Physics 71 Notes CH 11-16 Bayombong

Carmina Bayombong [2010]
Disclaimer: The author shall not be held liable for any mistakes. This is merely a summary of the
resource below.||vector signs were also omitted due to its difficulty to input in word.
Resource: Sears & Zemanskys University Physics w/Modern Physics 11 th Edition (Young & Freedman)
Chapter 11.1||Conditions for Equilibrium
1. Net force = 0 (1st condition for equilibrium)

2. Net torque = 0 (2nd condition for equilibrium)
3. Rigid body at rest equilibrium
Chapter 11.2||Center of Gravity

1. One of the forces usually acting on a body is weight force need to compute
torque of weight force weight doesnt act at a single point distributed
over entire body may be calculated at CG (center of gravity)
Recall: center of mass formula
rcm = miri
mi
2. Acceleration g has the same acceleration/magnitude at every point of a body
every particle on that body experiences gravitational force total weight
of body is the vector sum of a large number of parallel forces. Therefore:
= rcm x w
3. If g has the same value at all points on a body, its center of gravity is
identical to its center of mass.
4. A body supported by several points must have its center of gravity
somewhere within the area bounded by the supports
5. Higher center of gravity more unstable
6. Higher angle more unstable
7. Lower center of gravity + larger area of support stable body
Chapter 11.4||Stress, Strain, and Elastic Moduli

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tensile stress being stretched by forces acting at its ends

Bulk stress squeezed from all sides by forces (water pressure)
Shear stress being deformed and eventually cut by forces (scissors)
Stress = characterized strength of forces causing deformation
Strain = describes resulting deformation
Stress
= Elastic Modulus (Hookes Law)
Strain
6.
7.
8.
Tensile Stress = F_|_

A
The SI unit of stress is the pascal
1 pascal = 1Pa = 1N/m2
1psi =6895 Pa and 1 Pa = 1.450 x 10-4 psi
Y = F_|_ x
A
lo
l

(Youngs Modulus)
9.
10.
11.
When forces on the ends of a bar pushes rather than pulls compression
compressive stress
Pressure in a fluid increases with depth
1atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/in2
CAUTION: Unlike force, pressure has no intrinsic direction: the pressure on
the surface of an immersed object is the same no matter how the surface is
oriented. Hence pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector quantity.
p = F_|_
A
(Pressure in a fluid)
Bulk (volume) strain = V/Vo
Bulk Modulus = - [p/ (V/Vo)]
12.
There is a negative sign because an increase of pressure always causes a

decrease in volume
K = - (1/Vo) x (V/p) compressibility
Shear stress = F tan to surface/ A
Shear strain = x/h
Chapter 11.5||Elasticity & Plasticity

1. Proportional limit = when the stress and strain are no longer proportional
(Hookes law no longer applies)
2. Deformation is reversible + forces are conservative energy put into
material to cause deformation is recovered when stress is removed
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
3. Yield point = end of elastic behavior, where stress is called the ELASTIC
LIMIT
4. A material acquires a PERMANENT SET when it has undergone an
irreversible deformation.
5. FRACTURE POINT = point wherein deformation ends (material breaks)
6. Behavior of material after elastic limit until fracture point is called PLASTIC
FLOW/ PLASTIC DEFORMATION.
7. Large amount of plastic deformation material is DUCTILE
8. Fracture occurs soon after elastic limit is passed material is BRITTLE
9. Deformation is reversible + stress is not proportional to strain (Hookes law
does not apply) ELASTIC HYSTERESIS (EH)
10.
When there is elastic hysteresis
Work done by material when returning to original shape < work required to
deform it.
11.
Rubber w/ large EH is very useful for absorbing vibrations
12.
BREAKING STRESS/ULTIMATE STRESS/TENSILE STRENGTH (for
tensile stress) = stress required to cause fracture of a material

