Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jazz is a genre of music that originated in African American communities during the late 19th and early 20th
century. It emerged in many parts of the United States
in the form of independent popular musical styles, all
linked by the common bonds of African American and
European American musical parentage with a performance orientation.[1] Jazz spans a period of over 100
years and encompasses a range of music from ragtime
to the present day, and has proved to be very dicult to dene. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation,
polyrhythms, syncopation and the swung note,[2] as well
as aspects of European harmony, American popular music,[3] the brass band tradition, and African musical elements such as blue notes and ragtime.[1] The birth of
Jazz in the multicultural society of America has led intellectuals from around the world to hail Jazz as one of
Americas original art forms.[4]
1 Denitions
Jazz has proved to be very dicult to dene, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period
of over 100 years, from ragtime to the present day. Attempts have been made to dene jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst
Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its denition should be broader,[7] dening jazz as a form of art
music which originated in the United States through the
confrontation of the Negro with European music[8] and
arguing that it diers from European music in that jazz
has a special relationship to time dened as 'swing'", involves a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in
which improvisation plays a role and contains a sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality
of the performing jazz musician.[7]
As jazz spread around the world, it drew on dierent national, regional, and local musical cultures, giving rise
to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in
the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches,
French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily
arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City
jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and
Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes)
were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s,
shifting jazz from danceable popular music towards a
more challenging musicians music which was played at
faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.
Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing
calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.
The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal
structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop, which introduced inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel music,
and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing.
Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode,
or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock
rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplied
stage sound of rock. In the early 1980s, a commercial
form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering signicant radio airplay. Other styles and
genres abound today, such as Latin jazz and Afro-Cuban
jazz.
A broader denition that encompasses all of the radically dierent eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis
Jackson: it is music that includes qualities such as
swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an
'individual voice', and being open to dierent musical
1
2
possibilities.[9] Krin Gibbard has provided an overview
of the discussion on denitions, arguing that jazz is a
construct that, while articial, still is useful to designate
a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition.[10] In contrast
to the eorts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain
types of jazz, who have argued for narrower denitions
that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are
often reluctant to dene the music they play. As Duke
Ellington, one of jazzs most famous gures, said: Its
all music.[11]
2 ETYMOLOGY
ment the soloist.[14] In avant-garde and free jazz idioms,
the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there
is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of
chords, scales, and rhythmic meters.
1.2 Debates
Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, gouache on cardboard, mounted on Masonite, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
3
West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of which
varied but did not refer to music. The use of the word
in a musical context was documented as early as 1915
in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[17] Its rst documented use
in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November
14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands.[18]
The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the
Twentieth Century.
5 History
Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as
interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the
inuences of West African culture.[24] Its composition
and style have changed many times throughout the years
with each performers personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the
genre.[25]
Race
5.1 Origins
Women in jazz
4.1
In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, AfricanAmericans dance to banjo and percussion.
HISTORY
where in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into
of percussive slave music:
piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus
between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.
Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the years crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North
African rhythmic retention The "Black Codes" outCarolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that
lawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African
included horned headdresses and cow tails and
drumming traditions were not preserved in North Amerheard music provided by a sheepskin-covered
ica, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the
gumbo box, apparently a frame drum; triCaribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were reangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary
tained in the United States in large part through body
percussion. There are quite a few [accounts]
rhythms such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.[31]
from the southeastern states and Louisiana datIn the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what
ing from the period 18201850. Some of the
preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was Afro-Latin
earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from
music, similar to what was played in the Caribbean at
the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming
the time.[32] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban muwas never actively discouraged for very long
sic as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic gure heard in
and homemade drums were used to accompany
many dierent slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as
public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil
the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New OrWar.[28]
leans Congo Square and Gottschalks compositions (for
example Souvenirs From Havana (1859)). Tresillo is
Another inuence came from the harmonic style of the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic
hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the muincorporated into their own music as spirituals.[29] The sic of the African Diaspora.[33][34]
origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can
be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals
are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz was largely
based on concepts of heterophony.[30]
Tresillo.[35][36] Play
In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums,
snare drums and fes, and an original African-American
drum and fe music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic gures.[39] This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms, observed the writer Robert Palmer
(writer), speculating that this tradition must have dated
back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it
could have not have developed in the rst place if there
hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in
the culture it nurtured.[40]
5.2
5.1.2
1890s1910s
Spanish tingethe Afro-Cuban rhythmic mic gure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential
inuence
ingredient of jazz.[52]
African-American music began incorporating AfroCuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when 5.2 1890s1910s
the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international
popularity.[41] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans 5.2.1 Ragtime
would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to
perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the mu- Main article: Ragtime
sically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities
that the musical genre habanera reached the U.S. twenty
years before the rst rag was published.[42] For the more
than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime,
and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.[43]
Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, and
were the rst written music which was rhythmically
based on an African motif (1803),[44] From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm
(also known as congo,[45] tango-congo,[46] or tango.[47] )
can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the
backbeat.[48] The habanera was the rst of many Cuban
music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the
United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of
tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.
