Sequenceofinstallation
Discusschainofcommand
Reviewspecifiedaugeringterminationcriteria
Discussdisputeresolution
PREPARATION
GroutSampling
Mixdesign/ProductSubmittal
InspectionItems
Documentwateroradmixtures
addedinfield
Samplefrequencyandnumber
ofsamples
CubesorCylinders
Samplecuringandhandling
PREPARATION
Onceatthesite,checkinwiththecontractor,then
Checkaugerlengthanddiameter
Verifypileleadsareclearlymarked
Checkaugerbitconfiguration
Documentequipment
Verifygroutpressuregageisfunctionalandwithinviewwhenpump
strokecountingisperformed
Verifygroutpumpstrokecounterisoperational
Checkgrouthopperscreen
Measuresteelreinforcementandcentralizers
IfAMEisbeingused,understandthesystemandprintout
DeepFoundationsInstitute
AugeredCastInPlacePilesManual(2003)
Section2.2.2Thegroutpumpshallbecalibratedat
thebeginningoftheworktodeterminethevolume
ofgroutpumpedperstroke,andshouldbe
periodicallyrecalibratedwhendeemednecessaryby
theInspectorduringtheproject.
PREPARATION
Observethepumpcalibration
Containerofknownvolume
Countnumberofstrokestofillcontainer
Measuregroutheightincontainer
Calculatethestrokevolume:
Volume=[ d/4 ] x h
d=Diameterofcontainer(feet)
h=heightofgroutincontainer(feet)
PUMPCAL=Volume/numberofstrokes(ft3/stroke)
Normalgroutpressure
250
150
100
50
505
487
469
451
433
415
397
379
361
343
325
307
289
271
253
235
217
199
181
163
145
127
91
109
73
55
37
0
19
pressure psi
200
GroutlinePressure versusTime
(fairlyuniform&consistent)
683
661
639
617
595
573
551
529
507
601
581
561
541
521
501
481
461
441
421
401
381
361
341
321
301
281
261
241
221
201
181
161
141
121
101
81
61
41
21
100
485
463
441
419
397
375
353
331
309
287
265
243
221
199
177
155
133
111
89
67
45
23
Missingstroke
250
200
150
MissingCycle
50
Singlemissingpumpstroke
UNSTABLEPUMPOPERATION
250
200
150
100
50
ManyMissingStrokes
Section1.5.2a Recordsshallbekeptforeachpile
installed.Suchrecordsshallasaminimum,include:
projectnameandnumber,PileContractor,pile
locationanddesignpilecapacity,pilediameter,tip
elevation,drillinggroundsurfaceelevation,totaland
incrementalvolumeofgroutplaced,amountof
water(ifany)addedtothereadymixgrouttruckat
thejobsite,pilereinforcingsteel,andanyunusual
occurrencesduringthepileinstallation.
Section1.3commentary Thegroutvolumeplacedforeach
incrementofdepth isthesinglemostimportantinstallation
control usedduringACIPpileconstruction.
Itisdifficulttogetanaccuratemeasureoftheincremental
groutvolumewhenmanuallyinspecting
Becertain thattheincrementalgroutvolumeisbeing
observedandaccuratelyreported(notjusttotalpilevolume)
forallpilesasthisisthesinglemostimportantcontrolused
duringACIPpileconstruction
AUGERINGTHEPILE
ForbothACIPandDDpiles
KnowLocation
Confirmbottomplugplaced
Checkaugerverticality
Timedrillingprogression
Observeadjacentcompletedpiles
Documentobstructionsand
unusualsubsurfaceconditions
Augeringterminationcriteria:
ForACIPpiles
Prolongeddrillingundesirable
Rapidaugerrotationundesirable
ForDDpiles
Workfrominsidethegroup
towardstheoutside
Refusalcriteria
Embedmentcriteria
PILEGROUTING/CONCRETING
ACIPPiles:
InitialGroutHead
Continuousclockwiseaugerrotation
Incrementalgroutvolume(calculatedfrommanually
countedpumpstrokes/increment)