Chapter 12.1||Newtons Law of Gravitation

1. CELESTIAL MECHANICS = The study of the dynamics of objects in space
2. Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Fg = [Gm1m2]/r2 (Law of Gravitation)
3. Gravitational force between 2 particles decreases w/increasing distance
4. Grav forces act along line joining the 2 particles action-reaction pair
5. Grav. Interaction of any 2 bodies having spherically symmetric mass
distributions is the same as though we concentrated all the mass of each at
its center. Therefore:
Fg = [GmEm]/r2
Force exerted by Earth (as a symmetric body) on a body outside Earth.
6. Exactly at the center of Earth, Fg = 0
7. TORSION BALANCE = used to determine value of G
G= 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2
8. 2 masses exert a force on a third mass combines through vectors
SUPERPOSITION OF FORCES
Chapter 12.2||Weight
1. The weight of a body is the total gravitational force exerted on the body by all
other bodies in the universe
2. The weight of a body decreases inversely w/ the square of its distance from
the Earths center.
3. The Earth is not uniform (more dense at interior)
W = Fg = [GmEm]/ [RE2] (Weight of a body of mass m at the Earths surface)
g = [GmE]/ [RE2] (acc. Due to gravity at the Earths surface)
W = Fg = [GmEm]/ [R2] (Weight of a body at a point above Earths surface)
Chapter 12.3||Gravitational Potential Energy

1.
2.
3.
4.
Gravitational force is always conservative

Body moves away from earth r inc grav force does (-) work U inc
Body falls toward earth r dec grav force does (+) work U dec
ESCAPE SPEED = the speed required for a body to escape completely from
a planet
U = -[GmEm]/ r (gravitational potential energy)
V = [[2GM]/R] (escape speed)

Wgrav = mg (r1 r2)
Chapter 12.4||The Motion of Satellites

1. CLOSED ORBITS = ellipses or segments of ellipses
2. OPEN ORBITS = projectile never returns to its starting point but travels
farther away from earth
3. Satellites are usually in uniform circular motion and speed is constant
4. Circular orbit acc. Is perpendicular to velocity speed is constant
5. Apparent weightlessness = occurs whenever grav is the only force acting on
a spacecraft
6. Larger orbits slower speed longer periods
v = [GmE]/ r (circular orbit)
T = [2r3/2]/ [GmE] (period in circular orbit)
E = -[GmEm]/[2r]
7. Total mech Energy is (-) and equal to one-half the potential energy
8. Increase in r inc in mech energy
Chapter 12.5||Keplers Laws and Motion of Planets

1. Planet = Greek word meaning wanderer
2. Empirical laws that describe motions of the planets
Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one
focus of the ellipse
Ellipse longest dimension
MAJOR AXIS
Half length of major axis =
SEMI-MAJOR AXIS
Sun and other point in triangle
(other than planet) are FOCI
POINT
Distance of each focal point
from center of ellipse (ea)
where e is a dimensionless
number bet 0 and 1 called
ECCENTRICITY
if e=0 (ellipse is a circle)
Earths orbit has e = 0.017
PERIHELION = Point in planets orbit that is closest to the sun
APHELION = Point in planets orbit that is most distant to the sun
The only possible closed orbits are a circle or an ellipse
The open orbits must be hyperbolas/parabolas
A line from the sun on a given planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal times

In a small time interval line from sun to planet turns through an

angle area swept out is a triangle
Rate at which area is swept out = SECTOR VELOCITY
Sector velocity has same value at all points in the orbit constant
angular momentum is constant
The periods of the planets are proportional to the 3/2 powers
of the major axis lengths of their orbits
A star and its planet both orbit about their common center of mass
rv sin (sector velocity; where r is the height of triangle)
T = [2a3/2]/ [Gms] (elliptical orbit around the sun; with semi-major axis a)
Chapter 12.6||Spherical Mass Distribution

1. To calculate the gravitational effects outside a spherical shell, all the mass M
can be considered concentrated at the center
2. Potential energy of 2 masses m and M at a distance r:
U = -[GMm]/ r (point mass m outside spherical shell M)
U = -[GMm]/ R (point mass m inside spherical shell M; where R is the radius of the
shell)
3. When m moves around inside the shell, no work is done on it force on m at
any point inside the shell must be zero
4. U has same value everywhere inside the shell
Chapter 12.7||Apparent Weight and the Earths Rotation

