WATER SUPPLY

Bakun Dam – to be completed in 2011

 Water supply scheme
• Before a water supply scheme is developed
and implemented, there are several major
activities that need to be carried out.
• Among the major activities involved:
– Establish the need for investment and
demonstrate that development is
justified
– Water resources study
– Water demand forecasting
– Water quality and treatment
requirements
– Formulation of alternative schemes
– Financial / economical analysis
WATER RESOURCES
• Surface water –
streams, rivers,
lakes, ponds,
reservoir
• Ground water
 WATER DEMAND /
CONSUMPTION
• Domestic demand
• Industry and commercial
demand
• Public demand
• Fire-fighting demand
• Unaccounted-for-Water (UFW)
–wastage, leakage, illegal
tapings, damage meters etc.
 WATER DEMAND

• WATER DEMAND FOR

URBAN SUPPLIES
- Based on population served,
per capita consumption, service
factor, industrial & other special
demands.
 Basic formula for water
demand estimation

The basic formula:

Wdn = (P n x C x F ) + Dn

where

Wdn = water demand at the end of year “n”

P n = projected population at the end of year “n”
C = per capita consumption at the end of year “n”
F = service factor at the end of year “n”
Dn = additional demand at the end of year “n”
e.g. to cater for new industrial estate, new
town etc. As a guideline:
light industries : 22000 L/ha/day
heavy industries: 45000 L/ha/day
e.g.
Estimate the water required in year 2010 for
town A. The relevant data is given below.
P = 20,000 people
C = 230 L/person/day
F = 1.0
Da = A 10 hectare heavy industrial area will
be developed. Water demand is assumed
45000 L/ha/day

Wd n = (P n x C x F ) + D a

= (20000 person x 230 L/person/day x 1.0)

+ (45000 L/ha/day x 10 ha)
= 4.6 x 106 + 0.45 x 106
= 5.05 x 106 L/day
 SERVICE FACTOR
• Reflects the potential percentage of
population served
State Urban Rural
1985 1993 2000 1985 2000 2008
Johor 0.92 0.99 0.99 0.61 0.78 0.85
Kedah 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.58 0.92 0.95
Kelantan 0.65 0.82 0.99 0.30 0.50 0.70
Melaka 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.82 0.85 0.95
0.89 0.99 0.99 0.75 0.86 0.95
N.Sembilan 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.65 0.80 0.90
Pahang
Perak 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.75 0.80 0.90
Perlis 0.93 0.99 0.99 0.50 0.93 0.95
P.Pinang 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.85 0.87 0.95
Sabah 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.38 0.55 0.75
Sarawak 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.33 0.40 0.70
Selangor 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.73 0.80 0.90
Terengganu 0.85 0.92 0.99 0.40 0.82 0.95

Malaysia 0.93 0.99 0.99 0.58 0.74 0.86

 POPULATION
PROJECTION
• Methods
- Graph
 POPULATION
PROJECTION
- Zone (for new township)
Housing
e.g. 500 apartments.
Average number per house: Industrial
5 people

Housing
e.g. 500 terrace houses.
Average number per Commercial
house: 5 people
- Geometric progression

P n = Po (1 + r) n

P n = projected population at the

end of year “n”
Po = population at the beginning
of the year zero
r = assumed population growth
rate
n = number of years
e.g
From population census in year
2000, mukim A has a population of
53000 people. If the population
growth rate is 1.27 %, estimate its
population in 2008.

P 2008 = P2000 (1 + 1.27 ) 2008 – 2000

100
= 53000 (1.0127) 8

= 58630 people
 PER CAPITA
CONSUMPTION

Per capita demand (consumption) include

normal commercial & industrial use,
domestic use and accounted–for-water
losses.

As a guideline:
Urban – 230 to 320 liter/head/day
Semi urban – 180 to 230 liter/head/day
Rural – 135 to 180 liter/head/day

Average daily per capita demand

= quantity required daily
population served
e.g.
Calculate the average daily per capita
demand of a town if the daily water
demand is 10 million liter and the
population is 35000.