Slurry/GroutReturnDepth
OverallGroutFactors
TypicalACIPPileValues:
PorousLimestone:1.3to2.0
CleanSands:1.3to1.5
StiffClay:1.15to1.3
SoftClay:1.3to2.0
Peat:2.0to3.0
PILEGROUTING/CONCRETING
DDPiles:
Initialhead/pressure
Maintainedhead/pressureduringwithdrawal
Overallgroutfactors:
Typically1.1to1.2
REINFORCEMENT INSTALLATION
Confirmtopofpileisfreeofaugerspoil
Confirmreinforcingiscleanpriortoinsertion
Documentreinforcementinstallation,andanydifficulties
Confirmreinforcementsettlestothespecifiedlevelunderits
ownweight
Confirmreinforcinghasspecifiedextensionaboveproposed
cutoffelevation
Themostcosteffectiveandtimesavingremedialmeasureis
toredrillandregroutthepileshouldsuspectconditionsbe
observed
10
Reports/Documentation
Thefollowingshouldbedocumentedoneachpile
installationrecord:
Projectname/client
Weatherconditionsandtemperature
Datepilesplaced
PileInspectorsname
Grouttrucknumber,arrivaltimeonsite,batchtime,grout
ticketnumber,batchvolumeandamountofwateradded
tothetruckonsite
Groutsamplingtimeandtimeofinitialset
GroutcubesetsmadebytheInspectorandContractor
installationrecord:
Flowconeorificediameterandtestresults
Measuredaugerdiameter
Referenceelevationforpilelength
Craneleadalignment(batteredorvertical)
Timeperiodfordrillingofpile
Abnormaldrillingbehavior
Piledrilledlength/piletipandtopelevation
Theoreticalpilevolume
Timeperiodforgroutingofpile
11
installationrecord:
Rangeinpressureduringgrouting
Groutreturndepth
Incrementalgroutvolume
Totalnumberofpumpstrokestocompletepile
Overallgroutfactor(actualgroutvolumepumpeddividedby
theoreticalgroutvolume)
Anyreaugering/regroutingduringthepileinstallation
Reinforcingsteelinstalledinthepile
Specialremarks(e.g.timeofandreasonforinterruptionsduring
grouting)
SAMPLEFIELDLOG
12
10.0:AutomatedMonitoringEquipment
WhyAutomatedInspection?
Manualinspectionisdifficultfordetermining
incrementalgroutvolume
Hardtoaccuratelydeterminegroutpumped
versusdepthincrement,andinsomecasesthis
mayresultinmeasurementofoverallvolumeonly
Thepumpdoesnotalwaysmaintainarepeatable
volumeperpumpstroke
13
WhyAutomatedInspection?
Missingstrokesareoftenclusteredtogether,sothesepile
sectionsmaybeseriouslyunderpumped
AMEwithmagneticflowmetermeasuresgroutvolumeindependent
ofthepump
Leadsmaynotbemarkedaccuratelyandcannotberead
withgreatprecisionduetoparallax
ManuallyinspectedIncrementalgroutvolumeistypically
recordedevery5feetwithlowprecision
AMEcandobetter(recommend2ft.recording)
Goalsforautomatedinspection:
Provideinformationtohelpinstallation
Documentpumpedvolumeversusdepth
toensuresufficientpumpingvs depth
Easytouse,minimuminputneeded
Operatedbyexistingsitepersonnel
14
AutomatedMonitoringEquipment(AME)
AMEproduces:
Realtimegraphtoguidetheoperator
Displaysincrementalgroutvolumeinuserselectable
increments
Fieldprintoutimmediatelyafterpilecompletion
Digitalrecord
Dataissavedforevery1inchofpilelength
Equipmentautomaticallymonitors,displaysin
realtimeanddigitallyrecordskeydrilling
elements:
Time
Depth
TorquePressure
AugerRotation
15
Equipmentautomaticallymonitors,displaysin
realtimeanddigitallyrecordskeygrouting
elements:
Time
Depth
GroutVolume
GroutLinePressure
AugerRotation
AutomatedMonitoringSystem
