Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MATERIALS
FOR THE
AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
AVIONICS
MODULE NAA09
Synchros and servomechanisms
SECTIONS 1- 4
Flexible Delivery Student Learning Materials for
Apprentice Aircraft Engineers / Mechanics
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Written by Brian Camp
Produced by
The Learning Design Centre
Kangan Institute of TAFE
PO Box 299
Dallas Vic 3047
ii
Contents
Module introduction
vii
vii
vii
References
ix
Glossary
Section 1
Section 2
11
Introduction
12
12
Activity 1
121
Review
122
123
DC synchronous systems
Learning outcome 2
21
Introduction
23
DC synchronous systems
23
27
29
213
214
Section 3
Section 4
iv
Activity 1
215
Review
216
217
AC synchronous systems
Learning outcome 3
31
Introduction
33
AC synchronous systems
33
39
Activity 1
311
325
325
331
Synchrotel
331
Resolver synchro
335
336
Activity 2
345
Review
347
348
Servomechanism systems
Learning outcome 4
41
Introduction
43
Servomechanism
43
43
48
Types of servomechanisms
49
Activity 1
419
Servomechanism systems
420
Causes of hunting
424
Activity 2
425
426
Review
432
433
Module review
Learning outcomes checklist
R1
R1
Answers to activities
Section 3
A1
Section 4
A2
C1
C2
C4
C5
vi
Module introduction
The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the principles and applications of
synchronous indicating devices and the servomechanisms they control.
This module provides the background knowledge required so that a student can,
with further knowledge, meet the National Aerospace Competency Standard listed:
A11, A21 and A25.
Modern day aircraft have numerous systems operating over which pilots need to
maintain some form of control and monitoring. To try and have each of these
systems displayed in the cockpit would require a very large amount of flexible
cabling and mechanical indicating devices.
A synchro system is a remote indicating system, in which the needle of an indicator
moves in synchronism with the device being monitored. Because the needle and
sending device are electrically connected, the indicating system is much lighter, more
efficient and more reliable.
These synchro systems can also be used to control servo systems, which will drive
various aircraft systems.
References
The information provided in these module notes should provide you with enough
knowledge to meet the assessment criteria. If you would like to do some more
reading on these topics or other related topics, here are some suggested learning
resources.
Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics, Airframe Handbook, EA-AC65-15A, Federal Aviation Administration Publications, Washington DC, USA.
Aviation Technician Integrated Training Program, Avionics Fundamentals, EA-AV,
Aviation Maintenance Publishers Technical Publications, USA, 1987.
Aviation Technician Integrated Training Program, Airframe Textbook, EA-ITP-A2,
Aviation Maintenance Publishers Technical Publications, USA, 1992.
Civil Aviation Safety Authority, Civil Aviation Safety Authority - C.A.O. 108.56 and
108.6
Peters, D., Aircraft Maintenance Text 4: Basic Functional Devices and Systems. Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1989.
Pallett, E.H.J., Aircraft Instruments, Third edition, Pitman Publishing, London, 1987.
Pallett, E.H.J., Automatic Flight Control, Second edition, Granada Publishing, 1983.
These books may be available in your local library or TAFE library. Your training
supervisor will be able to assist you to find the appropriate books.
Glossary
Here is a list of terms that you may come across for the first time in your study. This
list is not a complete list, so we have left you some space at the end to add in any
words that you come across which you do not understand.
Accelerometer
Damping
Desynn
Differential
Differential transformer
Error signal
Feedback
Mechanism
Micro sensor
Null
Pendulous monitor
Reference signal
Selsyn
Servo device
Slab sensor
Summing point
Synchronous
Synchronous system
System alignment
Thermistor
Torque
Toroidal resistor
Velodynes
1 Error detection
devices
Learning outcome 1
At the end of this section, you should be able to describe the construction and
operation of error detection devices.
Assessment criteria
You will have achieved the learning outcome when you can:
identify the following error sensing devices:
differential transformers:
LVDT
E and I bar
C and Y
pendulous monitors (accelerometers)
inductive
capacitive
resistive
describe the construction of the error sensing devices listed above
describe the operation of the error sensing devices listed above.
11
Introduction
In the operation of synchro-servo device systems, it is necessary to be able to plot the
changes in positions and forces that take place in the various components making
up the system. To do this, devices which are capable of detecting these changes must
be built into the system, one device being used to detect each item monitored.
In this section you will learn about the construction and operation of the error
detecting devices which make up these systems.
Differential transformers
The differential transformer is similar in design to a standard transformer, in that it
has a primary and secondary winding. However the secondary winding will always
be in two sections, which are connected in series, opposing each other. The position
of a moveable iron core determines the phasing and magnitude of the secondary
output. Figure 1.1 below shows the basic format of a differential transformer.
12
Operation
With the core in the central position, the magnetic field created by the primary will
link evenly with both windings. The EMF induced in each secondary will be of equal
value, but opposite in phase. Figure 1.1 shows the induced EMF of the secondaries.
The nett result will be a zero output from the secondaries.
If the iron core is moved up so that it is linking more closely with secondary A, the
induced EMF in secondary A will exceed the induced EMF in secondary B. The
output will be in the phase relationship of secondary A, with a value equal to the
difference in the two induced EMF and 180 degrees out of phase with the input
voltage. Figure 1.2 shows the output with the iron core linking secondary A.
13
If the iron core is moved down so that it is linking more closely with secondary B as
shown in Figure 1.3, the induced EMF in secondary B will exceed the induced EMF
in secondary A. The output will be in the phase relationship of secondary B, with a
value equal to the difference in the two induced EMF and in phase with the input
voltage.
14
In all the examples above, the value of the output will be governed by the degree of
linking of the iron core between the primary and each secondary winding.
The basic differential transformer we have just looked at, can be made in many
different forms, depending on the method by which the magnetic linkages are
arranged.
15
Movable core
Secondary
Secondary
Primary
Error output
Figure 1.4: The linear variable differential transformer
As the core moves to one side, the magnetic linkage will transfer to that side
increasing the induced EMF on that side and decreasing it on the other side. The
nett output signal will have a linear relationship to the amount of movement of the
iron core.
16
An application of the E and I bar is in an acceleration and side slip sensor. When an
aircraft maintains an attitude change which is less than one which can be sensed by
the gyros, an acceleration sensor can provide an output in a direct relationship to
the attitude change.
An I bar, suspended on springs in the sensing axes, is able to sense acceleration in
that plane.
Under constant velocity, the I bar will maintain its position giving a zero output
from the secondary.
If acceleration or deceleration forces are detected, the I bar will be displaced as a
function of the acceleration forces acting upon it. This will induce an EMF in the
secondary in the way we have already described. This EMF will be a signal, which
will carry details of the displacement.
After application to an amplifier, it will provide power to the relevant servomotor to
correct for the change of attitude. Figure 1.6 shows the E and I bar acceleration
sensor.
17
18
The linking iron core takes the form of a C, which is moveable around the outside of
the windings and is centred on the primary winding. It has the advantage of being
able to be actuated by circular motion. Figure 1.7 below shows the basic form of the
C and Y transformer.
Operation
With the iron core in the central position, the magnetic coupling between the
primary winding and the two opposed secondary windings, will be exactly equal,
hence inducing equal but opposite EMF. The nett output signal from the secondary
will be zero.
Rotation of the iron core in one direction will cause the linkage on the exposed leg to
be reduced and the linkage on the more enclosed leg to be increased. The output
signal will be in phase with the exposed leg and equal to the difference in the values
of the induced EMFs.
Rotation of the iron core in the opposite direction will give exact opposite output to
the one described above. Figure 1.8 shows the outputs obtained from the C and Y
transformer.
19
Inductive sensors
You will remember from NAC06 and NAA07 that if we add an iron core to an
inductance coil, the inductance increases. We can use this characteristic to make a
very effective inductive sensor for linear position sensing applications. The iron core
is connected to the sensed item and the coil connected either into a bridge circuit or
as part of an oscillator circuit. An E and I bar type can be used in this type of
detector.
The output polarity and value of the bridge will then be a measure of the position of
the core.
If the coil is used in an oscillator circuit, the mechanical position of the core
determines the frequency of oscillation. This will be sensed and converted into a
mechanical position signal which can be applied to another circuit or system. Figure
1.10 shows the variable inductance error sensor.
