DRAMA

-ENACTMENT OF HUNTING BY EARY HUMANS MAYBE EARLIEST FORM OF DRAMA

-BHARATMUNI LIKE ARISTETOTLE SAID THAT DRAMA IS BORN OUT OF IMITATION OF
ACTION
-SITABENA AND JOGIMARA IN SARGUJA CHATTISGARH STRUTURES HAVE BEEN
DISCOVERED WHICH ARE SAID TO B AMONG THE WORLDS OLDEST THEATRES
-ACCORDING TO SOME SCHOLARS 5000 YEARS AGO THESE WERE USED FOR DRAMA
AND DANCE.
-INDUS VALLEY HAS SEALS SHOWING MAN PLAYING ON A DRUM AND ANOTHER
DISGUISED AS A TIGER
-MOVABLE TOYS HAVE BEEN FOUND WHOSE LIMBS COULD BE MOVED WITH STRINGS
-LIKE MODERN PUPPETS
-VEDIC PERIOD-YAJURVEDA TELLS PRIESTS TO PERFORM RITUALS ASSUMING ROLES
-RIGVEDA - CERTAIN VERSES ARE IN FORM OF MONOLOGUE AND DIALOGUE -EARLIEST
DRAMATIC LITERATURE IN INDIA
-NATYASHASTRA TRIED TO EVOLVE RULES OF DRAMA
-IMMODEST ACTS WERE TO B AVOIDED ON STAGE
-DEATH BLOODY BATTLE SCENES WERE TO BE CENSORED
-BUDDHAS STRICTURES AND ASOKAS BAN ON DRAMATIC ACTIVITES DUE TO
VULGARITY
CLASSICAL THEATRE
-TRADITIONAL EARLY PLAYS WERE ENACTED ON OCCASION OF FLAG STAFF FESTIVAL
OF INDRA
-CLASSICAL THEATRE ALSO EVOLVED FROM SHADOW AND PUPPETRY THEATRES
-LINKS BETWEEN GREEK AND INDIAN CLASSICAL THEATRES HAVE BEEN FOUND
-CURTAINS AT BACK STAGE WERE CALLED "YAVANIKA" YAVANA MEANS GREEK.
-MRICCHAKATIKA (THE LITTLE CLAY CART) RESEMBLES LATE GREEK COMEDY OF
SCHOOL OF MENANDER
-GREEK DRAMAS IN COURTS OF GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGS IN NORTH WEST INDIA
-SUTAS-NARRATED RAMAYANA MAHABHARAT DRAMATICALLY
-BHASA'S PLAYS DRAW HEAVILY ON EPICS FOR THER SUBJECT.
-UPARUPAKA (SECONDARY DRAMAS) IN PRAKRIT ENACTED PUBLICALLY ON SPECIAL
OCCASIONS.
-FRAGMENTS OF PLAYS BY ASVAGHOSA ARE SUPPOSED TO BE EALIEST DRAMAS THAT
SURVIVED
-BHASA PLAYS 1ST COMPLETE PLAYS 2 COME DOWN TO US.
-SANSKRIT DRAMAS-ONE PLAY OR LONG 10 ACT PLAY.
-NORMALLY PLAYS IN PALACES RICH HOMES OR IN TEMPLE COURTS ON FESTIVALS.
-NATYASHASTRA -3 TYPES OF THEATRES AND SPECIFIES THEIR MODE OF
CONSTRUCTON
-THEATRE-AUDITORIUM,THE STAGE AND BACKSTAGE.
CURTAIN DIVIDES STAGE FROM BACKSTAGE.
-NO CURTAIN SEPARATED STAGE FROM AUDITORIUM.
-NO SCENERY ON STAGE MINIMUM STAGE PROPERTY
-ACTORS USED A RICH GESTURE LANGUAGE AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS 2
COMMUNICATE
COSTUMES AND MAKE UP WERE CONVENTIONAL
-MOST DRAMAS HAD HERO HEROINE VILLAIN AND VIDUSHAKA for comic releif.
FAMOUS DRAMATISTS:
-BHASA-NORTH INDIA- MAHABHARAT AND RAMAYANA
-BHAVABHUTI- SECOND BEST TO KALIDAS
-LIVED IN KANYAKUBJA
-NO USE OF VIDUSHAK
-HARSHA
-KALIDAS-JESTER HAS IMP ROLE

