Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fall 2010
water boat
V
.
brick water
Since this density ratio is less than unity, the volume of the displaced water is larger when
the brick is in the boat, and so when I throw it overboard the level of the lake will decrease.
2. Consider a scalar field (x, t) and a velocity field u(x, t) defined in an inertial reference frame.
Now suppose that we want to work in the non-inertial frame where
X x + (t)
T t
In this new frame, the velocity and scalar fields are given by U(X, t) and (X, t).
(a) Express and U in terms of and u.
(b) What is the rate of change following a fluid element in the (X, T ) frame? That is, what
is the relationship between the material derivatives
D
+u
Dt
t
and
+ U X ?
DT
T
dx
dt
U(X, T ) =
dX
dT
d
dt.
dt
Therefore,
U(X, T ) = u(x, t) +
d
.
dt
(b) Consider the rate of change of the scalar field along a fluid element trajectory. The total
derivatives are
d
d =
dT + dX X =
dT + dx +
dt X
T
T
dt
and
dt + dx .
t
But since is a scalar, we must have d = d. Therefore,
d
dt + dx =
dT + dx +
dt X ,
t
T
dt
d =
or
D
=
Dt
d
D
+u =
+ u+
X =
.
t
T
dt
DT
We see that the material derivatives (acting on appropriately written fields) are the
same, as they must be: the rate of change along the trajectory of a fluid element is
independent of reference frame.
(c) Were looking for the acceleration written in the (X, T ) frame, namely A(X, T ). We can
use our result from part (a):
DU
D
d
d2
A=
=
u+
=a+ 2,
DT
Dt
dt
dt
since = 0.
3. Show that ij is an isotropic second-rank tensor; that is, ij transforms as a tensor and
0 for any coordinate systems E and E 0 related by rotations or reflections.
ij = ij
i e
j . Therefore, we have
Solution: In general, ij = e
0
0i e
0j
ij
=e
m ) (Cnj e
n )
= (Cmi e
= Cmi Cnj mn ,
and so ij transforms as a tensor. We can also write
0
ij
= Cmi Cnj mn = Cmi Cni = ij ,
4. Consider two second-rank tensors Aij and Bij . Suppose that Aij = Aji and Bij = Bji ;
then Aij is called symmetric and Bij is antisymmetric. Show that Aij Bij = 0. Note that
this is a general result regardless of tensor rank: the contraction of a symmetric and and
antisymmetric tensor vanishes.
Solution:
Aij Bij = Aji Bij
(Aij is symmetric)
= Aji Bji
(Bij is antisymmetric)
= Aij Bij
=0
if i, j, k is a cyclic permutation of 1, 2, 3
1
1 if i, j, k is an anticyclic permutation of 1, 2, 3
ijk =
0
if any index is repeated
Nothing in this definition says anything about a reference frame; only the ordering of
the indices matters.
We thus have a contradiction. The only assumption we have made is that ijk is a tensor.
Therefore, ijk must not be a tensor, since it transforms differently.
With a little more work (noticing that we can write the determinant of matrix as
det(A) = ijk A1i A2j A3k and that the determinant of a direction-cosine matrix is (1)r
where r is the number of coordinate reflections), you can show the correct transformation
rule for the Levi-Civita symbol is
0ijk = det(C)C`i Cmj Cnk `mn .
This is the general transformation rule for pseudotensors.
if i = ` and j = m
1
1 if i = m and j = `
ijk `mk =
0
else
Alternatively, we can express this relation as
ijk `mk = i` jm im j` .
The reason that the right-hand side is a proper tensor is that there is a product of
Levi-Civita symbols here: since ijk only differs from a proper tensor under coordinate
reflections, where it picks up a negative sign, products of an even number of Levi-Civita
symbols will be proper tensors.
(c) Using the epsilondelta rule proved above, we have
ijk ijk = ii jj ij ij = ii jj ii .
Since ii = 3 (in three dimensions), we then have
ijk ijk = 9 3 = 6.
6. A very useful quantity is fluid mechanics is the vorticity, given by = u, or
k = ijk
uj
.
xi
Note that the vorticity is a pseudovector. We can, however, express the vorticity in terms of
a proper tensor.
(a) Write the vorticity in terms of the rate-of-rotation tensor
uj
1 ui
ij =
.
2 xj
xi
Note that it is a general result that a pseudovector may be related to an antisymmetric
(i.e., ij = ji ) tensor of higher rank.
(b) Invert the expression you found in (b); that is, write ij in terms of the vorticity.
Solution:
Solution:
(a) Valid.
(b) Not valid. The term nii xii is ambiguous, and could mean any of nij xij , nij xji , or
nii xjj , all of which are (in principle) different.
(c) Not valid. The right-hand-side contains imn , which is not a tensor.
(d) Valid.
(e) Valid. The two Levi-Civita symbols are contracted, and can be rewritten in terms of
Kronecker deltas.
(f) Not valid. There is an extra free m on the right-hand side.
(g) Valid.