1. TRUE WEIGHT = gravitational force of attraction on the object
2. APPARENT WEIGHT = the reading for an object being weighed on a scale
3. Except at the poles, apparent weight < true weight because a net force is
needed to provide a centripetal acceleration as the object rotates with the
earth
w = wo [[mv2]/RE]
(Apparent weight at the equator; where wo is the true weight)
g = go [v2/RE] (at the equator)
4. At locations intermediate bet. The equator and the poles, true weight and
centripetal acceleration are not along the same line.
5. For a spacecraft in orbit or for any body inside the said spacecraft, the
apparent weight is 0
w = m go m arad (apparent weight of a body in a spacecraft)
Chapter 12.8||Black Holes

1. A body of mass M will act as a black hole if its radius R is less than or equal to
a certain critical radius.
Rs = [2GM]/c2 (Schwarzschild Radius)

2. If a spherical, non rotating body with mass M has a radius less than Rs then
nothing (not even light) can escape from the surface of the body body is a
BLACK HOLE
3. Any other body w/in a distance Rs of the center of the black hole is trapped by
gravitational attraction of the black hole and cannot escape from it.
4. Surface of the sphere w/ radius Rs surrounding a black hole is called the
EVENT HORIZON
5. The 3 things you can know about a black hole: mass, electric charge, &
angular momentum
6. TIME DILATION = electronic and biological clocks would appear to run more
slowly as you go nearer the event horizon
7. TIDAL FORCES = differences in gravitational force on diff. parts of your body
would rip you into atoms before reaching event horizon
8. Any gas/dust near the black hole tends to be pulled into an ACCRETION
DISK that swirls around and into the black hole (whirlpool) loses
mechanical energy compressed heating of material extreme heat that
it emits X rays signals existence of black holes
9. Black holes in binary star systems have masses greater than the sun
Chapter 13.1||Describing Oscillation

1. PERIODIC MOTION/OSCILLATION = type of motion that repeats itself over
and over
2. RESTORING FORCE = force that restores a body to its equilibrium position
3. Oscillation can only occur when there is a restoring force
4. AMPLITUDE = maximum magnitude of displacement from equilibrium
(always positive)
5. CYCLE = one complete round trip
6. PERIOD = time for one cycle (always positive)
7. FREQUENCY = number of cycles in a unit of time (always positive) || SI unit
= HERTZ
F = 1/T and T = 1/f (relationships bet. Frequency and period)
= 2f = [2]/T (angular frequency)
Chapter 13.2||Simple Harmonic Motion

1. When the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium, the oscillation is called SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
2. Acceleration and displacement always have opposite signs
3. HARMONIC OSCILLATOR = a body that undergoes SHM
Fx = -kx (restoring force exerted by an ideal spring)
ax = -[k/m] x (acceleration of a body in SHM)
4. CIRCLE OF REFERENCE = circle in which object moves so that its projection
matches motion of oscillating body
5. PHASOR = rotating vector
6. if amplitude of body is equal to disk radius and if angular frequency of body
is equal to angular speed of rotating disk SHM is the projection of uniform
circular motion onto a diameter PHASOR METHOD

x = A cos (x-component of phasor; where A is the radius)

aq = 2A (acceleration at a point in circular motion)
2
ax = - A cos or ax = -2x (acceleration at a point reflected on x-axis)
= [k/m] (angular frequency of SHM where k is the restoring force)
f = [1/2] x [[k/m]] (frequency in SHM)
T = [2] x [[m/k]] (period in SHM)
7. a larger mass m less acceleration less speed longer period
CAUTION: frequency f and angular frequency are different. Frequency tells you
how many cycles of oscillation occur per second, while angular frequency tells you
how many radians per second this corresponds to on the reference circle.
8. In SHM the period and frequency do not depend on the amplitude A
9. In SHM the position is a periodic, sinusoidal function of time
10.
PHASE ANGLE = point wherein the cycle of the motion was at t=0
11.
SHM with diff. phase angles; same A, k and m
x = A cos (t + ) (displacement in SHM; where is the phase angle)
vx = -A sin (t + ) (velocity in SHM)
ax = -2A cos (t + ) (acceleration in SHM)
A = [[x02] + [v0x2/2]] (amplitude in SHM)
= arctan [-[v0x]/[ x0]] (phase angle in SHM)
12.
Body passing through equilibrium point displacement is zero v =
vmax or vmax acceleration is zero
13.
Body at maximum/minimum point v=0 body instantaneously at
rest acceleration at maximum magnitudes (-a for x = +A and +a for x =
-A)
14.
When body has initial displacement and initial velocity, amplitude A is
not equal to the initial displacement
Chapter 13.3||Energy in simple Harmonic Motion