Capacitive sensors
In a capacitor, the distance between the plates directly varies the capacitance. In the
capacitive sensor, one plate of the sensor is connected to the function being sensed.
Like the inductive sensor, the capacitive sensor can be connected into a bridge circuit
or an oscillator circuit. Movement of the plate will vary the capacitive reactance and
give either an output from the bridge or a change in frequency of oscillation, which
is then converted into a measure of the mechanical position of the capacitor plate.
Figure 1.11 shows the capacitive sensor.
Movable plate
Fixed plate
(C)
Resistive sensors
Variable resistors
A variable resistor can be used to detect the position of a particular device. For
example, a flap actuator has a linear movement to extend the flaps. Coupled to that
is a lever which moves the wiper arm of a variable resistor. The output from the
wiper arm is connected to a voltmeter calibrated to read in degrees of flap extension.
Figure 1.12 shows a simple resistive detector circuit.
Circular resistors
To enable a rotary position to be transmitted to a device such as a Desynn system, a
circular resistance network is established. The outputs from the points 1, 2 and 3
when applied to a three coil receiver, will create a magnetic field which will always
be in the same position as the sender wiper arm. Figure 1.13 shows a simple circular
resistive network.
Micro sensors
When the movement available to actuate the sensor is very small, the basic resistive
network can be modified into a device called a micro sensor, which will still give
maximum electrical output with a minimum of mechanical movement of the wiper
arms.
Imagine that two circular resistances, called toroidal resistors are joined up in
parallel, with the wiper arms insulated from each other but linked together, one
wiper arm on each resistor. They will operate as one resistor, with movement of the
wiper arms providing full 360 degrees of sensing. Figure 1.14 shows the theoretical
construction of the micro sensor.
2
3
B
A change of temperature will give an output from the bridge whose polarity and
magnitude is a direct function of the sensed temperature. This output can be then
applied to a differential amplifier for use in driving a servo in another part of the
circuit.
To achieve this, the type and layout of the winding can be designed to achieve the
required output. This will include the use of trimmer resistors connected in different
positions in the circuit and will also be determined by whether the actuation is linear
or circular.
Ways of achieving the required characteristics can be:
winding the resistance wire with uneven spacing over its length
changing the wire size over the length of the resistor
substituting different wire types at intervals along the resistor
designing the shape of the card to match the resistance required
using stepped cards, having a different size or type of wire on each step
in film type resistors, a non uniform film gives the required characteristics
in a square card potentiometer, rotation of the slider gives a sinewave output.
Any of these techniques can be combined to give the required resistance values.
Typical examples of different resistor types are shown in Figure 1.18.
Activity 1
Examine an aircraft available to you for error detectors used for devices such
as flaps, cowl flaps, heater control valves, altitude hold detectors etc. Briefly
describe the type of detectors.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Review
Before you move on to Section 2, work through the Check your progress questions to
see how well you understood Section 1. If there is anything you are not sure of,
revise the relevant work before you begin the next section.
If you would like additional information to help your understanding of any part of
this section, use the reference books listed at the beginning of this module.
When you are satisfied with your progress, move on to Section 2, which covers DC
synchronous systems.
Describe where the output signal from an error detection device can be
used (for example: a/p, flight director).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
10
The easiest way to display the position of a wiper arm from a simple
variable resistive sensor is to apply it to a ____________________________
11
12
When the movement available to actuate a sensor is only very small, the
resistive sensor is modified into a device called a _____________________
_________________________________________________________________
13
2 DC synchronous
systems
Learning outcome 2
At the end of this section, you should be able to describe the operation of DC
synchronous systems and test them for serviceability.
Assessment criteria
You will have achieved the learning outcome when you can
identify the different DC synchronous systems:
Selsyn:
two coil
three coil
Desynn:
slab
micro
describe the operation of the Selsyn synchronous system:
two coil
three coil
limitations
describe the operation of the Desynn synchronous system:
slab
micro
limitations
...............................................................................
21
22
Introduction
The pilot of an aircraft needs to know what is happening in the services of the
aircraft during flight. Unfortunately it is often difficult to get that information
because the items are located away from the cockpit. For example, flap positions are
critical to safe flight and automatic flight controls interact with their controlling
computers. This type of information and numerous other physical quantities have to
be continually monitored for the systems to work correctly.
A direct mechanical linkage, such as flexible drive, between the component and its
indicator or computer have been used in the past, but in todays modern aircraft,
long runs of flexible drives are no longer used because they are:
inaccurate
inefficient
costly to install and maintain
cause a weight penalty.
This can be done much more efficiently by electrical remote indicating systems
usually called data transmission systems.
In the electrical remote indicating systems, the movements of an input shaft are
converted into a suitable electrical signal by one of the error detectors described in
Section 1.
There are two main methods of transmitting data, the first by using an DC powered
system, the second by using an AC powered system. In this section we will be
looking at the DC powered system.
DC synchronous systems
In any synchronous system, the alignment of the input shaft is converted into an
electrical signal, which can be transmitted to a receiver, where an indicator device
will be moved to directly mirror the position of the input shaft.
DC systems have largely been superseded by AC systems, however many light
aircraft and older aircraft still use them. A study of them is included here because an
understanding of the simple DC systems will make understanding the AC systems
much simpler.
General
The term Selsyn is a contraction of self synchronous, and relates to many of the
remote indicating systems which are used to transmit system information from
remote areas of the aircraft to the cockpit instruments.
23
Trade names such as Selsyn and Desynn are commonly used to identify DC self
synchronous systems. We will look at these in the following texts.
Selsyn systems
Two coil Selsyn
This system like most remote indicating systems consists of three main parts. These
are:
the indicator
transmitter
interconnecting wiring.
An example is shown in Figure 2.1 below.
Indicator
The indicator consists of a laminated iron core which has a small air gap cut
through its circumference to establish a high reluctance path to the magnetic field.
Two field coils are mounted on the core 120 degrees apart and 120 degrees from the
air gap. The moving element is a small permanent magnet rotor to which the pointer
is fitted. The rotor is surrounded by a non ferrous damping ring that assists in
providing a smooth operation.
Transmitter
The transmitter is a circular resistance strip over which a wiper moves under the
control of the medium being measured. This motion varies the voltage that is applied
to the junction of the two coils of the indicator to control the level of current that
flows in each coil, that is, establishes a ratio of currents between the coils that is
dependant upon the wiper arm position.
As the applied system voltage is fed to both the transmitter resistance and the
indicator coils which are connected in series, minor variations of supply voltage will
have little or no effect.
24
Open circuit in
winding here
Airgap
Damping ring
Pointer
Movable wiper
Transmitter
Indicator
25
The wiper brush unit is moved by the medium being measured and the power
supply from the aircraft bus-bar is positioned around the resistance as it moves. The
positive is connected to one brush, and negative to the other brush.
+
Rotatable
magnetised
core
Resistor with taps
equally spaced
Unlimited rotation transmitter
Indicating element
26
Open
circuit
in
winding
Movable
wiper arm
Damping
ring
Laminated
iron core
Air gap
Power supply
Transmitter
Indicator
As the wiper arm moves across the transmitter resistance, the resultant magnetic
field of the indicator, which mirrors the transmitter position, shifts from a point 60
degrees on one side of the air gap to 60 degrees on the other side of the gap.
The field movement pulls the rotor magnet with it to change the pointer position.
Wherever the wiper arm moves to, the magnetic field will follow.
The function of the air gap in the laminated iron core is to prevent the magnetic field
going around the core when only one coil is carrying current. When only one coil is
magnetised the high reluctance path causes some of the field flux to travel across the
ring.
27
Factors affecting the accuracy of the Selsyn type indicating system are:
spacing of the turns on the transmitter resistance element
resistance matching of the indicator coils
positioning of the coils on the laminated core.
This in turn varies the value of current that flows in the indicator coils.
The magnetic field that is created in each coil, establishes a resultant magnetic field
that exactly mirrors the transmitter wiper arm position and attracts the indicator
rotor to that position, moving the pointer across the indicator scale.
Therefore the pointer position is dependant upon brush position which is in turn
controlled by the variation in the measured medium.
