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Arithmetic
Integers (in place-value notation):
d n 10n ... d 2102 d1101 d 0100
where
d 0 , d1 , d 2 ,..., d n {0,1, 2,...,9}
Example:
1234

Algebra
Polynomials with 1 unknown
an x n an 1 x n 1 ... a1 x a0
where
a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an {... 2, 1, 0,1, 2,...}
Example:
3
2
x 2 x 3x 4

0
1103 2 102 3 101 4 100
1 x 3 2 x 2 3 x1 4 x
Correspondence:
unit digit ~ constant term
tens digit ~ coefficient of x
hundreds digit ~ coefficient of x2
10 ~ x
102 ~ x2
etc.

What do you see?

Place-value notation
e.g. Hindu-Arabic numerals
12 = ********** + **
Convenient for representing large
numbers. e.g.
This year = 2012
Hong Kong population = 7000000
Convenient for mathematical
operations

12 + 34
(2x + 1) + (x 2)
Beginners see 4 digits.
Beginners see 4 terms.
Advanced students see 2 integers.
Advanced students see 2 polynomials.
Consider a polynomial as a whole, instead of a collection of parts.
It is just like how you perceive integers instead of digits.

Sign-value notation
e.g. Roman numerals
VII = ***** + * + *
Inconvenient for representing large
numbers. e.g.
This year = MMXII
Hong Kong population = ???
Inconvenient for mathematical
operations
XXXI

XII
???
1

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Similarities
Addition
32 + 21 = 53
Subtraction
32 21 = 11
Multiplication

Addition
(3x 2) (2 x 1) 5 x 3
Subtraction
(3x 2) (2 x 1) x 1
Multiplication
(3x 2)(2 x 1)
(3 x 2) (6 x 2 4 x)
6x2 7 x 2

Major difference
Carrying
28 + 35 = 63

No carrying
(2 x 8) (3 x 5) 5 x 13
not 6x + 3

+ between two integers

+ between two polynomials
The answer is also an integer.
The answer is also a polynomial.
2+3=5
(2x + 1) + (x 2) = 3x 1
2 3 = -1
(2x + 1) (x 2) = x + 3
2 3= 6
(2x+1) (x2) = 2x2 3x 2

We say: Integers (or polynomials) are closed under addition (or multiplication).
We consider Integers as a set. Therefore we say Integers is, not are.
between two integers
between two Polynomials
The answer may or may not be an
The answer may or may not be a
integer.
polynomial.
2
82=4
( x 1) ( x 1) x 1
72=?
( x 2 1) ( x 2) ???

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Solution Concept 1: Consider the quotient and the remainder
Division Algorithm
Division Algorithm
Dividend
Dividend
= Divisor Quotient + Remainder
= Divisor Quotient + Remainder
Remainder < Divisor
Degree of Remainder
< Degree of Divisor
72
(2x2 + 4x 1) (x + 1)

Remainder Theorem
n
.
m
Reason
Generalization
P(x) = (mx n)Quotient + Remainder Dividend
= Divisor Quotient + Remainder
n
When x , (mx n) = 0.
Choose x to make divisor = 0.
m
Then Remainder = Dividend.
n
Remainder P ( x ) P
m
Life-saving remark:
Remainder Theorem is not that useful.
Whenever you are in trouble, go back to division algorithm.
The remainder of P ( x ) (mx n) is P

Quotient = 3Remainder = 1

Representing by division algorithm

7=23+1
7 cakes divided among 2 people
2 cakes per person, 3 remain (wrong!)
We want Remainder < Divisor
3 cakes per person, 1 remain (right!)
Remainder = 1 < 2 = Divisor

Quotient = 2x+2Remainder = -3
Representing by division algorithm
2x2 + 4x 1 = (x + 1)(2x + 2) 3
The quotient 2x + 2 has degree = 1
Degree of Remainder
< Degree of Divisor
Degree of Remainder must be 0
x will not appear in the remainder.
Degree of remainder (-3) = 0
< 1 = Degree of divisor (x + 1)

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Answer: Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic
Any integer can be uniquely expressed
as a product of primes.

Solution Concept 2: When does divisibility happen?