E = mvx
E = mvx2 + kx2 = constant

+ kx = kA2 = constant (total mechanical energy in SHM)
2
Chapter 13.4||Applications of simple Harmonic Motion

Vertical SHM
1. Object in equilibrium spring force = weight force
2. Vertical SHM does not differ from horizontal SHM only difference is
equilibrium point
3. Equilibrium point of vertical SHM where spring is stretched
4. Equilibrium point of horizontal SHM where spring is unstretched
5. Net force is proportional to displacement
Angular SHM
6. Restoring torque is proportional to the angular displacement from the
equilibrium position
= [/I] (angular SHM)

f = [1/2] [ [/I]] (angular SHM)
Chapter 13.5||The Simple Pendulum

1.
SIMPLE PENDULUM = idealized model consisting of a point mass

suspended by a mass less, unstretchable string.
2. The restoring force (provided by gravity) is the tangential component of the
net force
3. Restoring force is proportional to sin
= [g/L] (simple pendulum, small amplitude)
f = [1/2] [ [g/L]] (simple pendulum, small amplitude)
T = 2 [ [L/g]] (simple pendulum, small amplitude)
Chapter 13.6||The Physical Pendulum

1. PHYSICAL PENDULUM = any real pendulum, using a body of finite size, as
contrasted to the idealized model of the simple pendulum with all the mass
concentrated at a single point.
= [[mgd]/I] (physical pendulum, small amplitude)
T = [2] [I/[mgd]] (physical pendulum, small amplitude)
Chapter 13.7||Damped Oscillations

1. DAMPING = decrease in amplitude caused by dissipative forces motion is
called DAMPED OSCILLATION
x = Ae-(b/2m)t cos (t +) (oscillator with damping)
= [[k/m] [b2/4m2]] (oscillator with little damping)
2. if b = 2km CRITICAL DAMPING = system no longer oscillates but
returns to its equilibrium position without oscillation when it is displaced or
released
3. if b > 2km OVERDAMPING = no oscillation but the system returns to
equilibrium more slowly than with critical damping
4. if b < 2km UNDERDAMPING = the system oscillates with steadily
decreasing amplitude
Chapter 13.8||Forced Oscillations and Resonance

1. DRIVING FORCE = additional force to continue oscillation
Amplitude of a driven oscillator:
Chapter 14.1||Density
1. FLUID STATICS = the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium situations.
2. FLUID DYNAMICS = the study of fluids in motion
= m/v (definition of density)
3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY = density/density of water

Chapter 14.2||Pressure in a Fluid

1.
2.
3.
Fluid at rest exerts a force PERPENDICULAR to any surface in contact with

it
SI unit of pressure is the PASCAL = 1Pa = N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa, 1 millibar =100 Pa
= dF/dA (definition of pressure)

= F/A
(If pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface (if weight of fluid is
neglected))
4.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE = pressure of the earths atmosphere, the

pressure at the bottom of this sea of air in which we live.
CAUTION: Pressure and force do not mean the same thing. Fluid pressure acts
perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, no matter how that surface is oriented.
Hence pressure has no intrinsic direction of its own; its a scalar. By contrast, force
is a vector with a definite direction. Remember, too, that pressure is force per unit
area.
5.
When height increases, pressure decreases
p2 p1 = -g (y2 y1) (pressure in a fluid of uniform density)

p = p0 +gh (pressure in a fluid of uniform density; where p o is the pressure at the
surface)
6.
7.
Pressure is the same at any 2 points on the same level