-MAHENDRAVIKRAMAN-RABELAISIAN HUMOUR
FOLK THEATRE

The origin of folk theatre, like its classical counterpart, goes back to the Vedic hymns,
many of them in the form of dialogues.
Though initially all forms of folk drama were religiously oriented, as time went by, the
drama became oriented towards depicting the social conditions.
The roots of folk theatre probably lay in the minor dramatic forms mentioned by Sanskrit
dramaturgists. With the Bhakti movement, theatrical activity came in handy for
propagation of different ideas and faiths. Indeed, at this time the regional varieties of folk
dramatic forms got crystallised. However, all of them have in common an imaginative
and earthy use of music, dance and mime.
Ankia Nat: A synthesis of classical Indian theatrical forms and local traditions, Ankia
Nat is a one-act play with its roots in rural Assam.
Ankia Nat is generally performed in the village hall or a pandal in an open field; it
appeals to the learned and the ignorant, drawing its themes, as it does, from the Vaishnava
tradition.
The language is Assamese Brajubuli interspersed with Sanskrit slokas.
Songs are used to express feelings.
Painted masks are used. The impact is meant to be religious.
Sankaradeva has written several Ankia Nats.
Bhand Pather:
A traditional theatre form of Kashmir, Bhand Father combines dance, acting and music.
The enactment is by members of the farming community, which means that their ideals
and lifestyle influence this theatre form. Laughter is an important part of this theatre. It is
generated through satire, parody and wit.
Bhaona:
Bhaona is a theatre form that is a presentation of the Ankia Nat. There is a sutradhar
(narrator) who introduces the storyin Sanskrit first and then in Assamese or Brajboli (as
Bhaona has cultural links with Assam, Bengal, Odisha, and Mathura and Vrindavan in
Uttar Pradesh.

Bhavai:

Prevalent in the western part of India, Bhavai originated in Rajasthan and northern parts
of Gujarat Initially the Bhavai performances were part of religious rituals to propitiate the
mother goddess during religious festivals.
Later, however, they came to be performed throughout the year, though even now the first
performance of the year is presented on the first day of Navaratra, in a Shiva temple.
Bhavai is a series of playlets (vesha) strung together.
A playlet may me mythological or social in theme. Some of these veshas have Muslims
as principal characters showing the influence of the Muslim rulers in Deccan and Delhi
on the form. The Bhavais travel from village to village with their show. The music uses
classical ragas but in a style of its own.
The dance, too, is not classical though the influence of Kathak, besides the folk dances of
Raas and Garba, is seen. The dance form is used to reveal a character in the play.
Traditional instruments used in Bhavai performances are bhungal, zanz and pakhavaj.
Costumes and make-up are codified.
Bhavai has social relevance for it incorporates topical issues and holds up the mirror to
society and thus functions as a creator of public opinion. The Bhavai dances of Rajasthan
have some main themes such as Bora and Bori caricaturing a village baniya and
his miserable wife; Dhola Maru, depicting the eternal story of Dhola and Maru:
and Dokri depicting the ill face of an old woman.
Dashavatar:
A theatre form of the Konkan and Goan people, Dashavatar involves enactment of the
incarnations of Lord Vishnu. The performers wear masks of wood and papier mache and
apply stylised make-up.
Jashin:
A well known performing art of Kashmir, Jashin is a combination of farces called fathers
(from patra = dramatis personae), and is performed by folk artists called bhands. Every
pather ends with a comic event. Sanskrit drama has influenced the form. Performances
take place in open air and actors mingle with the people. A clown is a must in a pather.
Jashin is a powerful medium of satire on social evils.
Jatra:

The term jatra probably derives from the Oraon language in which it means an
important ritual dance festival. On the occasion of the festival, dramatic performances are
held. In Bengal and Odisha, where Chaitanyas school of Vaishnavism had a great
impact, Jatra is always associated with a Vaishnava festival. Thus its themes are drawn
from the story of Krishnas life.
With the decline of Vaishnavite influence on the social life of Bengal from the beginning
of the eighteenth century, Jatra began to draw on Puranic and secular themes too. The
new form of Jatra introduced an orchestra with indigenous and foreign instrumentsa
characteristic retained to this day.
This form is known as Nutan Jatra. It added prose dialogue in imitation of
Western theatre. During the national movement, Jatra turned to social themes aiming at
removal of social evils such as untouchability and casteism.
Jatra is a moving theatre and the professional troupes travel around performing in
different places, generally between October and June.
Karyala:
A folk drama of Himachal Pradesh, Karyala deals with serious questions of life and death
briefly, with simplicity of expression and diction, all enveloped in humour. Indeed, the
audience is given the essence of our cultural heritage which views the world as a stage
and as an unsubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived by one by rising
above it.
Khyal:
Rajasthan has developed varieties of dance dramas known as Khyals. The tradition is
more than 400 years old. The Khyals have been a powerful medium of entertainment as
well as cultural and social education.
The Khyals have singing and it involves distinctive techniques of instrumental music.
Krishnattam:
A cycle of eight plays depicting the life of Krishna from birth to death, Krishnattam is
based on Manavedas Sanskrit poem, Krishna Giti. The dialogues are spoken/sung by
a chorus and orchestra while the actors use elaborate gestures to act out the text. A similar
dance-drama is that of Rama Attam, evolved out of the Rama cycle of plays.