Average daily per capita demand

= quantity required daily
population
= 10 x 10 6 L/day
35000
= 285.7 L/person/day
 FACTORS AFFECTING
PER CAPITA DEMAND

• Standard of living
• Types of industries
• Climate
• Water quality
• Pressure in distribution system
• Cost of water and metering
• Sewerage system
 WATER
TREATMENT

Aerial View of Sg. Johor Water Treatment Plant

 WATER
TREATMENT
Objectives of water treatment
To bring raw water quality up to
drinking water quality standard –
chemically & bacteriologically safe
for human consumption;
aesthetically acceptable, free from
apparent turbidity, objectionable
taste and other.

Collection of surface water

Water intake - a structure
constructed at a surface water source
to facilitate the conveying of water
to the treatment plant.
 Water intake

Cross section of a weir intake

 Water intake

Direct pumped extraction intake

Collection well intake

 Water intake

gate

Water intake at a reservoir

Water Treatment Processes
 WATER
TREATMENT
Screening
Placed at water intake

Coarse screen
Remove floating /
large objects such as
twigs, leaves that can
foul or damage
equipment.

Fine screen
Remove aquatic plants
/ small plants.
 Grit removal
• Grit - Inorganic particles e.g. sand,
silt > 0.2 mm diameter; specific gravity
of 2.65.

• Characteristics: Abrasive. Cause

problems to machinery e.g. pumps.

• Removed in grit chamber (a channel

with reduced velocity to allow
settlement of particles.)

Grit chamber
 AERATION
Purpose:
ØIncrease oxygen content
ØTo liberate dissolved gases e.g.
CO2 and H2S; reduce
corrosiveness & odour
Ø Provide oxygen for the
oxidization of dissolved iron and
manganese to their insoluble
form

4 Fe 2+ + O2 + 10 H2O --------►
4 Fe (OH)3 (s) + 8 H +
 Types of aerators
• Water- into- air aerators
- Cascade aerators
 Cascade aerators at Rasa Water
Treatment Plant (Sungai Selangor
Water Supply scheme)
 Multiple
platform
aerators

Spray aerators
Air-into-water aerators

Venturi aerator

Draft tube
aerators
 Coagulation &
flocculation
The primary purpose of the
coagulation / flocculation process is
the removal of turbidity from the water
(by agglomerating the colloidal
particles into larger and settleable floc)

Colloidal particles - negatively

charged, stable, repel each other.
Causes turbidity.
Coagulation

• Chemicals are added to destabilize the

colloidal particles so that the tendency to
repel each other is reduced and the
particles can coagulate forming flocs.

• Chemicals are called coagulants.

Coagulants have positive charges.

• Common coagulants:
- Aluminium sulphate (Al2SO4)
- Ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3
- Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)
 Coagulation
Negatively charged particles
repel each other due to
electricity.

Positively charged
coagulants attract to
negatively
charged particles due to
electricity.

Neutrally charged particles

attract due to van der Waal's
forces.

Particles and coagulants join

together into floc.
Coagulation reaction

If alkalinity is present in water,

A12(SO4)3.14H2O + 6 HCO 3 -
2 Al(OH)3 (s) + 6 CO2 + 14 H2O + 3 SO4 2-

(Aluminum hydroxide particles:

jelly- like & positive charge, neutralize negative
charge particles collide & stick together forming
large floc)

Without alkalinity,

Al2 (SO4)3.14H2O
2 Al(OH)3 (s) + H2SO4 + 8 H2O

H2SO4 is neutralize with hydrated lime,

Ca(OH)2
Coagulant aids
e.g. polymers, polyelectrolyte are added to
improve coagulation process.

Lime is added to increase alkalinity

 Selection and optimum dosages of coagulants
are determined experimentally by jar test.
Procedure
1. Six jars is filled with
water (turbidity, ph and
alkalinity have been
predetermined)
2. The jars are dosed with
different amounts of
coagulant.
3. Water is mixed rapidly
for about 1 min to ensure
complete dispersion of
chemical. (Coagulation
takes place)

4. Then mixed slowly for

15 to 20 minutes to aid the
formation of flocs.
Jar test
(Flocculation)

5. The water is allowed to settle ~30 minutes

(Sedimentation)

6. Portions of the settled water are tested to determine the

remaining turbidity.
With the
addition of
coagulants,
small particles
starts to attach
to each other,
forming floc.