Components
DepthSensormeasuresaugertipposition
MagneticFlowMetermeasuresincrementalgrout
volume
Pressuresensormeasuresgroutlinepressure
Pressuresensormeasuresaugertorque
Controlunitmeasures,records,anddisplaysdrilling
andgroutingdata
16
PileInstallationRecorderforAugerCastPiles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
MainController
DepthReel
GroutlinePressure
MagneticFlowMeter
TorquePressure
AugerRotation
6
2
5
4
1
3
AutomatedMonitoringSystems
PileDynamicsPIRASystem
AMEreadout
guidescraneoperatorto
moreuniformpile
17
PIRGroutingScreen
Incrementswithlow
groutappearasredto
alertoperator
PIRViewer
18
AutomatedMonitoringSystems
PileDynamicsPIRSystem
TheDeepFoundationsInstitutesCastinPlacePilingSeminar KC'09
MagneticFlowMeter
Magneticflowmeterscreateamagneticfieldinthe
tube.
Faraday'sLawofInduction:"aconductivemedium
movingthroughamagneticfieldwillinduceavoltage
inthemediumthatisproportionaltoitsaverage
flowvelocity."
Thismeasurementdependsonlyonconductivity
andisindependentofdensity,viscosity,oranyother
parameter.
19
FieldPrintout
PileName:16REV
ProjectName:PITTSBURGH
PileVol:72.25ft3(139%)
Date:20090708
34.0518331558
36.07310031570
37.2979681227
[37.1,0.0][stop16:22(00:10:41)]
AugerData[start16:05]
timetorquepres
depthintervalminmax
(ft)(sec)(PSI)
0.0
2.021158247
4.019240400
6.020273352
Pilename,Projectname,
volumeinshaft,anddateof
installation
Depth,printedinuser
definedincrements
Timeforeachdepth
incrementprinted
Minimumandmaximum
torqueasafunctionof
depth
Starttime
Stoptimeaswellastotal
drillingtime
FieldPrintout
WithdrawalData[start16:22]
pumpedvolumeline
depthdT volumeratiominmax
(ft)(sec)(ft3)(%)(PSI)
37.2(maxdepth)
36.96.50(Stem+Head)
36.0244.31261114229
34.075.97211211245
32.063.71131224255
16.064.03143186212
15.9< returndepth(0.9)
14.063.92139187211
12.053.00106184212
2.063.60127174201
0.093.07109171198
1.84(spillvol)
[stop16:24(00:02:15)]
MaximumDrillingDepth
VolumeRequiredtofillAugerstem
plusStartingHead
DepthprintedinUserdefined
Increments
Withdrawaltimeasafunctionof
depth
PumpedVolumeasafunctionof
depth
PumpedVolumeRatio(Pumped
Volume/NominalVolume)asa
functionofDepth
MinandMaxGroutLinePressure
GroutReturnDepth
Start/StopTimes
20
FieldPrintout
Volume:(ft3)
NominalInc:
2.83(2.0ft)
TargetInc:
3.25(2.0ft)
Nominal:
51.91(16.0india)
MinTarget:
59.70(115%)
Shaft:
72.25(139%)
Stem:
3.67
Head:
2.83(2.0ft)
Pile:
78.75(152%)
Spill:
1.84
Reaugered:
0.00
Total:
80.59
Return:
44.21(85%)
NominalIncrementalVolume
TargetIncrementalVolume
NominalPileVolume
PileTargetVolume
VolumePumpedintoPile
StemVolume
StartingHeadVolume
SpillVolume
Reaugered Volume
GroutReturnHeight
Pile=Shaft+Stem+Head
Total=Pile+Spill+Reauger
LegendforIncrementWarnings.
*pumpedvolume<targetvolume
**pumpedvolume<nominalvolume
PIRVolumeRateandWithdrawalRatevs.Time
16
70
14
60
12
50
10
40
8
30
6
20
4
10
Pumped Volume Rate (ft3/min)
Auger Withdrawal Rate (ft/min)
Volume Rate and Withdrawal Rate vs. Time
0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
WithdrawalRateSlows
asVolumeRateSlows
2.5
2.0
Time (min)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Vol. Rate
Withdrawl Rate
21
Volume Rate and Pump Pressure vs. Time