Limitations
With all Selsyn systems the pointer is capable of following the transmitter wiper
brush position through 360 degrees, although in practice the indicator scale is
limited to 180 degrees or 300 degrees depending upon the application.
28
When measuring pressures, the pressure sensing device will be chosen to suit the
pressure range required.
Because both transmitter resistors and indicator coils are powered from a single
source, minor voltage variations do not cause any significant errors.
Operation
The movement of the transmitter arm causes the wiper contacts, which are
insulated from each other, to create different potentials at the transmitter tappings.
This in turn will cause current to flow to the indicator coils, setting up magnetic
fields.
These fields are dependant upon transmitter arm position and will attract the
indicator rotor resulting in a change in pointer position to correspond to the new
transmitter arm position.
Supply voltage to this system is not critical because position of the magnetic field in
the indicator is controlled by the relative strengths of the three line currents in the
stator coils.
29
Construction
The transmitter resistance element consists of a slab former over which the wire is
wound. One side of the slab is convex and it is over this surface that the contacts are
positioned and moved by the medium being measured.
The contacts are mounted upon a spindle and are spaced 120 degrees apart.
Electrical connections are made via slip-rings to the indicator stator coil windings.
Operation
The operation of the slab system is such that the output taken from the pickoffs can
produce waveshapes similar to a three phase wave, which can be stopped at any
point.
The voltages picked up from the slab are transmitted to the indicator stator coils.
The resultant current that flows in the stator coils, sets up a magnetic field which
controls the position of the permanent magnet rotor of the indicator.
The pointer, which is positioned on magnetic rotor shaft, provides an indication of the pressure
being sensed.
N
S
+
24v DC
supply
Slip rings
N
S
Indicator
Transmitter
Micro Desynn
This type of transmitter was briefly described in Section 1. It is different to the
normal position type transmitter, in that it must be able to measure small linear
movements and because of this its construction is quite different.
However the principle of operation is the same and the indicator used is the same
type as the basic Desynn uses.
The transmitter is constructed from two cylindrical bobbins of resistance wire that
are parallel to each other. The bobbins are tapped and electrically connected
together to produce an output that is the same as the toroid.
The arrangement is developed from the basic circular Desynn system shown in
Figure 2.5 above.
For the micro sensor, imagine that two concentric toroidal resistances have been cut
at a point and laid out with the ends joined and three tappings made as before. It
will be seen from Figure 2.8, that movement of the brushes is limited or one or the
other brush would run off the resistance wire.
The second resistance, provided with corresponding tapping points for each brush,
will also have the movement limited to half the length of the resistance.
However if the tappings of the second resistance are repositioned so as to allow the
brushes to be linked together, but still 180 degrees apart electrically, the arrangement
as shown Figure 2.9 will be obtained.
2
3
+
B
-
Linear actuation
The brushes can now be moved together over the whole range of the resistance and
such movement will correspond to one revolution of the contacts of a toroidal
transmitter, resulting in 360 degrees of indicator pointer movement.
The mechanical part of the transmitter consists of a bellows mounted in a housing
which is connected to the source of pressure. Movement of the bellows under the
influence of the pressure, is transmitted to the brushes by means of a push rod.
Limitations
The limitations which applied to Selsyn systems a few pages back will also apply to
Desynn systems
The equipment manufacturers documentation will give you all the technical data
needed to carry out voltage and resistance checks on any synchro device. This must
always be referred to when testing or trouble shooting, do not rely on your memory
or that little black book.
When a fault occurs, test for output voltages and coil resistances as per the
handbook. Once the faulty component has been identified, replace it with a
serviceable item and re-test.
Activity 1
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Review
Before you move on to Section 3, work through the Check your progress questions to
see how well you understood Section 2. If there is anything you are not sure of,
revise the relevant work before you begin the next section.
If you would like additional information to help your understanding of any part of
this section, use the reference books listed at the beginning of this module.
When you are satisfied with your progress, move on to Section 3, which covers AC
synchronous systems.
If the supply voltage to a 28 volt two coil Selsyn system drops to 24 volt
when the aircraft is operating on batteries, what effect will this have on
the operating characteristics of the system?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
True or false? The field coils of a two coil Selsyn are mounted 60 degrees
either side of the air gap in the iron core.
Give reasons for your answer.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
True or false? A transmitter with closely packed fine resistance wire will
be more accurate than one with larger more loosely packed turns.
Give reasons for your answer.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
True or false? The indicator of the three coil Selsyn is restricted to 180
degrees of movement.
Give reasons for your answer.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Explain what will happen to the indicator of a three coil Selsyn when
power is removed.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Describe the differences between the basic Selsyn and Desynn systems.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Draw and describe the rotor and pointer used for the slab Desynn
indicator.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
9
3 AC synchronous
systems
Learning outcome 3
At the end of this section, you should be able to describe the operation of AC
synchronous systems and test them for serviceability.
Assessment criteria
You will have achieved this learning outcome when you can:
identify the basic AC synchronous systems:
autosyn
magnesyn
ratiometer
describe the operation of a torque synchro system:
synchro transmitter (TX)
synchro receiver (TR)
differential transmitter (TDX)
symbols
purpose
null point
31
32
Introduction
With the advent of high speed aircraft, it was necessary to introduce systems of data
transmission which are fast and accurate. These systems are known as AC synchro
data transmission systems, and consist of AC synchronous systems, torque
transmission systems and control transformer systems.
AC synchronous systems
Autosyn
This system uses 26 V AC 400 HZ power from the aircrafts instrument power
supplies. The term Selsyn is often used to describe this self synchronous system,
which can be used to measure and indicate such things as fuel flow, oil pressure,
and flap position. The name autosyn is derived from automatic synchronism.
The units are of similar construction, the transmitter and indicator being variable
transformers, the rotors being the primaries and the stators being secondaries. They
are connected in parallel. Figure 3.1 shows the connections of an autosyn.
Operation
In this system the transmitter has its rotor physically positioned by the medium to be
measured, whilst the rotor of the indicator moves because of magnetic action. When
power is applied, the current in the rotors sets up an alternating flux that induces a
voltage into the stators. The position of the rotors determines the value of voltage
induced into each segment of the stators.
Whenever two rotors have the same physical position, both stators will have the
same voltages induced into their corresponding segments, and since they are
connected in parallel, no potential difference exists, and no current will flow
between the units. This position is called the in correspondence condition and no
pointer movement will take place.
When the two rotors do not have the same physical position, the voltages induced
into the stators will not be the same. This will now cause a potential difference to
exist and current will flow through the connecting wiring. The current flow will
create a motor action that moves the indicator rotor until both rotors are again
aligned. Whenever the two rotors are out of alignment, their voltages differ, and
they are said to be out of correspondence.
33
Summary
From the above, we find that as the transmitter rotor is moved due to a change in
the value of the medium being measured, the stator voltages would not be the same
in both the transmitter and indicator. This causes the out of correspondence
condition to occur, and the current that flows sets up a magnetic action within the
indicator stator. This interacts with the rotor field causing the indicator to turn until
the in correspondence condition occurs.
The main disadvantage of this system is that the pointer will remain on scale when
the power fails, which could give the crew misleading information about the system
being monitored. Many of these systems incorporate a power off flag to alert the
crew to a power failure situation.
Magnesyn
This system makes use of 26 V AC 400 HZ single phase AC power from the
aircrafts supply. It can be used wherever a mechanical movement is available. The
system consists of a transmitter and indicator connected electrically and is more
compact, lighter, and simpler than an autosyn.
The transmitter consists of the mechanical actuating mechanism and the transmitter,
which can be either a rotary type or a linear type. The theory of operation is the
same for both, and the rotary type is described here.
34
The rotor is a permanent magnet attached to, and positioned by, the actuating shaft.
The stator consists of a circular laminated core, upon which is wound the excitation
coil, and a tapping is made at each 120 degrees on the coil away from the input.
Outer laminations within the housing encircle the outside of the stator, and provide
a return path for the magnetic flux.
The indicator is of the same construction, except that the rotor is attached to a
pointer which indicates the medium which is being measured.
Operation
When the permanent magnet rotor is placed inside the ring or stator of soft iron, the
flux lines will establish a flux within the ring. If a coil is wound around the ring and
connected to an AC supply, the ring will become magnetically saturated twice each
cycle when the current reaches its peak. The rotor flux is forced out of the ring
because the ring now has a higher reluctance than the air surrounding the rotor.