Cinquillo. Play
HISTORY
5.2.2
Blues
5.2
1890s1910s
HISTORY
Swing Morton loosened ragtimes rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing
feeling.[75] Swing is the most important and enduring
African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft
quoted denition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: if
you don't feel it, you'll never know it.[76] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing dees analysis;
claims to its presence may inspire arguments. The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description
of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple
subdivisions:[77] swing superimposes six subdivisions of
the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.
This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in AfricanAmerican music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple
and duple-pulse grids.[78]
Morton published Jelly Roll Blues in 1915, the rst jazz work
in print.
New Orleans brass bands are a lasting inuence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz
with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black
children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans
Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then
expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also
credited with the abandonment of ragtimes stiness in
favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any
other musician, codied the rhythmic technique of swing
in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[79]
5.3
5.3
9
too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used
stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers
were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare o bears,
when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story
claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.[92]
From 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and Los
5.3.1 Jazz Age
Angeles, where in 1922 they became the rst black jazz
band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[93][94]
Main article: Jazz Age
That year also saw the rst recording by Bessie Smith,
From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States
the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.[95] Chicago
meanwhile was the main center developing the new "Hot
Jazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.
Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a muchimitated innovator of early jazz.
In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the
time he joined Hendersons band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrongs solos went well
beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to
Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrongs bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded
sti, stodgy, with jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.[96] The following example shows
a short excerpt of the straight melody of Mandy, Make
Up Your Mind by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrongs solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).[97] (The example approximates Armstrongs solo, as it doesn't convey his use of
swing.)
10
popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was based
on a rhetoric of domestication according to which he
had elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoate
kind of music.[99] Other inuential large ensembles included Fletcher Hendersons band, Duke Ellingtons band
(which opened an inuential residency at the Cotton Club
in 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Band in Chicago
(who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928).
All signicantly inuenced the development of big bandstyle swing jazz.[100] By 1930, the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.[101]
HISTORY
5.4
11
Bebop
12
HISTORY
Rhythm Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not while performing Cherokee at Clark Monroes Uptown
danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted House, New York, in early 1942:
to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride
cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass
I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped
drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncochanges that were being used, ... and I kept
pated linear rhythmic complexity.[111]
thinking theres bound to be something else. I
could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it....
I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did,
I found that by using the higher intervals of
a chord as a melody line and backing them
with appropriately related changes, I could play
the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive
Parker.[114]
Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development
in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related
tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art
music as some have suggested:
Auditory inclinations were the African
legacy in [Parkers] life, reconrmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound
world at odds with the Western diatonic
chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated
Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of
the blues as a basis for drawing upon various
African matrices.[115]
Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and
propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:
Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb
06941)
Harmony Bebop musicians employed several har A developed and even more highly syncopated, linmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz,
ear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity
engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based imin which the blue note of the fth degree was estabprovisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an
[112]
lished as an important melodic-harmonic device.
added chromatic passing note;
bebop also uses passing chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New
The reestablishment of the blues as the musics priforms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced
mary organizing and functional principle.[111]
into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or atted fth) interval became the most important interval of bebop[113] As Kubik explained:
Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a
While for an outside observer, the harnew and more complex melody to form new composimonic innovations in bebop would appear to
tions, a practice which was already well-established in
be inspired by experiences in Western seriearlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.
ous music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold
Bebop made use of several relatively common chord proSchoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained
gressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused
by the evidence from a cognitive approach.
with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes (I-VI-II-V) - the
Claude Debussy did have some inuence on
chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm. Late
jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's pibop also moved towards extended forms that represented
ano playing. And it is also true that Duke
a departure from pop and show tunes.
Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harThe harmonic development in bebop is often traced back
monic devices in European contemporary muto a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker
sic. West Coast jazz would run into such debts
5.4
5.4.3
13
City. Tanga began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban
jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[118]
This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave
brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz.
Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled
(binary) structure, which is a complex level of African
cross-rhythm.[119] Within the context of jazz however,
harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and
the harmonic one is always understood to be one. If
the progression begins on the three-side of clave, it is
said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the
two-side, its in 2-3 clave.[120]
Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machitos Afro-Cubans, citing them as the rst band: to
wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original
composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful
manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored
much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept
of clave conterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the
ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to
the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within
the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also
the rst band in the United States to publicly utilize the
term Afro-Cuban as the bands moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of
the musical form they were playing. It forced New York
Citys Latino and African-American communities to deal
with their common West African musical roots in a direct
way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or
not.[121]
14
HISTORY
ting the piece apart from Bauzas modal Tanga of a few heads.
years earlier.
Gillespies collaboration with Pozo brought specic
African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the
boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was
called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic
structures. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section
and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during
solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes
of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be
heard on pre-1980 recordings of Manteca, "A Night in
Tunisia", Tin Tin Deo, and "On Green Dolphin Street".
African cross-rhythm Cuban percussionist Mongo
Santamaria rst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"
in 1959.[123] Afro Blue was the rst jazz standard
built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) crossrhythm, or hemiola.[124] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8,
or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats6:4 (two cells of 3:2).
The following example shows the original ostinato Afro
Blue bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main
beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your
foot to keep time.
When John Coltrane covered Afro Blue in 1963, he
inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a
3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3).
Originally a Bb pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the
harmonic structure of Afro Blue.
5.4
Cool jazz
15
solo was meant to t into a given chord progression, but
with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one, or
a small number of modes. The emphasis is thus shifted
from harmony to melody:[126] Historically, this caused a
seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking
vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),[127] explained pianist Mark Levine.
The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater
jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of
the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the
best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis
earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation,[128] the entire Kind of Blue
album was composed as a series of modal sketches, in
which each performer was given a set of scales that dened the parameters of their improvisation and style.[129]
I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought
in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,[130] recalled Davis.
The track So What has only two chords: D-7 and
E7.[131]
Modal jazz
16
approach was rst developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in
jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles
and genres.
HISTORY
Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and
Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also ourished
because of the emergence of European musicians (such as
John Surman, Zbigniew Namyslowski, Albert Mangelsdor, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) who were
anxious to develop new approaches reecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Ever
since the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz have
developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in
Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer
Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians
started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous
song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whithead
documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some
of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers
A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brtzmann, a key gPool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Throughure in European free jazz
out the 1990s and 2000s, Keith Jarrett has been promiThe rst major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the early nent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalwork of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s, ists .
exponents included Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler,
Pharaoh Sanders and John Coltrane. In developing his
late style, Coltrane was especially inuenced by the disso- 5.5 1960s and 1970s
nance of Aylers trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz
Taylor as leader. Coltrane championed many younger
free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp), and under his
inuence Impulse! Records became a leading free jazz
5.5.1 Latin jazz
record label.
A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the rst
half of 1965 show Coltranes playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like
multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the
altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltranes
sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his
soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with
increasing freedom. The groups evolution can be traced
through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays,
Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing
at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First
5.5
17
Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history,
Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing
jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of
the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians
had emerged who were uent in both salsa dance music
and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and
Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best
represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and
trumpet) and Andy (bass).[136] During 1974-1976 they
were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri
was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated
parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others
led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.
This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[137]
The rst Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their
Chkere-son (1976) introduced a style of Cubanized
bebop-avored horn lines that departed from the more
angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban
popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was
based on Charlie Parkers composition Billies Bounce,
jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn
lines.[138] In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakeres Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion,
their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic
and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy
and complex contemporary form of popular dance music
known as timba.
18
HISTORY
5.5.2
Post-bop
Randy Weston
5.5
19
tonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of
years.[143]
McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale
in his solos,[144] and also used parallel fths and fourths,
which are common harmonies in West Africa.[145]
The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can
be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following
pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's African Queen (1965).[146]
C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.
Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all
three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.[148]
This is a very common progression, used in pieces such
as Miles Davis Tune Up. The following example shows
the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.[149]
20
5.5.5
5
Jazz fusion
HISTORY
jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and
the highly amplied stage sound of rock musicians such
as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses
mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex
chords and harmonies.
According to AllMusic:
...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and
rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its
musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz
world became bored with hard bop and did not
want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two
dierent idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.[152]
Miles Davis new directions In 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In
a Silent Way, which can be considered his rst fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily
by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would
be equally inuential upon the development of ambient
music.