Larger particles start to

Most of the
settle. The top portion
particles have
is beginning to clear up
completely settled
out.
Example

From jar test, the optimum dosage of alum is

35 mg/L. Determine the alum requirement if
the plant processes 3000 m3 water daily.

Solution

Alum dosage = 35 mg/L

Treatment plant flow rate = 3000 m3/day
Alum required = 3000 m3 / day x 35 mg/L
= 105 kg/day
 Q5.

The results from jar test shows that 3 mL of

an alum solution (10 g/L concentration) and
1.6 mL lime solution (5 g/L concentration)
result in optimum floc formation. Determine
the daily amount of alum and lime to
coagulate 350 L/sec of water.
3 mL of alum solution

1L
raw water

in 3 mL contains
alum solution
(10 g/L (3 ml /1000 mL) x 10 g = 0.03 g
concentration Alum dosage
in 1 liter
contain 10 g alum) = 0.03 g in 1 Liter of raw water
= 0.03 g/L
 Rapid mixing is required to mix the
chemicals uniformly. Special tanks are
built for this purpose.

Methods

1. Hydraulic mixing: makes use of the

turbulence created due to loss of head
across obstruction to flow. Simple,
reliable. Normally for capacity of plant <
45 MLD.
coagulant

water

coagulant

Baffled plate Overflow weir

 coagulant

Hydraulic jump is formed

creating turbulence

water

Mixing flume
Mechanical mixing
- flash mixer

Mechanical mixer – uses pump to mix

coagulants
Rapid mixing tank. Mechanical mixer is
used to mix coagulants /coagulant aids
Design criteria for mixing

Mixing is directly proportional to the

velocity gradients (G) established in the
water by stirring action.

Velocity Gradient, G

G=ÖP/m" (unit: s-1)

where

P = Power input, W (N.m/s or kg m2/s3)

m = dynamic viscosity (kg/ m.s)
" = volume of tank (m3)

Coagulation (rapid mixing) :

G = 700 – 3000s-1

Flocculation (slow mixing) :

G = 20 – 80 s-1
Q6.

Determine the velocity gradient of a rapid

mixing tank if the input power is 5.7 kW, the
temperature of the water is 30 0C and the
volume of the tank is 8 m3.

Q7.

If the G value is 2000 s-1, what is the input

required?
 Detention time, t

Theoretical time the water is detained in a

basin / tank

t="/Q

where
Q = flow rate , m3/s
" = volume of tank (m3)
l
Q in Q out

h
w
e.g.
Q = 4 m3/s
" = 15 m x 30 m x 4 m
t = (15 x 30 x 4) / 4 = 450 sec. = 7.5 min
Flocculation

Slow / gentle mixing to promote particle

contact leading to formation of large floc.

Flocculation takes place in a flocculation tank.

G = 20 – 80 s –1

Camp Number (G t) = 12000 - 270000

Methods of mixing

• Hydraulic flocculator
- Flow is directed over & around baffles in a
tank

• Mechanical flocculator
Using slowly rotating paddles inside a tank
Hydraulic flocculator
Flow is directed around baffles
Design criteria for baffled tank (Round – the end type)
Detention time, t = 20 - 30 minutes
Velocity of water flowing in channel, v = 0.09 - 0.24 m/sec
Channel
Cross Water inlet
section
area of
channel,
A

Distance between baffle

y > 0.2 m Baffle, thickness: 5 – 8 cm

Distance between b = channel length

baffle and end of
tank, x = 1.5 y
Determination of tank depth, h

Volume of water, " = flow rate, Q x detention time, t

Distance of water traveled = velocity of water x detention time

Cross sectional area of channel, A = Volume of water

Distance of water traveled

Channel depth (h) = Cross sectional area of channel

Distance between baffles

= A > 1.0 m
y
Determination of tank length, L
Channel effective length = channel length - x

