The Geometry of Riemann and Einstein

Author(s): James Pierpont

Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 30, No. 8 (Dec., 1923), pp. 425-438
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2298750 .
Accessed: 14/03/2014 13:00
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Mathematical Association of America is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
The American Mathematical Monthly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1923.]

THE

GEOMETRY

OF RIEMANN

AND

EINSTEIN.

425

Fpq =

* * *, then,fora givenn the Cpqn, if written

* ** + CpqnXn +
CpqO + CpqlXl +
in the order (coin)+ (c12n) + (c13n + c23n) + (c14n + C34n) + (c15n+ C25n+ C35n
+ C45n) + * **, will be so arrangedthat the Ciin in any pair of parenthesescorrespond to weaker singularitiesof F(x) than the CiJnin any precedingparentheses;
and for q > [in] the singularitiesof F(x) are so weak (for certain modes of
approach) that they may be ignoredif we are satisfiedwith an accuracy forp(n)
of order of magnitude n-114. But with increasingn, n-114 _* 0; thereforethe
large n, the integer closest to E, qCpqn.
value of p(n) will be, for sufficiently
notonlytheorderof magnitudeof
We shall thushaveobtained,as was statedbefore,
p(n), butits actualvalue. We do not quote in fullthe (verycomplicated)wording
of the theorem. Its characterwill be clear fromthe formulaforp(n) given in
section13, IV, in whicheach termtakes care of one of the singularpoints,and in
such mannerthat the heaviest singularityis accounted forby the firstterm,the
next heaviest by the second term,etc.
To avoid incorrectconclusions,it mustbe said that the theoremdoes not mean
that the series forp(n), if we continueit to infinityby omittingthe restriction
q c [-in-],is necessarilya convergentseries,still less thatit must convergeto the
value p(n). But it does mean that, if we break offour series at q -[in]', this
large values of n, give us p(n) with an errorof
finiteseries will, forsufficiently
less than, say, 1, and since it is by its nature a positive integer,we obtain thus
the actual value of p(n).

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.2

By JAMES PIERPONT, Yale University.
PART I.

Introduction. In Einstein's theoryour space is not Euclidean; aside from

local disturbancesits geometryis of the kind firststudied by Riemann, Klein

in Einstein'stheoryhas led the writer

and Newcomb. The widespreadinterest
to believe that an elementarypresentationof this kindof non-euclideangeometry
would prove acceptable to a not inconsiderableclass of readers.
The usual method of developingnon-Euclidean geometryis to begin at the
veryfoundationsand build up the theoryin a highlvabstractand logical manner
froma set of definitionsrelative to three classes of thingswhich we do not see

requires
but whichare calledpoints,linesand planes. To followsuchreasoning
1 See the 1ast sentence of section 14.
2 Read at the summermeetingof the Associationat

Vassar College,Poughkeepsie,New
York,September6, 1923.
titleforthepaperis "EllipticGeometry." Riemannshowedthatthemetric
An alternative
ofa space of constantcurvatureis definedby
[1 +

dx12 +
(X12 +

+ dx.2
n+ x2)/4R2]2

are called elliptic,parabolicor hyperbolicaccordingas R2 is positive,

The resultinggeometries
co or negative. There are two kindsof ellipticgeometry
whichhave receivedvariousnames,
wereadopted,we would
as polarand antipodal,sphericaland elliptic. If the last terminology
ofspacefirstmentioned.
classification
have to giveup thethreefold

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

426

THE

GEOMETRY

OF RIEMANN

AND

EINSTEIN.