As Davis recalls:
The music I was really listening to in 1968
was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi
Hendrix, and a new group who had just come
out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",
Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it
more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent
Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and
told everyone to play o of that.[153]
5.6
1980s
21
Indian inuences. The ECM record label began in Germany in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett,
Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph
Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman and
Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.
5.6 1980s
By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove),
electried sounds[155] and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws inuences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban It passed in the House of Representatives on September
rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston ban- 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[157]
dleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of
emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. 5.6.1 Resurgence of traditionalism
The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz
resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide
and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk
or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ris and jazz solos,
and sometimes soul vocals.[156]
Early examples are Herbie Hancocks Headhunters band
and Miles Davis On the Corner album, which in 1972
began Davis foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed,
an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.
While there is a discernible rock and funk inuence in
the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and
rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas
and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered
soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the
musique concrte approach that Davis and producer Teo Wynton Marsalis
Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.
The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion
and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter
Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove
5.5.7 Other trends
to create music within what he believed was the tradition,
Jazz continued to expand and change, inuenced by other rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions
types of music such as world music, avant garde classical of the small and large forms initially pioneered by such
music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to impro- artists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as
vise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice the hard bop of the 1950s. Whether Marsalis critical and
Coltrane), the electrically amplied and wah-wah ped- commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the realed jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus action against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of
Harley). Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Or- interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particchestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East ularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop) is debatable; nonetheless
22
HISTORY
Smooth jazz
5.6
1980s
23
5.6.5 M-Base
Main article: M-Base
The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a
loose collective of young African-American musicians in
New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby
and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[166]
sound.
In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more
conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance
with the M-Base concept.[167] Colemans audience decreased, but his music and concepts inuenced many
musicians,[168] both in terms of music technique[169] and
of the musics meaning.[170] Hence, M-Base changed
from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman school,[171]
24
7 NOTES
1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include
Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scoeld and the
Swedish group e.s.t.
6 See also
Timeline of jazz education
Victorian Jazz Archive
7 Notes
Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004
[1] Hennessey, Thomas, From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917-1935. Ph.D. dissertation,
Northwestern University, 1973, pp. 470-473.
[2] Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd edn., Continuum, 2007, pp. 45.
[3] Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford
University Press, 2005, Chapter Two.
5.7
1990s2010s
Since the 1990s jazz has been characterised by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide
range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual
performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in
the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power
trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by
rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A rm avant-garde
or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players,
such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while
others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz
elements into a more traditional framework.
Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and
rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the
[15] Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in
corporate Americas approach to music at the Wayback
Machine (archived July 20, 2001) by Andrew Gilbert,
Metro Times, December 23, 1998.
25
[38] Schuller, Gunther (1968: 19) Early Jazz; Its Roots and
Musical Development. New York: Oxford Press.
[20] Philip Larkin (2004). Jazz Writings. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 94. ISBN 0-8264-7699-6.
[21] Andrew R. L. Cayton, Richard Sisson, Chris Zacher, eds.
(2006). The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia. Indiana University Press. p. 569. ISBN 0-25300349-0.
[22] Murph, John. NPRs Jazz Proles: Women In Jazz, Part
1. www.npr.org. Retrieved 2015-04-24.
[23] Mary Lou Williams: Women in Jazz Festival. www.
kennedy-center.org. Retrieved 2015-04-22.
[39] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.
[40] Palmer (1981: 39).
[41] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black
American styles far more consistently than into white
popular music, despite Latin musics popularity among
whites (Roberts 1979: 41).
[42] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) Latin Jazz. New York:
Schirmer Books.
[43] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) Latin Jazz. New York:
Schirmer Books.
[47] Maulen (1999: 4), Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 09614701-9-4.
[48] Pealosa, David (2010: 42). The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
[49] Sublette, Ned (2008: 125). The World that made New
Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square. Chicago:
Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 1-55652-958-9
[50] Sublette, Ned (2008:125). Cuba and its Music; From the
First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review
Press.
[32] Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). Jazz and the Creole Tradition. Jazz Research I: 99112.
[33] Sublette, Ned (2008: 124, 287). The World that made
New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square.
Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 1-55652-958-9
[34] Pealosa, David (2010: 3846). The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
26
7 NOTES
[59] Sublette, Ned (2008:155). Cuba and its Music; From the
First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review
Press.
[60] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). The Latin Tinge. Oxford
University Press.