No. of channel = Distance of water traveled

Channel effective length

Length of tank = (No. of channel x Distance between baffles) +

(No. of baffles x thickness of baffle)

Determination of tank width, w

w = channel length x no. of set of channel
Power input for hydraulic tank

P=rgQh

where r = density of fluid, kg / m3

g = gravitational constant, m/s2

h = head loss, m

G =ÖP/m"

=ÖrgQh/m"

=Örg h/mt
Mechanical flocculation
 Mechanical flocculation

Rapid mixing tank

Coagulants
Flash mixer

Paddle flocculator

Flocculation tank
 Mechanical flocculator
Design criteria
t = 20 -30 minutes
h water < 5 m
w, number of revolutions of paddle per minute
= 2 -15 rev/min
v p, velocity of paddle tip
(relative velocity between paddles and fluid)
= 0.3- 0.7 m/s
= 75 % from actual velocity of paddle, va
where
va = 2prw
r = distance from shaft to center of paddle

plate L w

vp

Paddle
 Power input, P

P = FD v p

where FD= drag force on paddles, N (i)

Therefore, FD = 1CD A p r v p2 (ii)

2
where
CD = dimensionless coefficient of drag, 1.8 for
flat plates
A = area of paddles, m2
= no. of plates x length of plate x width of
plate

Substituting (ii) into (i)

P =1/2 CD Ap r vp3

G = Ö P/ m "

= Ö 1 CD AP r vp3
2m"
Sedimentation

• Separation of suspended particles by

gravitational settling.
• The process takes place in a tank or basin
called sedimentation tank.
• The principle involved is the reduction of
flow so that particles settle during the
detention time.
• Particles which accumulate at the bottom
of a sedimentation tank are called sludge.

Shape of tank
• Rectangular
• Circular
Type of flow

Horizontal flow

Up flow

Radial flow
A rectangular tank can be divided into four
different functional zones:
• Inlet zone to disperse influent flow and suspended
matter uniformly across the tank.
• A settling zone in which settling takes place.
• An outlet zone in which clarified water is collected
uniformly over the cross section of the tank and
directed to the outlet
• A sludge zone at the bottom (which the settled
solids accumulate and from which they are
withdrawn for disposal.
baffle

Outlet
zone
Inlet zone

Settling zone

Sludge zone
Scraper

Sludge removal
 Inlet and outlet details
Baffle Baffle

Multiple
Openings

Tank
Bottom Multiple Openings

Overflow Inlet Weir Overflow Weir

TYPES OF INLETS FOR SEDIMENTATION TANKS

Outlet Pipe Outlet Pipe

OUTLET DETAILS OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

The design of a sedimentation tank
depends on

• Type of particle / type of

sedimentation
- Type 1 sedimentation (sedimentation of
discrete particle)
Particles which have little or no tendency to
flocculate e.g. sand. No changes in size,
shape and density during settling.

- Type II sedimentation (sedimentation of

flocculent particle)
Particles which agglomerate as they settle
in the tank. Size, velocity and shape
changed.
• Detention time, t
t="/Q
• Settling velocity of particles to
be removed, vs

For discrete particle, Stokes Law is

widely used to determine the settling
velocity of discrete particles. Assuming
particle is spherical and flow is laminar,
settling velocity is

v s = g d 2 (r p - r w)
18 m

where d = diameter of particle

r p = density of particle
r w = density of water
e.g.

Determine the settling velocity of a spherical

particle with a diameter 0.5 mm and s.g. 2.65
settling through water at 20 0C. Assume flow is
laminar.

v s = g d 2 (r p - r w)
18 m
= 9.81 m/s (2650 – 998.2) kg/m3 x (5.0 x 10 -4)2 m2
18 x 1.002 x 10 -3 N.s/m2
= 0.22 m/s

For flocculent particle, the settling properties

are determined by carrying out settling
column analysis.
• Surface overflow rate, vo
surface area, As
vo
vs
v1
sludge out
Up flow tank
Q
vo = Q /As (m3/day)
m2
= ("/t) / As
= (As h/t) / As
vo = h/t
where As = surface area of tank
h = depth of tank