[Dec.,

a great efforton the part of the reader and this no doubt explainswhyrelatively
few persons have devoted much attention to this subject. There is another
way quite as rigorousand, as the authorbelieves,moreattractiveto the ordinary
mathematicianand phvsicist. We will admit that the propositionsof Euclidean
geometryhave been established with entire rigor and proceed by its aid to
constructanothergeometrywhichforshortwe call Riemannian or R-geometry.
Our method is analogous to that used in general arithmetic: grantingthat the
arithmeticof ordinaryreal numbershas been established,we may take pairs of
them as (a, b) to definea new class of numbersordinarilydenoted by a + ib.
Or we may take sets of four (a, b, c, d) to forma class of new numbersusually
denotedby a + bi + cj + dk and called quaternions. No one thinksit necessary
to go back to firstprinciplesand develop an abstract theoryof magnitude in
orderto develop the arithmeticof quaternions.
A great meritof the methodadopted in this paper, so it seems to the writer,
lies in its intuitiveness; the reader has the thingsdealt with constantlyunder
his eyes. As will be seen, the geometryof R-space in the immediate vicinity
of the observeris sensiblythe same as in ordinarygeometry,it is only whenlarge
portionsof space are consideredthat the great difference
betweenthe two geometries,Euclidean and Riemannian,becomes apparent.
1. The Metric ofRiemann. We beginby recallinga fewfactsofE-geometry.1
We take a rectangularcoordinatesystemwhose originwe denoteby 0; the coordinates of a point x we denote by x1, X2, X3,etc. If x + dx is a point near by,
its distance do-fromx is given by
Let

do-2=

Xi =

dxl 2+
X2 =

fl(t)

dX22+ dx32.

p02(t),

x3 =

(1)

(t)

(2)

be the equations of a curve; ifto t = a, t = b correspondthe points A, B on (2),

the lengthof the arc AB is
Ibdo-

0f= J -dt.
The curve (2) is a straightwhen o-is less than for any adjacent curve If x,
x + dx, x + Ax are the coordinates of three nearby points, they determinea
little trianglethe lengthof whose sides may be denoted by do-,&o, Ao-. If 0 is
the angle betweendo-,&or,
that is, the angle whose vertexis the point x, we have
A2

e2 -

2do-*

cos 0,

(3)

dxibxl+ dx25x2+ dx35X3

(4)

d2 +

whichgives at once, on using (1),

Co

do- o-

do- o-

do- o-

This may be taken as the definitionof the angle 0 between two curves meeting
at x.
1 The lettersE and R beforea wordare to be read Euclidean,Riemannian.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1923.]

THE

OF RIEMANN

GEOMETRY

AND

EINSTEIN.

427

We propose now to introduce another definitionof distance or length.

The coordinatesof a pointremainingthe same as before,i.e., ordinaryrectangular
coordinates,let R be an arbitraryconstant > 0. We now say the distance ds
betweenthe points x and x + dx is given by
d92 s

[1 +

dx12+ dx22+ dx32

(Xi2 +

X22 +

x32)/4R2]2

and the length8 of the arc AB consideredabove shall be definedby

fs

d
ddt.

(6)

Let us compare (5) with (1). We see that the numeratorof (5) is de2 while
r2 = x12 + X22+ x32is the square of the distance fromthe origin0 to the point
x in E-measure. We mav set thus

do-

= Mdo-,
ds = 1 + r2/4R2

(7)

wherey is the factormultiplyingdo-. For pointsx such that r is small compared

with the space constant, R, y is nearly 1 and hence d = do-sensibly. As x
recedes from0, g decreases and ds /do- 0.
To illustratethisnew definitionof length,let us findthe lengths in R-measure
of the segmentOP of an E-straightthroughthe origin,whose directioncosines
are 11,12,13. Its equations are

xi= lit,

X2 12t)

Here r2= Xi2 + x22+ x32= t2 ..

in E-measure is o-,we have by (7)
8

(~dt
1+

X3 13t;

112+ 122+ 132=

r= t; also do-= dt. If the length of OP

t2/4R2

o-

2R arctg2R

as its lengthin R-measure. If o-is small comparedwithR,

arctg -

- 7rR. Thus the

nearly, and s = a-sensibly. On the other hand if o-o0,
lengthof any E-straightthroughthe origin1 is double this or 27rR in R-measure.
In E-geometrywe oftenfindit convenientto use polar coordinatesr, 0, (,
where
X3 = r cos0.
x2 = r sin 0 sin p,
xi = r sin 0 cos 0,
In R-measurethe lengthof the radius vectorr is, as just seen,

r
p = 2R arctgj *
'As we shall see these lines are also straightlines in R-geometry.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(8)