Pascals Law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the
containing vessel.
p = [F1/A1] = [F2/A2] and F2 = [A2/A1]F1
8.
9.
10.
GAUGE PRESSURE = excess pressure above atmospheric pressure

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = total pressure (gauge + atm pressure)
If the pressure is less than atmospheric, the gauge pressure is negative
PRESSURE GAUGES
1. Open
tube manometer
U-shaped tube
p pa = -g (y2 y1) = gh
p is the absolute pressure and the difference p pa is the gauge
pressure
2. Mercury barometer
pa = p = 0 + g (y2 y1) = gh
1mmHg = one torr

3. Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure gauge)
Chapter 14.3||Buoyancy
1. When body is less dense than the fluid floats
2. Archimedes Principle: When a body is completely or partially
immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
3. BUOYANT FORCE = upward force
4. the line of action of the buoyant force again passes through the center of
gravity of the displaced fluid
5. SURFACE TENSION = surface of the liquid behaves like a membrane under
tension
Chapter 14.4||Fluid Flow

1. IDEAL FLUID = fluid that is incompressible (density cannot change and has
no internal friction -----viscosity)
2. FLOW LINE = path of an individual particle in a moving fluid
3. STEADY FLOW = if the overall flow pattern does not change with time (flow
lines and streamlines are identical)
4. STREAMLINE = a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the
fluid velocity at that point
5. flow pattern changes over time streamlines do not coincide with the flow
lines
6. FLOW TUBE = imaginary area wherein flow lines pass through
7. In steady flow, no fluid can cross the side walls of a flow tube
8. LAMINAR FLOW = adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly past each other
and the flow is steady
9. TURBULENT FLOW = when flow becomes irregular and chaotic
A1v1 = A2v2 (continuity equation, incompressible liquid)
dV/dt = Av (volume flow rate)
1A1v1 = 2A2v2 (continuity equation, compressible liquid)
Chapter 14.5||Bernoullis Equation

1. BERNOULLIS EQUATION: states that the work done on a unit volume of
fluid by the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the changes in kinetic
and potential energies per unit volume that occur during the flow:
P1 + gy1 + v12 = P2 + gy2 + v22 (Bernoullis equation)
P + gy + v2 = constant
CAUTION: We stress again that Bernoullis equation is valid only for incompressible,
steady flow of a fluid with no internal friction (no viscosity).

Chapter 14.6||Viscosity and Turbulence

1. VISCOSITY is internal friction in a fluid
2. Viscous forces oppose the motion of one portion of a fluid relative to another.
3. Viscosity is temperature dependent
Chapter 15.1||Types of Mechanical Waves

1. MECHANICAL WAVE = a disturbance that travels through some material or
substance called the medium for the wave.
2. TRANSVERSE WAVES = displacements of the medium are perpendicular or
transverse to the direction of travel of the wave along the medium
3. LONGITUDINAL WAVE = motions of the particles of the medium are back
and forth along the same direction that the wave travels
4. WAVE SPEED = speed of propagation, because waves propagate with a
definite speed through the medium
5. The wave speed is not the same as the speed with which particles move
when they are disturbed by the wave
6. The medium does not travel through space (particles merely undergo motions
around their equilibrium points)
7. Waves transport energy, but not matter, from one region to another
Chapter 15.2||Periodic Waves

1. SINUSOIDAL WAVES = periodic waves with simple harmonic motion
2. When a sinusoidal wave passes through a medium, every particle in the
medium undergoes simple harmonic motion with the same frequency
CAUTION: Be very careful to distinguish between the motion of the transverse
wave along the string and the motion of a particle of the string. The wave moves
with constant speed v along the length of the string, while the motion of the particle
is simple harmonic and transverse (perpendicular) to the length of the spring.
v = f (periodic wave)
Chapter 15.3||Mathematical Description of a Wave

y (x,t) = A cos 2f ((x/v) t) (sinusoidal wave moving in +x direction)
y (x,t) = A cos 2 ((x/) (t/T)) (sinusoidal wave moving in +x direction)
k = [2]/ (wave number)
y (x,t) = A cos (kx t) (sinusoidal wave moving in +x direction)
y (x,t) = A cos (kx + t) (sinusoidal wave moving in -x direction)
1. Quantity (kx + t) or (kx - t) is called the PHASE
WAVE
EQUATION:
2. Acceleration at each point is proportional to displacement y at that point