When the excitation current is at zero, the rotor flux cuts across the excitation coil
inducing an EMF, this is generated in all three sections of the stator windings. The
amount and phase of the EMF in each section is dependent on the position of the
permanent magnet rotor.
When the indicator rotor corresponds with the transmitter rotor, identical changes
to the EMFs will take place to their respective stators. There will be no difference in
potential at each tapping, and therefore no current flow.
Figure 3.2 shows the layout of a magnesyn system.
When the mechanical mechanism moves the transmitter rotor, the EMF will differ in
the stator windings creating a difference in potential, and current will flow in the
interconnecting wires. As the transmitter is mechanically held, the receiver rotor will
turn to align itself with the transmitter rotor thus moving the pointer around the
scale.
35
36
Ratiometer
In this system, the measurement of pressure is obtained by measuring the ratio of
two alternating values of current. A pressure sensitive element (bellows) causes the
linear movement of two armatures, positioned inside two stator coils in such a way,
that an increase of current is produced in one stator, and a decrease of current in the
other. A small change of inductance at the stators, results in a relatively large ratio
of current between the stator coils which is measured on an AC ratiometer.
Operation
The circuit is arranged in such a way that when the transmitter and indicator are
connected together they form an AC bridge. Any change in pressure will cause the
bellows to move the armature cores within their stators, which will result in a
change of inductance in the stator coils. This, in turn produces a differential change
of current in the coils of the electro magnetic elements of the indicator.
The current flowing in these coils produce an alternating flux in the cores on which
they are wound. The shading ring on each core causes the flux in that section to lag
behind the main field flux thus producing a sweeping flux action across the pole
faces. This will produce a torque into the cam shaped discs due to the interaction of
the sweeping flux and the eddy currents induced into the discs.
The turning motion is such that the disc moves to reduce the effective radius in the
air gap. When the effective radius is reduced, the disc impedance increases, thus
reducing the torque. Conversely, an increase in radius creates an increase in torque
because of a decrease in impedance through the disc.
When a change in position of the transmitter armature causes an increase in current
at one arm of the bridge and a decrease in the other, the moving element rotates in a
direction determined by the coil having the increased current. The movement of the
indicating element is designed so that the torques produced in both coils are in
opposition, and therefore as the element rotates, the torque that produces rotation is
decreasing while the opposing torque is increasing.
This will mean that rotation will stop when the torques are balanced. Figure 3.3 is a
schematic of ratio system.
Two capacitors are included in the circuit to reduce the effect of changes in phase
displacement of the induced currents, brought about by an increase in frequency,
and the impedence of the discs. These changes will cause an increase in the ratio of
the currents in the bridge. Errors resulting from changes in temperature in the
laminated iron cores are reduced by means of a high temperature coefficient
resistance connected across the bridge.
37
26 V AC 400 Hz
Lamination &
bobbin assy
Cam - shaped
discs
Stator
Damping
magnet &
disk
Armature
Bellows
Transmitter
Indicator
Indicator
26 V
400 Hz
Transmitter
38
Resultant
stator
field
S2
S2
Torque
receiver
R1
115 V AC
R2
Rotor
field
S3
S1
S3
S1
39
Activity 1
If we turn the TX rotor 30 degrees clockwise, its magnetic field will be at an angle of
30 degrees with a line through the axis of S2. The stator magnetic field must oppose
the rotor magnetic field and therefore the stator field will rotate 30 degrees until it
opposes the rotor field. The currents flowing in the TR stator are equal but opposite
and will oppose the TX stator field and line up with the TX rotor field as shown in
Figure 3.6. It can be said that whatever angle the TX rotor takes up, the TR stator
field will align itself in the same direction.
Up until now we have only looked at the system without the TR rotor, if we now
include the TR rotor we can see what the results will be. The TR rotor and the TX
rotor are now connected in parallel, creating magnetic fields in both rotors which
are in phase, therefore their fields will always be in the same direction. If the TX
rotor is turned 30 degrees clockwise, the stator field of the TR will follow it and
move 30 degrees away from its rotor field.
The two magnetic fields in the TR will be out of line, and an attraction will exist
between the two. This will cause the TR rotor to turn and bring the two fields into
line Figure 3.7 shows the two rotors now in line.
DT
S2
S2
R1
TR
S2
R1
R2
R2
R2
S3
S1
S3
R3
R1
S1
S3
S1
If both the torque transmitter and the differential synchro rotors are at zero degrees,
the rotor of the torque receiver will also be at zero degrees. The magnetic field in the
rotor of the DT is parallel to the R2 winding, the magnetic field in the stator of the TR
will be parallel to the S2 winding. The rotor of TR will be attracted to the magnetic
field of its stator and will line up with it.
The rotor of TR is on 0 degrees, its rotor field is also at 0 degrees. The magnetic field
of the TR stator will line up with the rotor field, but will oppose it. As the stators of
TR and DT are connected in series, the resulting magnetic field in the DT stator will
be parallel to the magnetic field in the TR stator, but will be in the opposite direction.
The magnetic field in the DT stator will induce a voltage in the DT rotor. The
resulting rotor field will line up with the stator field but will be in the opposite
direction.
We will now determine the angular position of the DT rotor field relative to the R2
winding. This field as shown in Figure 3.9 will be positioned 180 degrees in relation
to the R 2 winding.
We can now tell the position of the TR stator field in relation to its S2 winding. This
is because the DT rotor and the TR stator are connected in series, so that the two
fields are parallel but have opposite directions. When the DT rotor field is positioned
at 180 degrees, the TR stator field will be positioned at 0 degrees. The TR rotor will
position itself at 0 degrees as shown in Figure 3.9.
In Figure 3.11 the TDX rotor is held at 45 degrees and the TX rotor is turned to 45
degrees the TR rotor will turn back from -45 degrees to 0 degrees. The 45 degrees
signal from the TX has cancelled the signal from the TDX.
In Figure 3.12 the TDX stator field is at a 45 degrees angle with respect to the S2 axis
due to the 45 degrees clockwise shift of the TX rotor. The TDX rotor field is parallel
to the R2 winding. The field of the TR stator must be parallel to its S2 winding. The
TR rotor will line up with its stator field turning back from -45 degrees to 0 degrees.
Addition
Figure 3.13 shows the same set up as used for subtraction in Figure 3.10, except that
both input and output the leads of the TDX are changed. This will mean that the
shaft of the TR will revolve to a position whose angle will be equal to the angles
travelled by the shafts of the TX and TDX. If the rotor of the TDX is held at 40
degrees clockwise, and the rotor of the TX is turned from -45 degrees through an
angle of 90 degrees to a final position of 45 degrees clockwise, the rotor of the TR
will turn from -5 degrees to a position of 85 degrees clockwise as shown in Figure
3.14.
When the TX rotor is turned through 90 degrees clockwise, the stator field of the
TDX moves anti-clockwise, through the same angle. As the TDX rotor remains at 40
degrees clockwise from S2 the TDX stator and rotor fields act along a line 85 degrees
to the left of the R 2 winding of the rotor as shown in Figure 3.15.
The stator field of the torque receiver, now acts along a line 85 degrees to the right of
the S2 winding and the TR rotor turns 85 degrees clockwise to align itself with this
field.
Symbols
Synchro transmitters and receivers are virtually the same, and so the schematic
symbols for them are the same.
Figure 3.16 shows three examples of the way in which synchros are drawn, (a) is
the most commonly used, (b) is usually used when the operation is explained, and
(c) is usually on wiring diagrams.
Unfortunately there are two standards used - one British and the other American.
S1
R1
R2
S3
S2
S2
R1
R2
S3
S1
The differential synchro is shown in a similar fashion, and Figure 3.19 shows the
three ways in which it is drawn.
Purpose
The use of synchros in position sensing and data transmission, is very common in
aircraft, especially in automatic pilot systems. It is a fast accurate method of
transmission and control, and provides an accuracy of approximately 0.5%.
The synchro is essentially a rotary transformer whose secondary output voltage
depends upon the primary input voltage, and upon the position of the rotor. The
simplest system consists of two synchros connected together electrically, one is called
a transmitter, the other a receiver. The purpose of the receiver is to take up the same
position as the transmitter.