For an upflow tank, in order for a particle to be

removed, vs > vo
 Ideal sedimentation tank.

settled solids

Rectangular sedimentation tank

L w

A s= w L

vh
Q
Ac = w H
An ideal rectangular sedimentation tank illustrating the
settling of discrete particle
A
vh

h vs

B
In order for particle A to settle in the tank, it must
have a settling velocity, vs great enough so that it
reaches point B during the detention time, t.
In other words, settling velocity, vs must equal to the
depth of tank divide by the detention time.
vs = h/t
But t = " / Q
vs = h / (" / Q)
= h Q/ "
= h Q / (w x L x h)
= Q/wxL
= Q / As
= vo
Therefore, in order for a particle to be removed from a
sedimentation tank, vs must be equal to or greater than vo :
vs ³ vo
 Removal of particles in an ideal sedimentation tank
A

vh

h v s = vo

hs
vs
B
1. Particle which enters the settling zone at point A and
has a settling velocity, vs equals to vo will settle at point
B. Its settling time, ts is equivalent to t, the detention
time. This particle will be removed from the tank.
v s = vo ts = t
2. Particles with v s > vo will also be removed regardless
of the height at which it enters the tank. Its settling
time, ts < t , detention time.

3. Particle with v s < vo will be removed if it enters the

tank at a distance from the bottom not greater than h s
where h s = v s t

The proportion of particles with v s < vo which will be

removed is given by
P = v s (100)
vo
Type 1 sedimentation

- Discrete particle (sand, grit material.)

- Application: e.g. grit chamber design.

- Determine the settling velocity, vs of the

particle to be removed in the grit chamber
and set the overflow rate, vo lower than vs.

e.g.
vo = 0.33 to 0.7 x vs

and vo = Q / A s
= h/t
where

vh= 2 – 7 cm/s (to determine Ac )

= Q/ Ac
h = 3.0 – 4.0 m
• Type II sedimentation (sedimentation of
flocculent particles)
Stokes equation cannot be used since the
particle size and velocity will continually
change.

To determine the settling properties of

flocculent particle, a settling column test /
analysis has to be carried out.

Two graphs are obtained from settling

column analysis.

From these graphs, vo and t are obtained

for design purposes.
 Percentage removal of SS versus vo

80 %

70 %
Total percentage removal, RT

60 %

50 %

40 %

30 %

50 100 150 200

vo (m/day)

For 65 % removal of SS in sedimentation tank, v o =

52 m/day.
 Percentage removal of SS versus t
80 %

70 %
Total percentage removal, RT

60 %

50 %

40 %

30 %

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Detention time, h

For 65 % removal of SS in sedimentation tank, t

= 1.25 hour
From graph, vo = 52 m/day and t = 1.25 hr

Apply scale-up factor for design purposes

vo design = vo (obtained from graph) x 0.65

= 52 m/day x 0.65

= 33.8 m/day = 1.41m / hr

t design = t x 1.75
= 1.25 x 1.75
= 2.2 hours

Next, the size of the tank (length, width,

height) is obtained through

vo = Q / A s
= h/t
 Settling column test
sampling port / outlet
H1

H2

H3

H4

H5

Settling column
Height of 2.5 m,
external diameter
of 0.12 m
Sampling
outlets / ports, at
different levels.
Samples are collected, at defined time steps, into
small containers installed in a rotating supporting
device. The concentration of SS of each sample
is evaluated.
Procedure

• Initial concentration of suspended solid, Co is

determined.
• A settling column is filled with suspension to be
analyzed and the suspension is allowed to settle.
• Samples are withdrawn from the sample ports at
selected time intervals.
Depth, m Sampling time (min)
t1 t2 t3 t4

H1 C11 C21 C31 C41

H2 C12 C22 C32 C42
H3 C13 C23 C33 C43
H4 C14 C24 C34 C44

• The concentration of suspended solids is determined

for each sample and the percent removal is
calculated.