[84] Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography. pbs.org. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
[85] Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith (2005). Jazz: The First 100
Years. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 55. ISBN 0-534-628044.
[88] Floyd Levin (1911). Jim Europes 369th Infantry Hellghters Band. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
Jazz.
PBS.
[94] Kid Ory. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 29,
2007.
[78] Greenwood, David Pealosa; Peter; collaborator; editor [101] Schuller (1968: 88)
(2009). The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. p. [102] See lengthy interviews with Hines in [Nairn] Earl Fatha
Hines: see External Links below.
229. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
27
[103] Wynn, edited by Neil A. (2007). Cross the Water Blues: [124] Pealosa, David (2010). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban
African American music in Europe (1st ed.). Jackson,
Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins, p. 26. RedMiss.: University Press of Mississippi. p. 67. ISBN
way, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
9781604735468. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[125] Collier, 1978.
[104] Jackson, Jerey (2002). Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934.. French His- [126] Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After
1958. Da Capo. pp. 110111. ISBN 0-306-80377-1.
torical Studies 25 (1): 149170. doi:10.1215/0016107125-1-149.
[127] Levine, Mark (1995: 30). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher
Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
[105] Ed Lang and his Orchestra. redhotjazz.com. Retrieved
March 28, 2008.
[128] Liner note reprint: Miles Davis Kind of Blue (FLAC
Master Sound Super Bit Mapping)". Stupid and
[106] Crow, Bill (1990). Jazz Anecdotes. New York: Oxford
Contagious. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
University Press.
[107] Tucker 1995, p. 6 writes He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' [129] Palmer, Robert (1997). Kind of Blue (CD)". New York,
NY: Sony Music Entertainment, Inc./Columbia Records.
preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there
|chapter= ignored (help)
were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he
embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn [130] Davis, Miles (1989: 234). The Autobiography. New
'beyond category' as a liberating principle.
York: Touchstone.
[108] Jazz Musicians Duke Ellington. Theory Jazz. Re- [131] After Mark Levine (1995: 29).
trieved July 14, 2009.
[132] Litweiler, John (1984). The Freedom Principle: Jazz After
[109] Gunther Schuller November 14, 1972. Dance, p. 290.
1958. Da Capo. pp. 120123. ISBN 0-306-80377-1.
[110] Dance p. 260.
[111] Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). The Power of Black Mu- [134] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). Jazz Styles: History and
sic: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States.
Analysis, 7th ed.
New York: Oxford University Press.
[135] Tjader, Cal (1959). Monterey Concerts. Prestige CD.
[112] Levine, Mark (1995). The Jazz theory book. Petaluma,
ASIN: B000000ZCY.
Calif.: Sher Music. p. 171. ISBN 1-883217-04-0. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[136] Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed.
Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297298). Salsiology; Afro[113] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book, 1981, p. 15.
Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City.
New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28468-7
[114] Charlie Parker quoted by Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop:
A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic [137] Acosta, Leonardo (2003). Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One
Practices (critical essay), Black Music Research Journal
Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba, p. 59. Washington, D.C.:
22 March. Digital.
Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-147-X
[115] Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop: A Case in Point. The [138] Moore, Kevin (2007) History and Discography of
African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices (critical esIrakere. Timba.com.
say), Black Music Research Journal March 22, Digital.
[139] Yanow, Scott (August 5, 1941). Airto Moreira. AllMu[116] Kubik (2005).
sic. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
[117] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book. 1981, p. 16.
[118] In 1992 Bauza recorded Tanga in the expanded form [141] Palmer, Robert (1982-06-28). Jazz Festival - Jazz Festiof an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of ve movements.
val - A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion - Review. New York
Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra. Messidor CD
Times. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
(1992).
[142] Footprints Miles Smiles (Miles Davis). Columbia CD
[119] Pealosa (2010: 56).
(1967).
[120] Pealosa (2010: 131136).
[121] Bobby Sanabria, posting to the Latinjazz discussion list
(2008). http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/latinjazz/
[122] Fraser, Dizzy Gillespie, with Al (March 1, 1985). To Be
or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie. New York,
N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0306802362.
[123] Afro Blue, Afro Roots (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD [144] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). Jazz Styles: History and
24018-2 (1959).
Analysis, 7th ed.