Kudiyattam:
In the Kerala of the ninth-century, the chakyarsactorsbegan staging the
Sanskrit dramas of Bhasa, Kulashekharavarman, etc. in temple theatres. Very elaborately
presented over several days, the dramatic form involves very rich gestures: indeed every
word of the text is practically interpreted by theatrical gesture.
The Malayalam language is used by the jester to explain the Sanskrit passages, thus
bringing the Sanskrit classical drama to the masses. This dramatic form influenced the
development of Krishnattam and Rama Attam, out of which grew the classical dance
form of Kathakali.

Macha:
Macha or Maach musical dance drama of Madhya Pradesh was probably born in Ujjain
about two centuries ago. The term macha refers to the stage, and the plays are performed
around Holi, during the harvest season.
Mostly based on mythological stories, folk tales of romance and valour, and historical
episodes, the Macha also makes plentiful use of musicsongs in traditional folk times
as well as classical ragas. Some themes from contemporary social life are also depicted.
Mudiyettu:
A ritualistic dance drama of an ancient descent in Kerala, the Mudiyettu is performed
annually at Kali temples.
It signifies the triumph of good over evil, as Kali vanquishes the demon Darika. It
involves elaborate drawings on floors, masks made of areca nut fronds and drum-playing.
It belongs to the period when worship was conducted in kavm or grove.
The salient features of the ritual dance drama includes absence of a restricted and
designated stage that ensures the viewers involvement, near total absence of
hasthamudras or hand gestures, and the theme of incarnation of Bhadrakali as the
compilation of the positive forces of the universe and as the sum total of the strength of
all the gods.

The adversary is the concentration of all that is evil. Mudiyettu is performed in Bhagavati
Kavus, the temples of the goddess in villages along the rivers Chalakkudy Puzha, Periyar
and Maovattupuzha. The dance is performed by the Ezhavathy community, who were
once priests of temples. Theeyattua is considered a by-product of Mudiyettu.
Nautanki:
This popular form of musical theatre has emerged during the last few centuries in Uttar
Pradesh. Its name is said to have been derived from the name of the heroine of the play
Shahjadi Nautanki. The dialogues of Nautanki are mostly in verse form which are
delivered in a high pitch to the accompaniment of the nakkaraa percussion instrument.
The metres used in the verses are doha, chaubola, chhappai and behar-e-tabeel. Earlier,
only men acted in Nautanki but women also take part in it now. The style is quite
melodramatic. Romantic tales are preferred and the repertoire has such famous love
stories as Laila Majnu, Amarsinh Rathore and Heer Ranja. Gulab Bai of Kanpur is
credited with giving a new dimension to this theatre form.
Prahalad Nataka:
A theatre form belonging to southern Odisha, particularly Ganjam district, Prahalad
Nataka enacts the popular story of Prahalad and his father Hiranyakashipu.
Enacted for three to seven nights by some twenty characters, the play is in a language that
is a mix of Sanskrit and colloquial Odia. The theatre form includes dance, mime and
stylised gestures.
Ram Leela:
Goswami Tulsidas is considered to have started the tradition of performing plays based
on the life of Rama, known as Ram Leela, at Kashi. The episodes from the Ramayana are
enacted in sequence on the different days of the Dussehra festival and at different places.
The Ramnagar Ram Leela is famous in this tradition with the audience travelling with the
performance from place to place over a period of thirty-one days. Characters like Ravana
and Hanuman wear striking masks.
Dialogues are conducted in a stylised manner. The Ram Leela is presented in different
ways in many places in the northern region. According to a 2008 UNESCO report, the
most representative Ram Leelas are those of Ayodhya, Ramnagar, Varanasi, Vrindavan,
Almora, Satna and Madhubani.