Null point
If the transmitter and receiver rotor position are identical the rotor fields produced
are identical both in magnitude and direction.
The voltages induced in the corresponding stator coils will be equal in both
magnitude and phase, and zero current will flow through the stator coils. No
current flow, no stator field produced, no torque developed, null point.
Control transformer
S2
S2
R1
115v
400 Hz
R1
R2
R2
Voltage
output
S1
S3
S3
S1
In this situation the magnetic field created by the current in the transmitter rotor
winding gives rise to magnetic fields in the two stators, the axis of these fields being
in line with the axis of the S2 winding of each stator.
Rotating the transmitter rotor in either direction from the electrical zero position will
produce a corresponding angular movement of the axis of the magnetic field of both
stators. The axis of the transformer rotor winding and the axis of the transformer
stator magnetic field are no longer at right angles to each other. The flux of the
stator field begins to induce an EMF within the turns of the rotor winding.
The magnetic field of the stator induces an EMF in the rotor winding, the amplitude
of which will increase as the transmitter rotor is moved further away from the
electrical zero position. When the transmitter rotor has travelled through 90 degrees
from electrical zero, the axis of the transformer rotor winding and the axis of the
transformer stator field are parallel.
At this point maximum flux transfer is achieved and so maximum EMF is induced in
the rotor winding.
Control transformer
Transmitter
rotated 90
S2
S2
Reference
supply
R1
R2
S3
R1
R2
90
S1
Rotor field
Maximum
output
volts
S3
S1
The amplitude of the control transformer output voltage is relative to the angular
displacement of the CX rotor from the datum position. The output amplitude is zero
when the CX rotor is rotated from the datum position and increases to a maximum
as the CX rotor is moved through 90 degrees in either direction. It is either in phase
or in complete anti phase with the reference voltage applied to the CX rotor
winding.
This is according to whether the displacement of the CX rotor from the datum
position is clockwise or anti clockwise. The CT output senses the CX rotor
displacement, and as the output is a simple voltage, it can be applied to a power
amplifier whose output can be used to drive a heavy mechanism. Figure 3.22 shows
the rotor in the clockwise and anticlockwise position.
Differential
synchro transmitter
Synchro
transmitter
(a)
R1
R2
Synchro
receiver
S1
S1
R1
S1
S2
S2
R2
S2
S3
S3
R3
S3
45 clockwise
R1
R2
30 clockwise
15 clockwise
Difference clockwise
(b)
R1
R2
S1
S1
R1
S1
S2
S2
R2
S2
S3
S3
R3
S3
45 clockwise
R1
R2
30 clockwise
15 clockwise
Sum clockwise
(c)
R1
R2
S1
S1
R1
S1
S2
S2
R2
S2
S3
S3
R3
S3
45 clockwise
R1
R2
60 anticlockwise
15 clockwise
Sum anticlockwise
(d)
R1
R2
S1
S1
R1
S1
S2
S2
R2
S2
S3
S3
R3
S3
45 clockwise
R1
R2
30 anticlockwise
15 clockwise
Difference anticlockwise
Figure 3.23: Control synchro wiring
Symbols
Figure 3.24 shows the usual symbols for representing a differential synchro.
S2
R2
R1
S3
S1
R1
S2
R2
S3
R3
S1
R3
Figure 3.24: Differential synchro symbols
Purpose
These units can be used to compensate for errors in various parts of a system, or to
add information, and are found in navigation and radar systems.
Null point
For any synchro to be accurate, it is important for the unit to be electrically zeroed.
To be in the zero position, the voltage between S1 and S3 must be zero, and the phase
of the voltage at S2 must be the same as the phase at R1.
Synchrotel
Stator
A normal 3 phase synchro stator is used, but the rotor is in 3 separate parts.
Rotor
The rotor consists of a hollow aluminium cylinder, a fixed single phase rotor
winding, and a cylindrical core which the rotor revolves around. The rotor shaft is
supported in bearings and is connected to pressure sensing bellows, as shown in
Figure 3.25.
The rotor of the sychro transmitter is energised by a 26 V 400 Hz single phase
supply which will induce voltages into the transmitter stator. As this stator is
connected to the synchrotel stator then a resultant radial alternating flux is
established across it. When a pressure is applied to the sensing bellows, the
synchrotel rotor will turn and due to its oblique shape, parts of it will be cut by the
radial flux of the stator current. This will produce currents in the rotor winding,
which is electrically connected to a synchro control transmitter, whose rotor will
then follow the synchrotel rotor.
As the synchrotel rotor is pivoted around the core cylinder, a flux axis will be
created in the core. Because the rotor winding is also fixed around the core, the core
flux will induce an alternating voltage in the winding. The positions of the rotor and
stator flux will determine the amplitude and phase of the output voltage.
The synchro control transmitter output is supplied to an amplifier and then to the
control phase of a two phase servo motor, which will drive the synchro transmitter
rotor around until there is no voltage induced in the rotor winding. In other words
to the null position, which corresponds to the measured pressure.
Purpose
The synchrotel acts as a servo loop system and is usually used as a low torque control
transformer or transmitter.
Null point
The null point is achieved when there is no output from the rotor winding.
Cartesian coordinates
A set of numbers which locate a point in space with respect to a collection of mutually
perpendicular axes. In Figure 3.26 the cartesian coordinates of point P are X = 8, Y = 6
and are written 8, 6.
These figures are obtained by drawing lines at right angles to the X and Y axes to meet
at point P. The intersection of the lines on the axes are known as the cartesian
coordinates.
Y
7
P
6
5
4
r
3
2
1
0
1
Polar coordinates
A point in a plane may be represented by coordinates r where is the angle between
the positive X axis and a line from the origin to the point and r the length of that line.
In Figure 3.27 the polar coordinates of point P are determined by drawing a straight
line from zero of the X and Y axes to point P, the length of this line (r) is one
coordinate, and the angle between line r and the X axis is the other. The polar
coordinates of P are r, angle q.
With the use of trigonometry we can convert polar coordinates to cartesian
coordinates the value of the Y axis can be determined by the equation:
sin q =
Y = r sin q.
The value of Y for any point P will vary as the sine of the angle q.
By using the same method to determine the value of the X axis:
cos q =
X = r cos q.
The value of X will vary as the cosine of the angle q.
Sine angles
When the polar coordinates of a point and the slant range are known, the vertical
component or Y cartesian coordinate can be found from the formula Y = r Sin q.
Cosine angles
When the polar coordinates of a point and the slant range are known, the
horizontal component or X cartesian coordinate can be found from the formula Y =
r Cos q.
Resolver synchro
The resolver syncro from the outside looks like any other synchro, but internally it is
very different. It has two rotor windings mounted on the one rotor, and has two
stator windings.
The two rotor windings are wound 90 degrees apart, as are the stator windings. The
synchro resolver is a rotating transformer, where either the stator or the rotor is acting
as the primary. This is dependent on which one is receiving the input signal. The
output from the secondary winding of a rotating transformer is proportional to the
angular displacement between primary and secondary windings, provided they have
equal amount of turns. The ratio of the windings is 1:1 Figure 3.27 shows the
relationship of the rotor and stator windings.
If the rotor is turned at a constant speed, the voltage across S1/S2 will fall to zero after
the rotor has turned 90 degrees. The voltage is in phase with the voltage applied to R 1
to R2 during the first 90 degrees of displacement, and anti-phase from 90 degrees to
270 degrees, and then back to in-phase from 270 degrees to 360 degrees. It is the
measure of the cosine of the displacement.
At electrical zero, the windings S 3/S4 will have zero voltage induced, but at 90
degrees displacement of rotor winding R1/R 2 maximum in phase voltage will be
induced and will vary sinusoidally throughout 360 degrees. The S3/S4 voltage is
directly proportional to the sine of the rotor displacement.
The phase depends on the angle of displacement of the rotor, the angle being
identified by the amplitude and phase of the voltages in the stator winding S3/S4.
The sum of the outputs from both stators gives the input voltage and rotor
movement in cartesian coordinates.
r cos q + r sin q.
In Figure 3.29, the voltmeters are converted to give an instantaneous reading of
cartesian coordinates X and Y, in miles. This reading will be:
the known distance r X cosine of angle = VX
the known distance r X sine of angle = VY.