R% =1 - Ct (100)
Co
where R % = percent removal at one depth and time
Ct = concentration at time t and given depth,
mg/L
Co = initial concentration, mg/L
Depth, m Sampling time (min)
t1 t2 t3 t4

H1 R%11 R% 21 R% 31 R% 41
H2 R% 12 R% 22 R% 32 R% 42
H3 R% 13 R% 23 R% 33 R% 43
H4 R% 14 R% 24 R% 34 R% 44

• Plot percent removal versus depth. Interpolations are

made between these plotted points to construct
curves of equal concentration at reasonable
percentages, i.e. 5 – 10 %.

• Each intersection point of an isoconcentration line

and the bottom of the column defines an overflow
rate.
vo = H/ti

where H = height of column, m

ti= time defined by intersection of
isoconcentration line and the bottom of column (x –
axis) where the subscript, i, refers to the first,
second, third etc. interception points
• A vertical line is drawn from ti to intersect all the
isoconcentration lines crossing the ti time. The
midpoints between isoconcentration lines define
heights H1, H2, H3, etc. used to calculate the
fraction of solids removed. For each time, ti
defined by the intersection of the isoconcentration
line and the bottom of the column (x-axis), you
can construct a vertical line and calculate the
fraction of solids removed:
RTa = Ra + H1 (Rb – Ra) + H2 (Rc – Rb) +…
H H
where
Rta = total fraction removed for settling
time, ta
Ra,Rb,, Rc = isoconcentration fractions a, b, c ,etc.

• The series of overflow rates and removal fractions

are used to plot curves of suspended solids
removal versus detention time and suspended
solids removal versus overflow rate that can be
used to size the settling tank.

• Eckenfelder recommends that scale-up factors of

0.65 for overflow rate and 1.75 for detention time
be used to design the tank.
 e.g.
Determine the surface overflow rate and detention time
that is able to remove 65 % of suspended solids. Use scale-
up factor of 0.65 for vo and 1.75 for detention time.
The initial concentration of SS is 40 mg/L.

Data
Concentration of SS at specified time and depth
Sampling time (min)
Depth (m) 10 20 30 40 60 90 120
0.5 24 20 18 14 12 11 10
1.0 32 26 22 16 14 12 11

2.0 34 28 24 18 16 15 12

Solution
1. Calculate percentage removal (Percentage passing
each sampling port).
R % = Co - Ct (100)
j)
Co
e.g. at depth of 0.5 m and sampling time 10 minutes,
R % = (40 – 24 ) x 100
40
= 40 %
 Percentage removal of SS at specified time and depth
Sampling time (min)
Depth 10 20 30 40 60 90 120
(m)
0.5 40% 50% 60% 65% 70% 73% 75%
1.0 20% 35% 45% 60% 65% 70% 73%

2.0 15% 30% 40% 55% 60% 63% 70%

2. Plot the isoconcentration lines versus based on

percentage removal.
0

40% 50% 60% 65% 70% 73% 75%

0.5
20% 35% 45% 60% 65% 70% 73%
1.0

1.5
15% 30% 40% 55 % 60% 63% 70%
2.0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120
Sampling time (min)
 0

40% 50% 60% 65% 70% 73% 75%

0.5
20% 35% 45% 60% 65% 70% 73%
1.0

1.5
15% 30% 40% 55 % 60% 63% 70%
2.0
R a = 30 % R b = 40 %

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120
ta tb Sampling time (min)