70
300
Pumped Volume Rate (ft3/min)
60
250
50
Pressure (psi)
200
40
150
30
100
20
50
10
0
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Pressure
Time (min)
Vol. Rate
PumpedVolumeRateislowduringtimesofpump
malfunctions.
Volume and Withdrawal Rate vs. Auger Depth

16
6.0
14
4.0
10
3.0
2.0
1.0
2
0
Norm aliz ed Volum e (ft3/ft)
Auger W ithdraw al Speed

(ft/m in)
5.0
12
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
Depth (ft)
30
35
40
45
50
Withdrawl Rate
Normalized Volume
Theoretical Volume (100%)
Evenwithpumpmalfunction,bymonitoringwithPIR,thepilewasinstalledwith
adequateincrementalvolumeversusdepth.
22
10.1ProperlyUsingAME
PIRFieldPrintoutwith5footincrementSetting
ShaftName:1093
ProjectName:TEST
PileVol:107.18ft3(116%)
Date:20080722
AugerData[start11:45]
timetorquepres
depthintervalminmax
(ft)(sec)(PSI)
0.0
5.015100
10.03300
15.03800
20.03300
25.03300
30.03400
35.03400
40.03400
45.03400
50.03400
52.31600
[stop11:54(00:07:55)]
pumpedvolumepumpline_pres
depthvolumeratiostrks
minmax
(ft)(ft3)(%)(PSI)
52.3(maxdepth)
51.81.840(stemvol)
50.53.530(headvol)
50.01.34**33
08227
45.013.1014808277
40.011.8313408277
35.09.57*1080116268
30.010.67*121095276
25.011.301280103277
20.011.09125094284
15.8< returndepth
15.09.96*113023291
10.010.21*1160112288
5.012.321390115286
0.05.44**62
036284
0.000(spillvol)
[stop12:15(00:21:33)]
23
Plottedwith5ft.increments
Volumealways>100%
MagneticFlowMeter
Plottedwith2ft.increments
Volumedropsbelow100%atSeverallocations
24
FieldPrintoutGroutingDatawith2footincrement
pumpedvolumeAVGline
depthdTvolumeratioPressure
(ft)(sec)(ft3)(%)(PSI)
52.3(maxdepth)
50.55.40(Stem+Head)
52.010.00**00
50.021.34**380
48.074.801350
46.076.321770
44.054.03*1130
42.064.871370
40.074.801350
38.055.011410
36.053.53**990
34.053.28**920
32.063.81*1070
30.084.591290
28.055.761610
26.052.93**820
24.064.24*1190
22.073.96*1110
20.011205.761610
18.096.071700
16.042.54**710
15.8< returndepth(5.2)
14.053.46**970
12.073.00**840
10.085.261480
8.072.72**760
6.0117.772180
4.043.43**960
2.043.881090
0.010.00**00
0.00(spillvol)
[stop12:15(00:65528:65522)]
11.0:EmbeddedJack,RapidandDynamic
LoadTesting
25
MultiLevelEmbeddedJackLoadTesting
THEMULTILEVELOCELLTESTCANPROVIDETHEENGINEER
WITHMOREINFORMATIONWHENTHEESTIMATED
CAPACITYINSIDESHEAREXCEEDSTHATOFENDBEARING
THETESTALLOWSTHEENGINEERTOOBTAINDATAON
THREEORMOREISOLATEDPILECOMPONENTS(i.e.twoor
moreforshearandoneforendbearing)
Reference:ASCE2006Conference,HayesandMeyer
ComparisonofEmbeddedJackLoadTests
andConventionalTopLoadTests
26
BiDirectionalLoadTesting
Limitations
Advantages
Pre-selected pile
No external reaction system
Maximum load limited by weaker of