Applied AC
Applied AC
voltage
voltage
R1
proportional
propor tional
totoknown
known distance r
distance r
R2
S1
Angle
turned
Resultant
magnetic
Resultant
field
magnetic
field
V
V
S2
Vx = distance r cos angle
Vx = Distance rr x cos. angle
R3
R4
S3
V
V
S4
Vy
Distance rrrxsine
sineangle
angle
V = distance
y
(Y)6
4
Height (miles)
0
2
8 (X)
10
12
Distance (miles)
S1
= 36Angle
52'
turned
Resultant
magnetic
Resultant
field
magnetic
field
V
V
S2
Vx = distance r cos angle
Vx = Distance r x cos. angle
R3
V induced
= r Sin = Y
= 10 .6000
= 6v = 6 miles
R4
S3
V
V
S4
Vy = Distance rr x sine angle
The terminals R3 and R4 of the unused rotor windings are shorted out to improve
accuracy. The flux of R1 and R2. This flux will always be at 90 degrees to the unused
rotor winding R 3 and R4 and will not affect it. Any unwanted flux will create a large
flux in R3 and R4 which will oppose the unwanted flux. This limits the effects of
unwanted flux and improves the accuracy of the resolver.
A nullmeter is connected across one of the rotor fields and a voltmeter is connected
across the other rotor field as shown in Figure 3.34. When the rotor is turned so that
the winding containing the nullmeter is 90 degrees from the stator field, as no
voltage is induced and the nullmeter will read zero. The windings of R3/R4 will be
parallel to the stator field and will have maximum voltage induced into them. This
voltage will be proportional to r, and if the voltmeter is made to read miles, it will give
a direct read out of this distance. The angle through which the rotor is turned is noted,
and so both polar coordinates are supplied.
R1
Shaft
N
R2
S1
Resultant
magnetic
field
Vx
S2
R3
V
R4
S3
Vy
S4
If we use our previous example of the radar set on an airfield and also Figure 3.36,
we can workout the conversion from cartesian to polar coordinates. VX = 8 volts
and VY= 6 volts and represent the cartesian coordinates. The fluxes of the two
stators will combine to give a resultant magnetic field as in Figure 3.35 The resolver
rotor is turned until a zero voltage is shown on the nullmeter. The angle through
which the rotor turns is the polar angle coordinate q, which in our example is 36
degrees 52 minutes. If R1/R2 is at null, R 3/R4 must have maximum voltage induced
due to being parallel to the resultant field. This voltage represents the polar
coordinate r which is 10 volts = 10 miles. Figure 3.36 shows the mathematical
equation.
Symbols
Figure 3.36 shows the most common ways in which a synchro resolver is shown in
schematic drawings.
RS
Figure 3.37: Resolver synchro - circuit symbols
Purpose
The purpose of the synchro resolver is to change position data from one form of
coordinate to another by converting alternating voltages. The voltages represent the
cartesian coordinates of a point, and by changing them to a shaft position and a
voltage, will now represent the polar coordinates of that point. The synchro resolver
may also be used in the reverse manner.
Activity 2
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Review
Before you move on to Section 4 work through the Check your progress questions to
see how well you understood Section 3. If there is anything you are not sure of,
revise the relevant work before you begin the next section.
If you would like additional information to help your understanding of any part of
this section, use the reference books listed at the beginning of this module.
When you are satisfied with your progress, move on to Section 4, which covers
servomechanism systems.
True or false? The voltages of all the windings in a CX-CT circuit are either
in-phase or 180 degrees anti-phase to reference. Explain your answer.
_________________________________________________________________
10
11
In a resolver synchro the rotor and stator windings are wound how many
degrees apart?
_________________________________________________________________
12
4 Servomechanism
systems
Learning outcome 4
On completion of this module you should be able to describe and test
servomechanism systems.
Assessment criteria
You will have achieved competency in this learning outcome when you can:
define the terms associated with servomechanisms:
null
error signal
feedback
reference signal
system alignment
hunting
overshooting
deadband
response time
time lag
damping:
under
over
critical
41
define the difference between an open loop and a closed loop system
describe the operation of a servomechanism system to block diagram level
identifying the components:
command transmitter
error detector
amplifier
summing point/network
servo
position feedback
rate feedback
acceleration feedback
modulator/demodulator
identify differences in operation between types of servomechanism systems:
AC
DC
hybrid
advantages
limitations
identify the causes of hunting
inspect, test, and align a servomechanism system and trouble shoot as required.
42
Introduction
A synchro-servo system is no use to us unless the information gathered by the
detectors can be put to useful work. This is done by servomechanisms which provide
the muscle power to move control surfaces, close valves or move other parts of the
aircrafts mechanical system.
In the glossary you would have read that:
A servo device is a power driving device usually electric or hydraulic which can
produce motion or forces at a higher level of energy than the input level and be used
to move a heavy part of the aircraft structure.
A mechanism is a system of mutually adapted parts working together.
Servomechanism
An automatic feedback control system for mechanical motion.
It is used to provide remote control of heavy loads such as control surfaces, and has
an error correcting system. The servomechanism is used extensively in the automatic
control of an aircrafts flight, mainly to position the control surfaces to provide the
correct flight attitude.
It is capable of detecting and correcting errors at its output, which are due to
external forces acting upon the load it is controlling. This is achieved by the use of a
closed loop system, and to be classed as a servomechanism it must conform to the
following.
detect the difference between input and output (error detection)
amplify the error signals (power amplification)
provide feedback (closed loop)
capable of continual operating (continuous operation).
Null
The term null is used to describe the condition where there is no error signal being
produced by the error detection device.
43
Error signal
This signal is produced by the error detector, it is the difference between the required
output position, and the position that the output is actually in.
Feedback
The actual position of the output is feedback so that it may be compared with the
required output.
Reference signal
This signal is supplied to the amplifier to enable it to determine in which phase the
error signal is in. It is the phase relationship which will determine in which direction
the servo motor will drive.
System alignment
For the system to work correctly the controlling transmitter, the load, and the
feedback transmitter must be aligned at zero. In this way, when the controller calls
for, shall we say 2 degrees of movement, the load will move until it reaches 2
degrees. The output from the controller (error signal) and feedback signals will be
equal and therefore null out.
Hunting
This form of instability is when the output shaft swings back and forth through the
required position, even though the input shaft is stationary. The main causes of this
condition are:
a large time lag in the system
the lack of velocity feedback.
The servomechanism cannot respond in zero time to a change of input, and so
corrective action will lag the change of input. The corrective action is still in progress
when the error has reduced to zero, and the system will overcorrect, causing an
opposite correction. The output shaft now oscillates around the desired position as
shown in Figure 4.1.
44
Damping
To prevent oscillations some form of damping is introduced. There are four levels of
damping and are listed as follows:
underdamped, the load oscillates several times before coming to rest
overdamped, there is no chance of oscillations and the load is positioned slowly
critical damping which is between oscillations and no oscillations
optimum damping, there is slight overshoot, but it takes the least amount of time
to reach the correct position.
Mechanical damping
To ensure fast positioning of the load, the system should be damped at slightly less
than critical damping. The damping should be accurately adjustable, and the easiest
way of creating more friction would be to apply some form of brake. This could be
done in one of three ways.
a disc could be made to rotate in thick oil
a hysteresis type braking system
a coulomb damper, where a disc rotates against some type of friction material.
Like all things, mechanical or friction damping as shown in Figure 4.2 has its
problems:
Section 4: Servomechanism systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
45
Electrical damping
To overcome the problems associated with mechanical damping, a system called
velocity or electrical feedback damping can be used instead. This type of damping is
achieved by fitting a tacho generator to the output shaft as shown in Figure. 4.3.
The tacho generator will produce a voltage which will be proportional to the
angular velocity of the output shaft. Part of this voltage is fed back into the amplifier
in opposition to the error signal as a negative feedback, or velocity feedback as it is
known.
The idea of velocity feedback, is to reduce the net input to the amplifier to zero and
then reverse it before the output shaft reaches its final position. By adjusting the
amount of feedback correctly, the momentum of the load, which is acting against the
reversed torque, will bring the load to rest as it reaches its required position.