Factor
Factor
2
Example:12 = 2 6
Example: x + 3x + 2 = (x + 1) (x + 2)
Denoted as
Denoted as
2 is a factor of 12
(x + 1) is a factor of x2 + 3x + 2
12 is a multiple of 2
x2 + 3x + 2 is a multiple of (x + 1)
12 is divisible by 2
x2 + 3x + 2 is divisible by (x + 1)
2 divides 12
(x + 1) divides x2 + 3x + 2
2|12
(x + 1)|(x2 + 3x + 2)
Using the symbol | in examinations is not recommended.
Prime number
Irreducible Factor
No factors except 1 and itself.
No factors except constants and itself
multiplied by a constant.
Prime numbers
Irreducible Polynomials (Two types)
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
Linear (x up to power 1) factors
2 = 12
e.g. (x + 1), (2x 7)
Composite numbers
Quadratic (x up to power 2) factors
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12,
( ax 2 bx c) , where b 2 4ac is not a
4 = 14 = 22
perfect square. e.g. ( x 2 5 x 1)
Question: How can we know that an
integer can uniquely be represented as
a product of primes?
e.g. Can we have
some integer = 27 = 35
(The result is not clear when the
numbers are very large.)

(Euclid BC 300 et al)

In other words: The factorization of an
integer has only one answer.
How? Short division
2 120
2
2
3

60
30
15

Answer: Fundamental Theorem of

Algebra (Sort of)
Any polynomial can be uniquely
expressed as a product of irreducible
factors.
(C. F. Gauss 1799)
In other words: The factorization of
an integer has only one answer.
How?
Rational Root Theorem
Factor Theorem
Long Division
Cross Product
(as shown below)

5
120 = 22235
Factor Theorem
n
If P 0 , then (mx n) is a factor of P(x).
m
From Remainder Theorem: P(x) = (mx n)Quotient + Remainder.
If Remainder = 0, P(x) = (mx n) Quotient. i.e. (mx n) is a factor of P(x).
n
It happens when P 0 .
m

Question: How can we know that a

polynomial can uniquely be
represented as a product of
irreducible factors?

More about polynomials

Long division
(Correct calculation gives 0 as the
remainder.)

Example: Factorize 3 x 14 x 7 x 4
3

Planning
n
n
Factor Theorem tells us that if we can find so that P 0 , we can have
m
m
n
(mx n) | P ( x) . But what should we choose as ?
m
Rational Root Theorem
n
If P 0 , then
m
m | the leading coefficient (the first number), and
n | the constant term (the last number).
From P ( x ) 3 x 3 14 x 2 7 x 4
Leading coefficient = 3
Constant term = -4
Possible ms: 1, 3
Possible ns:1, 2, 4
n
1 2 4
Try 1, 2, 4, , ,
m
3 3 3
You think
Lets Start with the easy one.
P(1) 3 13 14 12 7 1 4 0
Whoops.
Try again
P(1) ( 1)3 ( 1) 2 10(1) 8 0
Yay!
Write down only the successful one.

Cross product.
Done!

3 x 3 14 x 2 7 x 4
( x 1)(3 x 2 11x 4)
( x 1)( x 4)(3 x 1)

The calculator may help. Programs are available at

http://wongsircalculator.orgfree.com/
Enter the cubic formula (). The roots are readily available.

You write
Let P ( x) 3 x 3 14 x 2 7 x 4

P (1)
( 1)3 ( 1) 2 10( 1) 8
0
(x + 1) is a factor of P(x).