end bearing or skin friction
No anchor piles
Test results need interpretation

Top of the pile is not structurally
tested
Top load movement curve must be
calculated
Little or no heavy transport

requirements
Only half the stresses applied to the
concrete
Significant cost savings as loads
increase
MultiLevelEmbeddedJackLoadTesting
27
InitialACIPPileApplications
Initialapplications
24inchdiameter,100ftlongpiles
13inchdiameterOcell
2,600kips(EquivalentTopLoad)
30inchdiameter,120ftlongpiles
16inchdiameterOcell
4,240kips(EquivalentTopLoad)
ConfigurationandSimulationPiles
28
EmbeddedJackAssembly
ResultsofBiDirectionalLoadTesting
29
ResultsofBiDirectionalLoadTesting
Reference:ASCE2006Conference,
HayesandMeyer
RapidandDynamicLoadTesting
Techniques
HammerSystems(DLTHighStrainDynamic
Testing)
AppleSystem
Statnamic LoadTest(RLT)
Fundex System(RLT)
30
RapidandDynamicLoadTesting
Techniques
Fundex System
RLTStatnamicbyAFT
AppleSystemsbyGRL
TypicalInstrumentation
Loadcellstomeasureforce
Accelerometersandstrainsensors
Deflectionrecordedutilizingopticalreceivers,
transmittersand/orotherremotetechniques
31
AppleDynamicLoadTesting System
Graphics and photos courtesy of

Pile Dynamics Inc
Traditional
F = ma
Top
transducer
Force
Pile Velocity
Accelerometer
Strain / Force
32
DynamicTestingofACIPpiles
needlargedropweight
Applysingleblowsofvaryingdropheight
Tomovepiletoapermanentset
preparepiletop
excavateorbuilduppiletop
flattopprotectedbycushion
attachsensors
analysismethod
SignalMatching(e.g.CAPWAP)
Attachsensorstoaflatspotonshaft
33
Statnamic LoadTestingConceptRLT
Reference:ONeillandReese,1999
StatnamicLoadTestRLT
Statnamic Schematic
Gravel
Container
Gravel container
Gravel
ReactionGravel
masses
Silencer
Cylinder
Platform
Masses
Laser sensor
Laser
Laser beam
Pile
Laser
Piston
Load cell
Pile to be tested
Graphics courtesy of
Applied Foundation Testing Inc
34
FundexLoadTestingSystemRLT
12.1:LowStrainPileIntegrityTesting
35
LowStrainPileIntegrityTesting
Impactpiletopwithasmallhandheldhammer
Createsacompressivewavewithinthepile
Accelerometeratpiletopmeasurespiletop
movementduetotheimpactandanyreflectionwaves
Reflectionscomefrompiletoeorfromanychangesinpile
crosssection
Receivedaccelerationsignalisdigitallyintegratedto
getvelocity
IntendedtofindMAJOR defectswithinthepile
StandardTestMethodforLowStrainImpactIntegrity
TestingofDeepFoundations(ASTMD5882)
Advantages
Fastandeconomical
Oneindividualcantestmanypilesinoneday
Cantestany/allpilesonsitewithnospecial
installationproceduresrequired
Nospecialpileinstallationmethodneeded
Noneedtoinstallaccesstube,nospecialpile
buildup,etc.
36
Disadvantages
LimitedL/Dratio
ToughertogettoereflectionwhenL>30Dia.
Nonuniformpilescreatemanyreflections
makingdatainterpretationdifficult
LowStrainPileIntegrityTest
GoodPile
BadPile
37
PileIntegrityTest
GoodPile
0.30
cm/s
40 FT GOOD - 5: # 1
0.15
MA:
MD:
LE:
WS:
LO:
HI:
PV:
T1:
1.00
2.44
12.19
3962
0.61
30.5
0
32
0.00
-0.15
T1
Toe
Vel
F/Z
10
12 m
PileIntegrityTest
DefectivePile
38
PITdetectedpiledefectat4.1mdepth;confirmedbycore
Wideinput
impliesdefect
neartop
Weexcavatedandfoundsome
caves.Icouldstickmyhandallthe
waytothemiddleofthepileand
pullouthandfulls ofsoil.
39
PTA59
TP3
Bad pile excavated to