46
Initially the system is at rest with 1 = 0. In Figure 4.3 1 suddenly changes to a new
value, but 0 cannot follow immediately and the error will increase from zero to 1 and
a large torque is applied to the load. As the load accelerates and 0 decreases, the error
and torque are reduced until 0 reaches the desired value and the error and torque
become zero.
47
The servomechanism will readily oscillate because by the time 0 reaches the required
value, the load has acquired momentum and overshoots the error now increases in the
opposite sense and a reverse torque is applied which brings the load to rest, but then
accelerates it back again and causes another overshoot.
Deadband
In a continuous control system, the error must be large enough to overcome starting
friction, and will only respond to errors above a certain amount. The amount of the
error either side of the correct position is called the deadband.
If the system will not react unless the error is 0.01 inch on either side of the correct
position, then the system has a deadband of 0.02 inch.
Response time
As we saw in the overshooting paragraph, there is a definite time taken for the servo
system to react. The larger the load being driven the longer will be the response time.
Time lag
This function is closely tied with response time. If the system is a purely mechanical
system, the time lag for a response will be longer than for one which is electronically
controlled.
Closed loop
In this type of system the controlled output is compared with the commanded input
and is automatically adjusted so that the output equals the input. This is achieved
through the use of feedback loops. The error or difference is continuously providing
a signal to change the output and cancel the input when the two match. As an
example, the thermostat will automatically stop the compressor when the
temperature inside a refrigerator has reached the desired amount of chilling.
48
Types of servomechanisms
These can be placed into two main types:
remote position control (RPC)
rate control servos (velodynes).
RPC servos
These are used to control angular or linear position of a load, and can be used to
rotate a load such as a control surface.
Velodynes
These are used to control the speed of a load. In this case, the speed of the driving
motor is made proportional to the input demand.
Servomechanism
A basic servomechanism may have the following elements:
command input transmitter
error measuring device
error voltage
amplifier
servomotor
output
position feedback
rate feedback
acceleration feedback.
Figure 4.5 shows the relationship of the above elements.
49
Position feedback
Summing point
EMD
Command
transmitter
Servo
motor
Output
shaft
Damping
Load
We will assume that the shaft has taken up a position that agrees with the position
demanded by the input shaft and the motor is stationary in a steady state.
1
If we now say that the control surface has to be changed to another position, the
input demand q, is suddenly changed. We now have a difference between the actual
load position and the desired input signal, and the resulting error signal (e) is
amplified and will cause the motor to drive to bring the control surface to the new
position.
As the control surface nears the required position, the error signal and the motor
drive are progressively reduced, until the condition is reached where the error signal
and the motor drive is zero. The motor will stop and the control surface is at its new
position.
The period during which the output is changing in response to the change in
demand, is called the transient time. When this period has been completed, the
system is in a steady state. The time taken to reach the steady state after a change
in demand is the response time.
Summing point
Most modern systems will have a summing point. Here the output from the EMD,
damping and other feedback signals are summed, and the output is then supplied to
the amplifier
Servo device
A power driving device usually electric, hydraulic or pneumatic, which can produce
motion or forces at a higher level of energy than the input level and be used to move
a heavy part of the aircraft structure.
Position feedback
A signal sent from the output of the servo or the moveable component, back to the
amplifier which will oppose the error signal to halt the movement of the servo at the
required position.
Rate feedback
A signal proportional to the speed of the servo motor, which is summed at the
summing point and modifies the command error signal to control the rate at which
the servo drives.
Acceleration feedback
A signal proportional to the rate of acceleration of the servo, which is summed at the
summing point and reduces the command error signal to control the rate at which
the servo can accelerate the load, reducing stress of mechanical components and the
tendency to overshoot.
Modulation - demodulation
Stable amplification of DC signals is difficult to achieve because the amplifiers tend
to suffer from drift which causes variations in the output. To overcome this problem
and still provide high gain, the DC signal is used to modulate a suitable AC carrier.
The AC signal is amplified and then demodulated to extract the amplified DC
signal. Figure 4.7 is a block diagram of this kind of system.
EMD
Mechanical input
Error
signal
AC
MOD
DC
AC
A
DC
MOD
DC position feedback q
DC
DC velocity feedback
Tacho
gen
Load
Shaft
Servo
motor
AC REF
DC I/P
_ T1
D1
R1
D2
D3
D4
B
AC O/P
T2
Figure 4.8: Ring bridge modulation - no input signal
If a DC signal, which is positive at A, is applied, it will bias the rectifier bridge and D1
and D4 will not conduct. During the positive half cycle of the reference voltage, D2 will
conduct causing current to flow through the top half of the primary windings of T2.
This is indicated by the dotted arrows in Figure 4.9. During the negative half cycle of
the reference voltage, D 3 will conduct and the current will flow in the lower half of T2
as shown by solid arrows. The AC output from the secondary windings of T2, is in the
same phase as the reference voltage. For a positive DC input the AC output is in phase
with the reference voltage.
Figure 4.9: Ring bridge modulation with a positive input signal at point A
For a DC signal which is negative at A, diodes D2 and D3 will not conduct. During the
positive half cycle of the reference voltage, D1 will conduct causing current to flow
through the upper half of the primary windings of T2. This is indicated by the dashed
arrows in Figure 4.10. During the negative half cycle of the reference voltage, D 4 will
conduct and the current will flow through the lower half of the primary winding T2, as
shown by solid arrows. The AC output is out of phase (anti-phase) with the reference
voltage.
AC REF
T1
_
+
_
A _
D1
DC I/P
R1
D2
D3
D4
B+
T2
AC O/P
D
Figure 4.10: Ring bridge modulation with a negative input signal at point A
AC REF
T2
A
T1
D1
D2
D3
R1 DC O/P
D4
AC I/P
B
AC REF
_
E
T2
_
T1
D1
+
C
AC I/P
D2
+
DC O/P
_
D3
D4
R1
D
+B
Figure 4.12: Ring bridge demodulator - in phase error signal
On the second half of the cycle, the negative reference voltage (point E negative in
Figure 4.12) will forward bias D1 and D2. The AC error input (point C negative), will
reverse bias D1 so that the current flow is through D2. The current flow, shown by
dashed arrows is from C through D 2 , to F and via the centre tap to R1 in such a way
that point A is still more positive than point B.
Out of phase error signal
Figure 4.13 shows the AC input 180 degrees out of phase with the reference signal,
the current flow through R1 is reversed making point A more negative to point B.
During the first half cycle, the positive reference voltage will again forward bias D4.
The error signal will make point D positive. The current will flow from F through D4
to D on T1 then from the centre tap of T1, through R1 back to T2 as shown by the solid
arrows.
During the second half cycle the reference voltage forward biases D 1 and D2. Current
flows from E through D 1, T1 and R1 as shown by the dashed arrows.
It can be seen that the ring bridge demodulator will detect both amplitude and
phase of the incoming AC signal.
Activity 1
Servomechanism systems
In Sections 1, 2 and 3 we have looked at the different components which form part
of a servomechanism system. They may operate on a DC supply, an AC supply or a
combination of both. Lets have a brief look at how these systems work.
AC servomechanism operation
When the load is in the required position, there will be zero voltage induced into the
windings of the control transformer CT. The position of the rotor of the control
transmitter CX is at 90 degrees to the rotor of CT by moving the mechanical input to
a new setting, the rotor of CX will also move inducing a voltage into the rotor of CT.
This signal will now be fed to the amplifier, where it will be amplified and then sent
to the servomotor to not only turn the load but also turn the rotor of CT until it is
again at 90 degrees to the rotor of CX. Now the rotor of CT will have no voltage
induced into its windings, and the drive to the servo motor will be zero and the load
will be in the new position.
The output from the rate generator is used to achieve velocity feedback and is
antiphase to the error signal from the CT rotor windings. The voltage required from
the rate generator to achieve the required damping is set by RI and sent to the
amplifier.
Figure 4.14 shows the circuit of an AC RPC which uses a control transformer as the
error detecting device.
115 v 400 Hz
AMP
R1
26v 400 Hz
Rate
gen
Cx
Servo
motor
Load
Ct
115v 400Hz
Mech
input
DC servomechanism operation
A stationary DC RPC servomechanism is shown in Figure 4.15 the load remains
stationary until there is a reason to move it again. If the operator wishes to move the
load, the required position will be selected by moving the wiper of RI.