428

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

[Dec.,

We call p, 0, p, R-polar co6rdinates. The only differencebetween these two

kinds of polar coordinatesis that in one case we expressthe lengthof the radius
vectorin E-measure, and in the othercase in R-measure.
From (8) we have
dr = sec22P *dp.
2R(9

r = 2R tan-P-,
2R

(9)

In E-polar coordinates,
de = dr2+

r2d02 +

r2 sin2 Od 2.

Replacing r by p in (7) we find1

2 sin2P (d02+ sin2Od2)

ds2 = dp2 +

(10)

in R-polar coordinates.
As an application of R-polar coordinates,let us findthe lengthin R-measure
of the curve

x1= r cos o,

X2=

r sin,

X3 = 0.

In E-geometrythis is a circle of radius r in the xlx2-plane.2 Here 0 = w/2,

dO= 0, dr = 0 .. dp = 0; thus(10) gives
ds= R sink- dxp.
Therefore,
8 =

R sinR

dxp =

2rR sinR

is the lengthof this curve in R-measure. If r, and hence p, is small compared

withR, sin p/R = p/R nearly,and s = 2-rp= 2-rr,sensibly,as in'E-geometry.
Let the two curves C, C' meet at the point x; on C take the point x + dx,and
on C' the point x + Ax. Let ds, 5s, /s be the distances in R-measure between
x and x + dx, x and x + Ax,x + dx and x + Ax. Analogous to (3) we define
the angle p between C, C' by
Cos

By (7) ds = gudo,bs =
cos

d62 +

?0

_
aS2 A-2

2ds*s

bo, As = gAo-; hence

s? =de

be
2do- o

= cos?

This gives the importanttheorem: The angle betweentwo curveshas the same
valuein R- as in E-measure.
1 This is

the expressionthat Einsteinemploysin his paper. Sitzungsber.d. Preuss. Akad.

d. Wiss., 1917, p. 142.

2

As willbe seenlater,thisis also a circlein R-geometry.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1923.]

THE

GEOMETRY

OF RIEMANN

AND

EINSTEIN.

429

2. Plane R-geometry. Before consideringthe geometryof 3 dimensions,we

will take up the geometryof the plane X3 = 0. In this plane our metric is
definedby
dXl2+ dX22
d82=
(11)
]2
ds 1+ (Xi2 + X2
(1
2)/4R2
or by
dsds=1 +do+/-2 2'
?a/4R

(12)

wherede2= dX2 + dX22and r2= x42+ X22.

Let us change the variables to

4R2xi
l

4Z2-

where
We findat onicethat
while (11) gives

4R2X2

Z3

(4R2 - a),

(13)

X= r2+4R2.

z12 + z22+

2=

(14)

R2

ds2= dz + dz22+ dz32.

I

(15)

Thus while x ranges over the x1x2-plane,the point z ranges over the E-sphere
(14), whichwe shall call the S-sphere,whose centeris 0 and radius is R. Moreoverwhenx describesan elementofarc ds, the relation(15) showsthat z describes
an element of arc on this sphere of equal length. The relation between the
pointsx and z is uniform. For, solving (13), we get

2Rz1

x1 = R+
R + Z3',

2RZ2
x = R+
x2
IR2.(16)

(6

There is one exception in this correspondence,viz.: when Z3 =-R,

x1, x2
are infinite.
Analogous to E-geometrywe say an R-straightin the x2x3-planeis a curve
of minimumlength in R-measure. Now the element of arc on the sphere S
is given by (15) which is preciselythat of E-geometry. Hence the length of
any arc in the R-plane X1X2 is the lengthof the correspondingarc on the sphere
S in E-measure. Now on a spherethe curvesof shortestlengthare great circles,
hence R-straightsin the x1x2-planeare the images of great circlesof the sphereS.
To findthe equations of these straights,let the great circlelie in the plane

Alzi + A2z2+ A3z3= 0.