RTa = Ra + H1 (Rb – Ra) + H2 (Rc – Rb) +…

H H
 0

40% 50% 60% 65% 70% 73% 75%

0.5
20% 35% 45% 60% 65% 70% 73%
1.0

1.5
15% 30% 40% 55 % 60% 63% 70%
2.0
30% 40% 50% 60% 65% 70%

Sampling10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120

time (min) ta tb t c td te tf
Point R T (Total SS removal) t v0 = h/t
(hr) (m/day)
a R T = 30 % + 1.3 (40% – 30%) + 0.6 (50% – 40%) + 20 2.0 m /
2.0 2.0 min 20 min
0.4 (60% – 50%)+0.25 (65% – 60%)+0.2 (70%–65%) = 0.33 = 144
2.0 2.0 2.0 hr m/day
+ 0.15 (75%–70%) = 43 %
2.0
b R T = 40 % + 1.4 (50% – 40%) + 0.65 (60% – 50%) + 30 2.0 m /
2.0 2.0 min 30 min
0.4 (65% – 60%) + 0.30 (70% – 65%) + = 0.5 = 96
2.0 2.0 hr m/day
0.20 (75% – 70%) = 52.5 %
2.0
c R T = 50 % + 1.4 (60% – 50%) + 0.6 (65% – 60%) + 38 2.0 m /
2.0 2.0 min 38 min
0.4 (70% - 65%) + 0.25 (75%- 70%) = 57.3 % = 0.63 = 76
2.0 2.0 hr m/day
d R T = 60 % + …………….. = 68 % 60 2.0 m /
min = 60 min
1 hr = 48
m/day
 Point R T (Total SS removal) t (hr) v0 = h/t
(m/day)
e R T = 65 % + …………….. = 71 % 98 min 2.0 m / 98
= 1.63 hr min
= 29.4
m/day

Percentage removal of SS versus v o and versus t

Overflow rate, vo (m/day)

50 100 150 200

80 %
Total percentage removal, RT

70 %
65 %
60 %
65 % removal =
v o = 50 m/day
50 %
t = 1 hour

40 %

30 %

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

detention time, t (hour)
Apply scale-up factor for design purposes
vo design = vo (obtained from graph) x 0.65
= 50 m/day x 0.65
= 33.8 m/day = 1.41m / hr
t design = t x 1.75
= 1.0 x 1.75
= 1.75 hours

• Design criteria for rectangular

sedimentation tank

vo = 0.85 – 1.5 m3/m2.hour

t = 2 – 4 hours (typical)
L:w = 3:1 to 5:1 (typical 4:1)
h = 3.0 to 5.0 m
 FILTRATION
A process for separating suspended matter
from water by passing it through porous
medium.

Isometric view of a sand gravity filter

Classification of filter
• Type of filter media
sand
- One media
(Sand or anthracite)

- Dual media
Anthracite
(Sand and anthracite)

- Multi media
Garnet
(Sand, anthracite and
garnet)
 Medium
Fine
Sand
800 – 1000 mm

600 – 1000 mm
sand
Diameter :
Diameter
0.55 – 0.95
: 0.25 –
mm
0.35 mm

450 mm
500 mm

100 –
350 –

Gravel Gravel

Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter

450 mm

Coarse Coarse
450 mm

anthracite anthracite
s.g. = 1.5 s.g. = 1.5
mm

Medium Sand
250
200 mm

Fine s.g. = 2.6

sand Fine Garnet
mm
125

s.g. = 2.6 s.g. = 4.0

450 mm
450 mm

100 –
100 –

Gravel Gravel

Dual Media filter Multi Media filter

 Q
w
As = wL
h

L
• Filtration rate, v = Q/As

As = surface area of filter, m 2

- Slow rate (0.15 – 0.2 m3/m2. hour)
- Rapid rate (5 – 10 m3/m2. hour)
- High rate (10 – 15 m3/m2. hour)

• Type of operation
- Gravity filter
- Pressure filter
Rapid sand pressure filter

Dual
media
Pressure
Filter
Types of Sand Filter
• Slow sand filter
• Rapid sand filter

Schmutzdecke
(Biological layer)
Electron photomicrograph of the
complex biological matrix found in
the schumtzdecke

Slow sand filter

 Slow Sand Filter
Schumtzdecke, or biological layer
Slow sand filter

Effective size of sand : 0.25 – 0.35 mm

Depth of filter sand : 800 – 1000 mm
Depth of gravel layer : 350 – 500 mm
Tank depth : 2.5 – 3.0 m
Filtration rate : 0.15 – 0.2 m3/m2.hour
Method of cleaning : Scraping off surface
layer of sand. Replace with new sand.
Length of run between cleaning : 20 to 360
days
Size of unit : large, 50 to 2000 m2
Length: width = 10:9 – 10:6
For low turbidities; not exceeding 30 NTU.
Rapid sand filter
Rapid sand filter
Effective size of sand : 0.55 – 0.95 mm
Depth of filter sand : 600 – 1000 mm
Depth of gravel layer : 100 – 450 mm
Tank depth : 3.0 – 4.0 m
Filtration rate : 5 – 10 m3/m2.hour
Method of cleaning : Backwash (sending air,
air-water or water upwards through the filter
bed by reverse flow)
Length of run between cleaning : 24 to 72
hours
Size of unit : small, 150 m2
Length: width = 10:9 – 10:6
Back wash process
Typical section of a Rapid Gravity filter
Dual media filter

• e.g. anthracite sand.