RI and R2 form a balanced potentiometer error detector. Which assumes that their
wipers are in the mid position. A 28 V DC floating supply is developed across each
resistor. As the centre of R2 is at zero, the top of both resistors is at +14 V and the
bottom of the resistors are at -14 V with respect to earth.
If the operator moves the wiper of R1 to the top, the input to the servo AMP will be
+14 V which will then be amplified and used to drive the servo motor to turn the
load. At the same time the servo motor will drive the wiper of R2 towards the top.
On reaching the top of the resistor the voltage difference between the two wipers is
zero and therefore the voltage to the amplifier becomes zero. The servomotor will
now stop and the load has taken up its new position.
Fitted to the system is a DC generator or tacho generator whose output polarity will
depend upon its direction of rotation. The voltage will always oppose the error signal
from the balanced potentiometer. The voltage generated by the tacho generator is
proportional to the output shaft speed, and R3 is adjusted to provide the correct
amount of output to produce the correct amount of velocity feedback for damping. The
input to the amplifier will be the sum of the error signal and the output of the tacho
generator.
When the load approaches the required position, the error voltage will decrease the
small amount of tacho generator output from R3, which is opposite in polarity to the
error signal, will eventually cancel the error signal, and there will be zero volts to the
amplifier. The servomotor will stop driving, but momentum will continue to drive
the load to the required position.
The tacho generator will still produce an output which will now be above the error
signal and of opposite polarity. This small voltage will be amplified and cause the
servomotor to run in the reverse direction and slowing the load. If R3 is adjusted
correctly, the load will stop in the required position without oscillation.
Advantages of servomechanisms
remote control of systems
small command input signals used
multiple input commands possible
can be fully automated or integrated into computerised control systems
can be used in explosive liquid or gas environments
can be used underwater.
Causes of hunting
Hunting was described earlier as
A form of instability which occurs when the output shaft swings back and forth
through the required position, even though the input shaft is stationary.
Activity 2
State the main difference between open and closed loop. Have a look
around your workplace or aircraft and try and find some examples of
both systems.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Describe deadband.
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_________________________________________________________________
System alignment
To obtain the correct performance from a servomechanism the synchro devices must
be zeroed. In order to identify the positions of the input device, a reference must be
established, which is a position defined as zero and all alignments are made with
respect to this position.
The procedure for servicing and aligning servomechanisms will be laid down in
manufacturers instructions, or the appropriate aircraft publications. These
instructions should be followed, for only a general description is given here.
Before any electrical zeroing can take place, the load and mechanical unit must be
placed in its zero position and the shaft locked into position.
Transmitter (CX)
The CX synchro must be electrically zeroed so that the voltages induced into the
stator coils will correspond exactly with the mechanical zero of the system.
Figure 4.17 shows the connections.
1
This will give a coarse zero position, and to adjust for a fine position.
Once again, the above is for coarse adjustment, and to adjust for fine:
1
Rotate the barrel of the CT synchro until the AC voltmeter reads null.
Remove the variac, jumper lead and AC voltmeter, reconnect the stator connections.
It should be remembered that the electrical zero position of the CT syncro, is 90
degrees from that of the CX sychro.
Troubleshooting
The following conditions can cause total or partial failure in a servomechanism.
Power failure
A suspected power supply failure can be checked quite easily by measuring the AC
volts across the rotor winding of the transmitter check the fuse.
Open circuit
An open circuit in either rotor winding will cause the receiver synchro to stick in
one position. If a stator winding had an open circuit the operation would be
sluggish.
Short circuits
Will cause the fuse to blow or, at the worst, component and wiring burn out.
Whichever, the servomechanism will have ceased operation.
Incorrect wiring
This condition usually results in reversed direction. The following is a table of
common synchro system faults.
Symptom
Cause
Open circuit at S1
Open circuit a S2
R1 and R2 reversed
S1 and S3 reversed
R1 shorted to R 2
S1 shorted to S3
The above table gives a few examples of faults and symptoms in synchros, they are
generally logical and clear cut. The servomechanism system is a closed loop, so there
is no correct or incorrect place to start, it is really a matter of gathering the facts, and
then following the loop until you find the faulty item.
Review
Now work through the Check your progress questions to see how well you
understood Section 4. If there is anything you are not sure of, revise the relevant
work.
If you would like additional information to help your understanding of any part of
this section, use the reference books listed at the beginning of this module.
Explain hunting.
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Module review
Well done! You can now say that you have finished this module, and now know all
about error devices, synchronous systems and servomechanisms.
Remember that aircraft can be dangerous things, especially when electrical power
and hydraulics are applied. With engines running, there is the added danger of
spinning props, jet intakes and exhausts.
If you are in an instrument workshop, cleanliness is a must, and remember
instruments are very delicate. Please observe all safety regulations.
IF IN DOUBT, ASK!
Now review what you have learnt by following the learning outcome checklist.
Assessment criteria
I can
do it
I cant
do it
Im
unsure
differential transformers:
LVDT
E and I bar
C and Y
inductive
capacitive
resistive.
R1
Learning outcome 2:
Assessment criteria
I can
do it
I cant
do it
Im
unsure
two coil
three coil
Desynn:
slab
micro.
three coil
limitations.
micro
limitations.
R2
pressure.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module review
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
Learning outcome 3:
Assessment criteria
I can
do it
I cant
do it
Im
unsure
magnesyn
ratiometer.
symbols
purpose
null point.
crossover
open circuit
rotor relationships.
symbols
purpose
null point.
rotor relationships.
Module review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
R3
rotor
purpose
null point.
cartesian coordinates
sine signals
cosine signals.
symbol
purpose.
R4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module review
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
Learning outcome 4:
Assessment criteria
Define the terms associated with servomechanisms:
null
error signal
feedback
reference signal
system alignment
hunting
damping:
under
over
critical
overshooting
deadband
response time
time lag.
I can
do it
I cant
do it
Im
unsure
error detector
amplifier
summing point/network
servo
position feedback
rate feedback
acceleration feedback
modulator/demodulator.
Module review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
R5
DC
Hybrid
advantages
limitations.
R6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module review
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
Answers to activities
Section 3
Activity 1
1
Your diagram should show that the indicator pointer will remain on scale
when the power fails.
Activity 2
1
British = S 1, S2, S 3
American = S2, S1, S3
RS
A1
Section 4
Activity 1
1
Input
Error measuring device
Error voltage
Amplifier
Servomotor
Output
Position feedback
Damping
The time taken by the system to reach a new steady state after a change
of demand.
Viscous damping
Hysteresis damping
Coulomb damping
Activity 2
1
A control transformer.
A2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to activities
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) 1997
The winding is divided into two parts and wound to oppose each other.
Outputs are generated in both coils but moving the iron bar towards one
end of the core will create a greater output from one coil. Moving the
core to the other end will create an inverse output. The phase
relationship will be determined by the position of the core and the
amplitude will be determined by the degree of coupling
The pendulous sensor can detect long term changes or changes too small
to be detected by other devices.
C1
11
12
Micro sensor.
13
Thermistor.
As the transmitter and receiver are connected in parallel this change will
have no effect.
False. The gap forms the third pole of the core as the coils are mounted
120 degrees away from the gap.
The pull off magnet will cause the needle to move off scale.
The major difference is the method of connection of the coils. The Selsyn
is connected in delta and the Desynn in star.
N
S
+
24v DC
supply
Slip rings
N
S
Transmitter
C2
Indicator
8
3
Outer resistors
2
2
3
1
Inner resistors
2
2
3
+
B
-
Linear actuation
C3
10
The transmitter resistance element consists of a slab former over which the
wire is wound. One side of the slab is convex and it is over this surface that
the contacts are positioned and moved by the medium being measured.
The contacts are mounted upon a spindle and are spaced 120 degrees
apart. Electrical connections are made via slip-rings to the indicator
stator coil windings.
TR and DR
TX
Transmit a position.
Adds or subtracts.
True. The output can only ever be in phase or 180 degrees out of phase.
The amplitude will vary with the degree of rotation.
10
Sensing bellows.
11
90 degrees.
12
C4
A signal supplied to the amplifier so that it may determine which phase the
error signal is in.
Hunting: The time lag in the system where corrective action lags the change
of input.
C5
C6