3. Acceleration is positive where curvature is upward and negative where
curvature is downward

4. If curvature is zero, acceleration is zero
Chapter 15.4||The Speed of a Transverse Wave

v = [F/] (the speed of a transverse wave on a string)
v = [restoring force returning the system to equilibrium/inertia resisting the return
to equilibrium]
Chapter 15.5||Energy in Wave Motion

1. As a wave propagates, each portion of the medium exerts a force and does
work on the adjoining portion
Pav = [F2A2] (average power, sinusoidal wave on a string)
Pmax = [[F]] [2A2]
2. For waves that travel in 3-D, INTENSITY is the time average rate at which
energy is transported by the wave, per unit area, across a surface
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
[I1/I2] = [r22/r12] (inverse-square law for intensity)
Chapter 15.6||Wave Interference, Boundary Conditions, and

Superposition
1. INTERFERENCE = the initial and reflected waves overlap in the same region
of the medium.
2. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS = the conditions at the end of the string, such as a
rigid support or the complete absence of transverse force.
3. Pulses overlap total displacement of string is algebraic sum of the
displacements at that point in the individual pulses.
4. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION: when two waves overlap, the actual
displacement of any point on the string at any time is obtained by adding the
displacement the point would have if only the first wave were present.
y (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) (principle of superposition)
Chapter 15.7||Standing Waves on a String

1. NODES = parts of a sinusoidal wave that never move at all
2. ANTINODES = located midway between nodes where amplitude of motion is
greatest
3. STANDING WAVE = when wave pattern doesnt move in either direction
along the string
4. TRAVELING WAVE = a wave that moves along the string
5. At a node the displacements of the two waves are always equal and opposite
and cancel each other out called the DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
6. At the antinodes the displacements of the two waves are always identical,
giving a large resultant displacement called CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
7. a standing wave does not transfer energy from one end to the other
average rate of energy transfer is zero at every point

y1 (x, t) = -A cos (kx +t) (incident wave traveling to the left)

y2 (x, t) = A cos (kx +t) (incident wave traveling to the right)
y1 (x, t) = (Asw sin kx) (sin t) (standing wave on a string, fixed end at x=0)
Chapter 15.8||Normal Modes of a String

1. STANDING WAVE = a wave that is reflected and re reflected from the ends of
a string
f2 = n[v/2L] = nf1 (n = 1,2,3) (string fixed at both ends)
2. The value obtained when n=1 is substituted is called the FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY
3. Frequencies are called HARMONICS and the series is called a HARMONIC
SERIES
4. NORMAL MODE of an oscillating system is a motion in which all particles of
the system move sinusoidally with the same frequency.
f1 = ([1/2L]) ([F/]) (string fixed at both ends)
Chapter 16.1||Sound Waves

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SOUND = a longitudinal wave in a medium

AUDIBLE RANGE = 20 to 20,000 Hz
ULTRASONIC = frequencies above audible range
INFRASONIC = frequencies below audible range
DISPLACEMENT AMPLITUDE = maximum displacement of a particle in the
medium from its equilibrium position.
particles pile up COMPRESSION pressure is most positive
particles pulled apart RAREFACTION pressure is most negative
shorter wavelengths greater pressure variations
large Bulk modulus less compressible medium greater pressure change
pmax = BkA (sinusoidal sound wave)
10.greater pressure amplitude of sinusoidal sound wave greater perceived

loudness
11.higher frequency higher pitch
12.greater pressure lower pitch
13.NOISE = combination of all frequencies
14.WHITE NOISE = contains equal amounts of all frequencies across audible
range
Chapter 16.2||Speed of Sound Waves