reveal neck
40
PITandPIRDataCorrelation
Risetoriseevaluation:
defectat~28ft.
Lowgrout(44%)from28
to26ft.
PITandPIRAagreeondefectlocation.
PITvs.PIRCorrelation
pumpedvolumeline_pres
depthvolumeratiominmax
(ft)(ft3)(%)(PSI)
28.02.30**94200252
26.05.01204198268
24.01.87**76198268
22.02.01**82194252
20.06.18252194263
18.7< returndepth
18.01.66**68198252
16.06.07247198283
14.03.28134198283
12.03.64148201261
10.04.45181201261
8.03.85157205260
6.03.53144205260
4.02.68*109203260
2.03.39138203260
0.03.8515769269
0.04(spillvol)
[stop14:11(00:04:21)]
41
12.2:SingleHoleSonicLogging
SingleHoleSonicLogging
Tubeisinstalledwiththerebarcage
TubeMUSTbeplasticforSSLtest
Ultrasonicpulseistransmittedfromthe
transmitterprobe
Receiverprobereceivessignalsfrom
transmitter
Receivedsignalpathsincludedirectpathfrom
transmitterandreflectionsfromimpedance
changes
TheDeepFoundationsInstitutesCastinPlacePilingSeminar KC'09
42
SingleHoleSonicLogging
Howtofinddefects?
Good
Defect
1. Reducedsignalstrength(lowerenergy)
2. Delayedarrivaltime
43
SSLforUniformPileandDefectivePile
Uniformpilewithconsistent
arrivaltimes
PilewithDefectwillhavedelayed
arrivaltimeandreducedenergyat
defectlocation
``
SSLcomparisonwithPITforadefectivepile
Defectclearlyshownin
PITandSSLdata
44
12.3:ThermalIntegrityTesting
ThermalIntegrityProfiling
PatentedResearchdeveloped
attheUniversityofSouth
Florida
Twomeasurement
techniques
IRprobesscanthepilevia
CSLaccesstubes
ThermalWiresarecast
intothepileattachedto
cageorcenterbar
Measurestheelevated
temperaturesduringthe
hydrationprocessto
determinepileintegrity
45
Testcanrevealanomaliesboth
insideandoutsidethe
reinforcingcage
Testcanrevealcagealignment
problems
Minimumcovercanbeverified
Testiscompletedwithinfirst
fewdaysafterinstallation
(dependinguponpile
diameter)
Acceleratesconstruction
LimiteduseonACIPpilesto
date
TIPtestshowsbulgeinuppersectionofshaft
(NWportion)
ExcavationverifiesTIPanalysis
46
SUMMARY
Qualitycontrolisbeingsuccessfullyimplemented
TheDFIhasbeenandcontinuestobealeaderindeveloping
qualitycontrolguidesforACIPpiles
QualitycontrolisnecessarythroughouttheentireACIPpile
constructionprocess
Automatedmonitoringisbeingutilizedtohelpwithquality
control.AMEisusedasasupplementto,butcannotreplace,
qualifiedQ/CContractorsandInspectors
NDTmethodsarebeingwidelyutilizedtofindmajordefects
withinapile
UnderstandthelimitationsoftheselectedNDTmethod
Shouldquestionableconditionsbeobservedduringthepile
installationprocess,themostcosteffectiveandtimesaving
solutionisoftentoredrillandregroutthepile
47

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9.

Pumped Volume Rate (ft3/min)

Auger Withdrawal Rate (ft/min)

Volume Rate and Withdrawal Rate vs. Time

Volume Rate and Pump Pressure vs. Time

Pumped Volume Rate (ft3/min)

Volume and Withdrawal Rate vs. Auger Depth

Norm aliz ed Volum e (ft3/ft)

Auger W ithdraw al Speed

No external reaction system

Maximum load limited by weaker of

Test results need interpretation

Little or no heavy transport

Graphics and photos courtesy of

Bad pile excavated to

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