• More efficient than single media.

• During backwash, the sand (smaller but

heavier) will settle first followed by the
coarser but lighter anthracite.

Anthracite

Sand
 Disinfection

A process of killing microorganisms

which still remains in water after
filtration.
Methods of disinfection

• Chemical methods such as

chlorine, chlorine dioxide. (Most
common)
• Ozone gas (O3) – powerful
disinfectant
• Ultra-violet radiation
• Heat

UV lamp UV water Ozone gas

disinfection unit generator
Chlorine gas
Chlorine
Widely used as disinfectant because:
• It is cheap, readily available (gas, liquid,
powder)
• It is easy to apply (high solubility)
• It leaves residual in solution which
provides protection to pollution in the
distribution system.
• It is very toxic to most micro-organisms.

Reaction of chlorine with water

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl
HOCl H + + OCl –

Chlorine existing in water as hypochlorous

acid and hypochlorite ion is defined as Free
chlorine.
When chlorine is added to water containing
ammonia, the ammonia reacts with HOCl to
form various chloramines.

HOCl + NH3 H2O + NH2Cl

(monochloramine)

HOCl + NH2Cl H2O + NHCl2

(dichloramine)

HOCl + NHCl2 H2O + NCl3

(trichloramine)

Chlorine existing in water in chemical

combination with ammonia or organic nitrogen
is defined as combined chlorine. Combined
chlorine is less powerful than free chlorine.
Vacuum Chlorinator
 Breakpoint chlorination
• The principle of free-residual chlorination is
to add sufficient chlorine to oxidise
ammonia, organic matter, iron, manganese
and other substances in the water.
• At break point, all ammonia has reacted with
chlorine and further addition of chlorine
produces free chlorine.
Breakpoint chlorination

Mole Ratio (C1 2:NH3-N)

Chlorine demand =
amount of chlorine reduced
in chemical reactions
= Chlorine dosage – chlorine
residual

Chlorine Dosage (mg/L)

 Normal practice in Malaysia,
• Free residual chlorine - minimum : 0.1 mg/L
• Contact time - minimum: 10 – 15 minutes
normal > 30 minutes

Recommended Minimum Bactericidal Chlorine

Residuals for Disinfection

pH Minimum Free Minimum Combined

Value Available Chlorine Available Chlorine
Residual after 10-Min Residual after 60-Min
Contact (mg/1) Contact (mg/1)
6.0 0.2 1.0
7.0 0.2 1.5
8.0 0.4 1.8
9.0 0.8 > 3.0
10.0 0.8 > 3.0
Other treatment
Fluoridation – adding fluoride
compounds to water the purpose of
reducing tooth decay.

Softening – to reduce hardness in water.

CaO or Na2CO3 is added to water

Adsorption process using activated

carbon to reduce taste and odour.
Application of activated carbon
to reduce taste and odour
Water distribution system

The objective of a water distribution

system is to supply potable water, at
sufficient pressure and quantity, to the
consumers.

The water distribution system consists of

pipelines, reservoir/storage tank, pumps,
fire hydrant, control valves and meters.
 Types of water distribution
system
- reliable, economical.

Gravity system

- costly

Direct pumped system

- most common

Gravity and pumped combination

Daily water consumption versus time
Storage tank /reservoir
• Flow equalization. (Balance the fluctuations
in demand)
• Provide storage for fire protection.
• Meet emergency demands e.g. pump fails,
maintenance.
• Improve water quality due to storage.
 Types of pipe network

Dead end / tree network

Grid or looped network Ring or circular network