1. Sound waves travel more slowly when it has lower bulk modulus, shear
modulus and higher density
2. The 2nd equation below does not apply to longitudinal waves in a bulk solid,
since in these materials, sideways motion in any element of material is
prevented by the surrounding material.
v = [B/] (speed of a longitudinal wave)
v = [Y/] (speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod)

v = [[RT]/M] (speed of sound in an ideal gas; where is the ratio of heat

capacities)
RECALL:
R = 8.314 j/mol.k
M = molarity (mol solute/L of soln)
T = 273.15K + C
= 1.40 (air at normal atm)
Chapter 16.3||Sound Intensity

1. Remember that the velocity of the wave as a whole is not the same as the
particle velocity. While the wave continues to move in the direction of
propagation, individual particles in the wave medium merely slosh back and
forth. Furthermore, the maximum speed of a particle of the medium can be
very different from the wave speed.
I = [ [B]] [2A2] (intensity of a sinusoidal wave)
I = [max2]/2[ [B]] (intensity of a sinusoidal wave)
= (10dB) (log [I/Io]) (definition of sound intensity level)
NOTE:
10dB = 1/10 bel
I0 = 10-12 W/m2
Chapter 16.4||Standing Sound Waves and Normal Modes

1. DISPLACEMENT NODE (N)= where particles have zero displacement
2. DISPLACEMENT ANTINODE (A) = where particles have maximum
displacement
3. PRESSURE NODE = a point in a standing sound wave at which the pressure
and density do not vary
4. PRESSURE ANTINODE = a point at which variations in pressure and density
are greatest
5. A pressure node is always a displacement antinode, and a pressure antinode
is always a displacement node.
6. Reflection at a closed end displacement is always zero closed end is a
displacement node and a pressure antinode
7. Open end displacement antinode and a pressure node pressure node
because it is open to atmosphere wherein pressure is constant
8. The pitch of all wind instruments rises with increasing temperature
f1 = v/2L (open pipe)
fn = nv/2L (open pipe, when computing w/ overtones)
fn = nv/4L (closed pipe, when computing w/ overtones)
Chapter 16.5||Resonance
1. DIRVING FREQUENCY = frequency of the applied force
2. RESONANCE = the fact that there is an amplitude peak at driving
frequencies close to the natural frequency of the system

3. Resonance occurs when a periodically varying force is applied to a system

with many normal modes
4. RESONANCE CURVE = function of the driving frequency
5. Frequency of force = normal-mode frequency system is in resonance
amplitude of forced oscillation is maximum
6. Frequency of force < normal-mode frequency amplitude at nodes is small
7. No friction driving force would add energy to system amplitude would
increase
Examples of Resonance:
Seashell sound of the ocean noise outside forces air in seashell to
oscillate
Bottle of beverage uncap and blow across the top lower tone when
liquid inside is reduced
Stretched string is forced to oscillate
Piano right pedal when stepped on, damping is released louder/allows
more vibrations
Singer breaking a wine glass when singer produces higher/equal pitch as
the glass produces when tapped oscillations build up glass breaks
Chapter 16.6||Interference of Waves

1. INTERFERENCE = wave phenomena that occur when two or more waves
overlap in the same region of space.
2. In phase constructive interference
3. Out of phase destructive interference
4. Destructive interference both a displacement node and a pressure nod
because there is no wave at all at the point.
5. Constructive interference occurs wherever distances traveled by 2 waves
differ by whole number of wavelengths
Chapter 16.7||Beats
1. Amplitude variation causes variations of loudness called BEATS
2. BEAT FREQUENCY = frequency with which the loudness varies
3. Frequency differences greater than 6 or 7 Hz no longer hear individual
beats sensation merges into one of consonance or dissonance.
4. Ear perceives a difference tone, with a pitch equal to the beat frequency of
the 2 tones
Fbeat = fa fb (beat frequency; where fa is the higher frequency)
Chapter 16.8||The Doppler Effect