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Solution Concept 3: Extend our set of number / algebraic expression to include
the answers of division.
n
n 1
Integers: {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, }
Polynomials an x an 1 x ... a1 x a0
Extend
Extend
Rational numbers
Rational expressions
p
P ( x)
p, q are integers, q0
P(x), Q(x) are polynomials,
q
Q ( x)
Q(x) 0
2
3
999
x 1
Examples: , 2, 0.5,
Examples: 2
, x2 x 1
4
100
x 4x 4
Integers: 14 4 = ?
Polynomials: ( x 1) ( x 2 1) ?
7
Rational Expressions:
Rational numbers: 14 4
2
1
( x 1) ( x 2 1)

x 1

9 3

10 35
9 35

10 3
32 5 7

25
3
3 7

2 1
3 7

2 1
21

Addition and Subtraction

7
5

120 36
7
5

12 10 12 3

Multiplication and Division

x2 2x 1
x 1
2
2
x 4
2x 7x 6
2
x 2x 1 2x2 7 x 6
to

Reciprocal
x2 4
x 1
2
( x 1)
( x 2)(2 x 3)

Factorization
( x 2)( x 2)
x 1
x 1 2x 3

Cancellation
x2
1
(
x

1)(2
x
3)
Numerators multiply,
denominators multiply.
( x 2) 1
Answer

73
5 10

12 10 3 12 3 10

7 3 5 10
12 10 3

71
360

5
x 1
2
8x 8 4 x 8x 4
5

4( x 1) 2( x 1)
x 1

4( x 1) ( x 1)
5 ( x 1)

4( x 1) 2( x 1) ( x
1)
( x 1) 2( x 1)

4( x 1) ( x 1) 2( x
1)
2

Express the
denominator as a
multiple of the G.C.D.
(as shown below)
Find the common
denominator. New
denominator = L.C.M.
of old denominators.
(as shown below)
Same denominator,
add or subtract
numerators directly
Answer

5( x 1) 2( x 1) 2

8( x 1) 2 ( x 1)

2 x2 x 7
8( x 1) 2 ( x 1)

How to find the G.C.D. and L.C.M?

G.C.D.Take the lowest power of each prime/ irreducible factor
L.C.M.Take the highest power of each prime/ irreducible factor
8 x 2 8 23 ( x 1)1 ( x 1)1
120 23 31 51
36 22 32 50

2 x2 5x 3
x2

4 x 2 8 x 4 22 ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 0

G.C.D.=22 31 50 12

G.C.D.=22 ( x 1)1 ( x 1) 0 4( x 1)

L.C.M.=23 32 51 360

L.C.M.=23 ( x 1) 2 ( x 1)1 8( x 1) 2 ( x 1)

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Equations vs. Polynomials
Equations
Polynomials
Example: x 1 2
Example: x 1
Usual goal: solve for x
Usual goal: simplify
When x = 1, L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Not simplified: ( x 1) (2 x 3)
Therefore x = 1 is a solution.
Simplified: 3 x 4
When x = 5, L.H.S. R.H.S.
Therefore x = 5 is not a solution.
What can be done:
What can be done:
+ the same number on both
Expand, factorize, combine like
sides.
terms.
Domain of x:
Domain of x:
Usually real numbers.
Doesnt matter. We are not finding x.

= for values
Holds when the values of both sides
are the same.

= for polynomials
Holds when the corresponding
coefficients and constant terms on
both sides are the same.
Example 1: Comparing x + 1 and 2
The value of x + 1: varies with x
L.H.S.
R.H.S.
The value of 2: fixed
Polynomial x+1
Polynomial 2
Coef. of x = 1
Coef. of x = 0
Const. term = 1
Const. term = 2
x+1=2
x+12
Holds only when x = 1.
Different polynomials
Example 2: Comparing (x + 1) (x 1) and x2 1
For any real x,
L.H.S.
R.H.S.
(x + 1) (x 1) and x2 1
Polynomial
Polynomial
gives the same value.
(x + 1) (x 1)
x2 1
After expansion
Coef. of x2 = 1
Coef. of x2 = 1
Coef. of x = 0
Coef. of x = 0
Const. term = 1
Const. Term = 1
(x + 1) (x 1) x2 1
(x + 1) (x 1) = x2 1
Identity
Equal / equivalent polynomials

Solving an Equation by Polynomials

Equations
Polynomials
Consider the polynomial
Example: Solve

3
2
P ( x ) 3 x 3 14 x 2 7 x 4
3 x 14 x 7 x 4 0
Difficult!
Factorize
( x 1)( x 4)(3 x 1) 0
P
(
x
)

( x 1)( x 4)(3 x 1)

1
x 1, 4 or
3

This = is not equal to That =

7