28
REFERENCES
[145] Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, [166] "... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns
A.M. (1959). Studies in African Music. Oxford Press.
which preserve their danceable character of popular
Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asym[146] After Mark Levin (1995: 235). The Jazz Theory Book.
metries ... (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost,
Sher Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377)
[147] Levine, Mark (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book. [167] Steve Coleman
Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE
[168] Pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as Jazz musician of
the year 2010 by the Jazz Journalists Association) said:
[148] Levine (1989: 127).
Its hard to overstate Steve (Colemans) inuence. Hes
[149] After Mark Levine (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book.
aected more than one generation, as much as anyone
since John Coltrane. ()
[150] Bair, Je (2003: 5). Cyclic Patterns in John Coltranes
Melodic Vocabulary as Inuenced by Nicolas Slonimskys [169] His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his
eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacuThesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analylar have had a profound eect on American jazz. (Ben
sis of Selected Improvisations. PhD Thesis. University
Ratli, )
of North Texas. Web. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:
/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf
[170] Vijay Iyer: Its not just that you can connect the dots by
playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his inuence
[151] Levine, Mark (1995: 205). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher
is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point
Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
of view of what he does and why he does it. ()
[152] Explore: Fusion. AllMusic. Retrieved November 7,
[171] Michael J. West (June 2, 2010). Jazz Articles: Steve
2010.
Coleman: Vital Information. Jazztimes.com. Retrieved
June
5, 2011.
[153] Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) The Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster.
[173] In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that Coleman has quietly inuenced the whole jazz musical world, and is the
next logical step after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane,
and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media
Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was
chosen as Jazz Musician of the Year 2010 by the Jazz
Journalists Association) said: To me, Steve [Coleman]
is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed
an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists.
(Source: Larry Blumenfeld, A Saxophonists Reverberant
Sound, June 11, 2010, The Wall Street Journal) In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship
(a.k.a. Genius Grant) for redening the vocabulary and
vernaculars of contemporary music. (Source: Kristin E.
Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening
jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media Network)
[160] Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of
Smooth Jazz. Digital.library.unt.edu. October 23, 2010.
[174] Chart Beat, Billboard, April 9, 2009
Retrieved November 7, 2010.
[161] Ginell, Richard S. allmusic on Roy Ayers.
sic.com. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
Allmu-
[162] Dave Lang, Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. Access date: November 15, 2008.
[163] Bangs, Lester. Free Jazz / Punk Rock. Musician Magazine, 1979. Access date: July 20, 2008.
[164] ""House Of Zorn, Goblin Archives, at. Sonic.net. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
[165] Progressive Ears Album Reviews. Progressiveears.com.
October 19, 2007. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
8 References
Adorno, Theodor. Prisms, Cambridge, MA: The
MIT Press, 1967.
Allen, William Francis, Charles Pickard Ware, and
Lucy McLim Garrison, eds. 1867. Slave Songs
of the United States. New York: A Simpson &
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at Chapel Hill, 2000.
29
Joachim Ernst Berendt, Gnther Huesmann
(Bearb.): Das Jazzbuch. 7. Auage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, ISBN
3-10-003802-9
Burns, Ken, and Georey C. Ward. 2000. JazzA
History of Americas Music. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc.
Cooke, Mervyn (1999). Jazz. London: Thames and
Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20318-0..
Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in
Britain. 2nd edition. London: Northway. ISBN
978-0-9550908-6-8
Collier, James Lincoln. The Making of Jazz: A
Comprehensive History (Dell Publishing Co., 1978)
Dance, Stanley (1983). The World of Earl Hines.
Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80182-5. Includes a
120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. Delta
Music plc. UPC 4-006408-264637.
Downbeat (2009). The Great Jazz Interviews: Frank
Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books.
ISBN 978-1-4234-6384-9
Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David
Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002. Review. Frankfrter Zeitschrift fr Musikwissenschaft 6:15975.
Gang Starr. 2006. Mass Appeal: The Best of Gang
Starr. CD recording 72435-96708-2-9. New York:
Virgin Records.
Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First
Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-507675-3
Godbolt, Jim. 2005. A History of Jazz in Britain
191950. London: Northway. ISBN 0-9537040-5X
Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz,
fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-182657-3
Hersch, Charles (2009). Subversive Sounds: Race
and the Birth of Jazz in New Orleans. University of
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Kenney, William Howland. 1993. Chicago Jazz: A
Cultural History, 19041930. New York: Oxford
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9 Further reading
30
10
10
External links
EXTERNAL LINKS
31
11
11.1
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b7/DukeEllington_TakeTheATrain.
File:Duke_Ellington_at_the_Hurricane_Club_1943.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Duke_
Ellington_at_the_Hurricane_Club_1943.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Content license