1.
2.
3.
DOPPLER EFFECT = when a source of sound and a listener are in motion

relative to each other, the frequency of the sound heard by the listener is not
the same as the source frequency.
Listener moving toward a source hears a higher frequency
Listener moving away from the source hears a lower frequency

4.
When both source and listener are at rest or have same velocity relative to
the medium, then vL = vs and fL = fs
fL = [(1+ [vL/v)]fs (moving listener, stationary source)

= [v vs]/fs (wavelength in front a moving source)
= [v + vs]/fs (wavelength behind a moving source)
fL = ([v + vL]/ [v+ vs]) fs (Doppler effect, moving source and moving listener)
fR = ([c - v]/ [c + v]) fs (Doppler effect for light)
5.
For electromagnetic waves:

Wave speed is speed of light and is the same for both source and receiver
If source is approaching receiver, v is negative (f R > fs)
If source is moving away from the receiver, v is positive (f R < fs)
RED SHIFT = the effect when light from galaxies is shifted toward the
longer-wavelength or red end of the visible spectrum.
Chapter 16.9||Shock Waves

1. Shockwave is produced continuously when speed of source is greater than
speed of sound
2. (vs > v) sound is SUPERSONIC
3. SHOCKWAVE = large-amplitude crest
4. vs/v = MACH NUMBER
5. if source moves with constant velocity angle is constant shock wave
cone moves along with the source.
sin = v/vs (shock wave where v is speed of the source)

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Carmina Bayombong [2010]

Chapter 11.1||Conditions for Equilibrium

1. Net force = 0 (1st condition for equilibrium)

Chapter 11.2||Center of Gravity

Chapter 11.4||Stress, Strain, and Elastic Moduli

Tensile stress being stretched by forces acting at its ends

Tensile Stress = F_|_

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There is a negative sign because an increase of pressure always causes a

Chapter 11.5||Elasticity & Plasticity

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Chapter 12.1||Newtons Law of Gravitation

Chapter 12.3||Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational force is always conservative

Carmina Bayombong [2010]

Wgrav = mg (r1 r2)

Chapter 12.4||The Motion of Satellites

Chapter 12.5||Keplers Laws and Motion of Planets

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In a small time interval line from sun to planet turns through an

Chapter 12.6||Spherical Mass Distribution

Chapter 12.7||Apparent Weight and the Earths Rotation

Chapter 12.8||Black Holes

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Chapter 13.1||Describing Oscillation

Chapter 13.2||Simple Harmonic Motion

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x = A cos (x-component of phasor; where A is the radius)

Chapter 13.3||Energy in simple Harmonic Motion

E = mvx2 + kx2 = constant

Chapter 13.4||Applications of simple Harmonic Motion

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f = [1/2] [ [/I]] (angular SHM)

Chapter 13.5||The Simple Pendulum

SIMPLE PENDULUM = idealized model consisting of a point mass

Chapter 13.6||The Physical Pendulum

Chapter 13.7||Damped Oscillations

Chapter 13.8||Forced Oscillations and Resonance

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Chapter 14.2||Pressure in a Fluid

Fluid at rest exerts a force PERPENDICULAR to any surface in contact with

= dF/dA (definition of pressure)

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE = pressure of the earths atmosphere, the

When height increases, pressure decreases

p2 p1 = -g (y2 y1) (pressure in a fluid of uniform density)

Pressure is the same at any 2 points on the same level

GAUGE PRESSURE = excess pressure above atmospheric pressure

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3. Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure gauge)

Chapter 14.4||Fluid Flow

Chapter 14.5||Bernoullis Equation

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Chapter 14.6||Viscosity and Turbulence

Chapter 15.1||Types of Mechanical Waves

Chapter 15.2||Periodic Waves

Chapter 15.3||Mathematical Description of a Wave

2. Acceleration at each point is proportional to displacement y at that point

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4. If curvature is zero, acceleration is zero

Chapter 15.4||The Speed of a Transverse Wave

Chapter 15.5||Energy in Wave Motion

Chapter 15.6||Wave Interference, Boundary Conditions, and

Chapter 15.7||Standing Waves on a String

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