Ramman:
Ramman is a religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas. The twin
villages of Saloor-Dungra in Uttarakhand, in late April, celebrate Ramman in honour of
the tutelary god and local deity, Bhumiyal Devta.
Complex rituals are involved in the festival that includes recitation of a version of the
Rama epic and legends, songs and masked dances. Each caste or group has a distinct role.
The brahmans lead the prayers and perform the rituals and the Bhandaris (kshatriyas)
wear the sacred mask of the half- man, half-lion deity, Narasimha.
The youth and the elders perform the events. Ramman combines theatre, music and
traditional talesboth oral and writtento enact the environmental, cultural and
spiritual concept of the community.
Ras Leela:
Krishna has always held an attraction for the devotees of the Bhakti cult. In the Braj
region of Uttar Pradesh there developed in the 15th-16th centuries a dramatic style
Krishna Leela. This developed into the Ras Leela. The themes of the Ras Leela are taken
from the Mahabharata, Bhagavata and other Puranas and from folklore centred round
Krishna.
These operatic plays were performed in temples, or even by the road side. The Ras
involves Krishna and Radha and the gopis dancing together and separately. The Leela is
the dramatisation of episodes from Krishnas life, especially his childhood pranks and
heroic deeds. Child actors perform in the plays. Ras Leela is thus probably the only
theatre with such a long continuous tradition involving children.
Saang Haryana has a rich tradition of folk theatre called Saang for Szvang). Musicians sit
in the middle of an open air stage around which the audience sits. The actors-cumsingers- cum-dancers move round the stage. The plot is based on a popular legend.
Comic scenes are interwoven in the performance. The form is characterised by softness
of emotions and accomplishment of rasa. There are two styles of Saang the Rohtak style
in Haryanvi and the Haathras style in Brajbhasha.
Tamasha:

Maharashtra has a flourishing theatrical tradition. Initially Tamasha started as a singing

and dancing party. It was in the later Peshwa period that Tamasha took on a definite shape
and achieved its present format.
Women began appearing on the stage. The theatre is simpledevoid of special props or
dazzling costumes and make-up. Only the jester puts on a funny dress. Tamasha has its
own distinct style of dancing and singing.
The Lavani dance is interwoven in the presentation.
The Tamasha reflects the social and sometimes even political aspirations of the people. It
has deeply influenced modern theatre and film.

Therukkoothu:
A unique form of rural entertainment and communication in Tamil Nadu, Therukkoothu
combines music, dance and drama. Literally it is street theatre, performed in the
open. Some influence of classical Sanskrit drama on it is apparent. There is a
kattiyakaranparallel to the sutradhar who, however, has a more elaborate role,
taking on different parts besides those of jester and commentator.
The tradition is oral, and the players have to be specially talented as they have often to
compose poems impromptu and sing in tune and tala. Female parts are played by the
males. The stories are taken from the epics and other classical legends. At some places
the Koothu is performed for several days.
There is an element of ritual involved, and the audience often involve themselves totally
in the performance. In the course of the performance, day-to-day problems, too, are
discussed in a clinical and dialectical way. While the acting is stylised, the effect is
profound.
Theyyam:
Basically a form of ancestor worship in Kerala, the ritualistic dancer in Theyyam
represents local gods and goddesses who are held to be protectors of the village. The
costumes and make-up are striking.
Yakshagana Bayalata:
A theatre-form of Karnataka, Yakshagana Bayalata has developed from the ancient
Bhagavatara Ata. They were plays enacted in the open air and the troupes were

maintained by temples. The actors put on elaborate make-up, colourful dresses and huge
head-dresses. The themes enacted are drawn from the epics and the Dasavatara of on
Vishnu. Udipi, the hone of Madhavacharya, and the Mookambika Temple are said to have
been the home of Yakshagana.
Dr Kota Shivaram Karanth led the movement to revive this ancient art form which had,
over the years, fallen into obscurity. He evolved his own style called Yaksha Ranga. It is
also a predominantly male preserve.
There are five or six types of roles, and generally each dancer is trained for one.
Similarities to Kathakali are obvious to an observer. The dances are mostly of the pure
nritta variety marked by footwork and body movements, expressing basic human
passions and celebrating the victory of good over evil.
Zatra:
Zatra has a special significance for the people of Goa; indeed, it is an integral part of their
socio-religious life. Zatra is the annual celebration of a particular deity at a particular
temple. Goans passion for drama is evident in Zatuas, for several dramas are
performed on these days in a given year.
String Puppets:
The puppet theatre of India has a long and old tradition. String, rod, glove and shadow
puppets were well-known and traditional puppeteers went from place to place to entertain
people with legends from myths and historical romances. The puppets show the influence
of the paintings, sculpture, costumes and decorative arts of the regions to which they
belong.

Rajasthani Kathaputli shows have become famous among the string puppet variety
(marionettes). The puppets are made of wood and cloth and dressed in medieval
Rajasthani costume. Carved from a single piece of wood, the puppets are like big dolls
with colourful costumeslong trailing skirts. They do not have legs. Puppeteers
manipulate the puppets with strings, varying from two to five on each.
The strings are tied to their fingers (not to a prop). The Rajasthani puppets are expertly
manipulated to present historical romances. The legend of Amarsinh Rathore is very
popular, with plenty of opportunity to show duels, fights and dances.

Typical of this show is the accompaniment on a whistleboliproducing shrill notes.

The Sakhi Kundhei of Odisha, Puda Nach of Assam, Malasutri Bahuly of Maharashtra
and Gombeyatta of Karnataka are other variations of string puppetry in India.
The Gombeyatta puppet figures are styled like the Yakshagana characters, with joints at
the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. Five to seven strings on the puppet are tied to
a prop. The episodes enacted are based on prasangas of Yakshagana plays. Folk and
classical elements are fused in the music that is played.
Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu is a remarkably skilful art in which huge realistic puppets
are manipulated by the puppeteer with the help of strings attached to a circular metal ring
on his head and two rods in his hands. The art is found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
also.
Shadow Puppets:
Shadow puppets are flat, leather puppets made translucent. When they are pressed against
the screen with a strong source of light behind it, silhouettes are created on the screen.
Shadow puppets, mostly made of animal hides, beautifully coloured and ornately
perforated, are popular in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha and Kerala.
The puppets have several joints to facilitate movement.
While the Tolpavakoothu of Kerala and the Tholu Bommalata of Andhra Pradesh mainly
depict episodes from the epics, the Togalu Gombeyatta of Karnataka deals with secular
themes and characters. Tholu Bommalata puppets are large with jointed waist, shoulders,
elbows and knees.
The classical music of the region influences the music played in the shows. The Togalu
Gombeyatta puppets are usually smaller in size, but the puppets depicting kings and
religious characters are larger than those depicting the common people.
The Ravanachhaya shadow puppets made of deer skin belong to Odisha. They are
joint lessthat is, each is in one piece. They have to be manipulated with great skill for
this reason .Human and animal characters are used as well as props like tree, mountains
and chariots. The puppets are generally small in size
Glove puppets:
Glove puppets are manipulated by the puppeteer in full view of the audience. They are
also called sleeve, palm or hand puppets. There is the head made of cloth, wood or papier

mache. The rest of the puppet is dressed in a long-flowing skirt. The puppeteer uses three
fingers to manipulate a puppet and produce a wide range of movements. This tradition is
popular in the states of Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala.
In Odisha, glove puppets enact tales of Radha and Krishna. The puppeteer is skilful: he
manipulates the puppet even while playing the dholak with one hand. In Uttar Pradesh,
the glove puppets enact social themes. The Pavakoothu is a fascinating variety from
Kerala.
Originating in the eighteenth century under the influence of Kathakali, the puppets in this
form are one-to-two feet in size. They are carved of wood but joined together with thick
cloth. Paint decorates their faces; peacock feathers and pieces of gilded tin are among the
materials used to decorate them. They enact episodes from the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata.

Rod Puppets:
Rod puppets are larger than glove puppets. They are manipulated by rods from below. It
is found in West Bengal and Odisha. The Patul Nach of West Bengal is a variety of the
rod puppet art form. The big doll carved of wood is tied on to a pole fastened to the waist
of the puppeteer who is behind a huge screen and controls the puppets movement
with the help of rods.
The Bengal rod puppets found today are generally three- to-four feet in height and wear
costumes resembling those of the actors who perform the Jatra plays. The puppets have
three joints; the main rod supports the head and is joined at the neck; the hands are
attached to the rods at the shoulders. Interestingly the puppeteers who manipulate the
puppets also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to the puppets
The Odisha rod puppets (Kathikundhei Nach) are smaller, combining elements of string
and rod puppets (the hands are tied to strings). The puppeteer sits on the ground and
manipulates the puppets to the accompaniment of music that blends folk and classical
tunes.
The rod puppet shows in the state are more operatic than those elsewhere. The puppet
dance here is a rare and unusual type of stylised indigenous drama and dance based on
mythological stories. The puppets are usually the representations of various characters
and animals of a particular drama.

The Yampuri rod puppets of Bihar are made of wood. They are different from the rod
puppets of West Bengal and Odisha in that they do joints have joints and are of onepiece each. High skill is required to manipulate them as they are jointless.
In each mode, there is background music based on the classical and folk music of the
particular region. The puppeteers deliver the songs and dialogues in prose. The
puppeteers have to be not only skilful with their hands but also versatile at singing and
dialogue delivery.