(17)

Substitutingfrom(13) into (17) we get

A3(xi2 + x22)-

4R(Aix1+ A2x2)= 4A3R2,

(18)

the equation of an E-circle. This circlecuts the circle

(F),

Xi2+ x22= 4R2,

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(19)

430

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

[Dec.,

in the two points lyingon the E-straight

A1x1+ A2x2 = 0
as is seen by setting(19) in (18). As this line goes throughthe origin,we see
that all E-circles in the familyof circles (18) cut the circle (19) in diametral
points. We call (19) the fundamentalcircle,F, and the circles (18) diametral
circles. Hence the result: Diametral circles in E-geomnetry
are straightlines
in R-geometry.
The fundamentalcircle, being the image of the great circle Z3 = 0, is an
R-straight. To the great circle lyingin the plane A1z1+ A2z2= 0 corresponds
in the xlx2-plane the E-straight A1x1+ A2X2 = 0. Hence: All E-straights
through
theoriginare also R-straights.
We have seen there is no point in the xix2-planecorrespondingto the point
on the sphere S. To avoid this exceptionwe adjoin an ideal point
Z3 =-R
to the R-plane but not to the E-plane. We may now say that R-straightsare
closed curves which all have the same length 27rR. Any two of them cut in
2 points. Any two pointsat a distance < 7rRapart determineuniquelya point.
Since the angle betweentwo R-straightsis the same as that between the correspondinggreat circleson S, and since moreoverthe length of a segmenton an
R-straightis the same as the lengthin E-measure of the correspondingarc on S,
we have at once the theorem: The relationsbetweentheanglesA, B, C and lengths
of theoppositesides a, b, c of an R-triangleare thoseof trianglesin E-geometry
on
a sphereof radius R. Thus, in particular,
sin B: sin C = sin - sin b: sin c(
R
R
R~
c
a
b
c
b.
cos-= cos-cos-+
sin-sin-cos A.
R
R
R
R
R
sin A

(20)

Since similar trianglesdo not exist in E-spherical geometry,there are no

similartrianglesin R-geometry The sum of the angles of an R-triangleis > 2
right angles. All R-straightsperpendicularto a given R-straightmeet at a
point at a distance 7rR/2or as we may say at a quadrant'sdistance.
There remainsonlyone morenotionto discuss,that of motionor displacement.
In E-geometrya figuremay be moved about freelywithoutalteringthe distance
between any two of its points, or the angle between any two of its straights.
Is this possible in the R-plane, distance being of course expressedin R-measure?
The answer is "Yes"; forto any figurein the xlx2-planecorrespondsits image
on the sphereS. As thisimage may be moved freelyabout on S withoutaltering
any of its dimensions,and as to each positionof the image correspondsa position
of the originalfigure,we have the resultstated above.
The reader may wish to know why we have adopted the metricdefinedby
(11). Since the days of the Greeks it has been known that the geometryon a
sphere is non-euclidean; its straights(great circles) have a finitelength,there

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1.923.]

THE

GEOMETRY

OF RIEMANN

AND

EINSTEIN.

431

are no parallels. To obtain a similar geometryon the plane we may project

stereographicallythe points z of the S sphere (14) on the xlx2-planetangent
to S at the point Zl = Z2 = 0, z3 = R, the center of projection being the diametricallyopposite point. The xi, x2-axes we take parallel to the Zi, z2-axes
respectively. The relationbetween the point z and its projectionx is precisely
that definedby (13). If ds' is the elementof arc PQ on the sphere,the length
of the correspondingarc P'Q' in the x1x2-planeis
ds

ds=1+

dzl2 + dx22
+ x)/4R2'(1
(xl
2

(21)

wherexi, x2 are the coordinatesof P'. If we want ds' = ds,that is, if we want
arcs in the x1x2-planeto have the same lengthas the correspondingarcs on the
sphere,we must change our definitionof lengthin accordance with (21), that is,
we must defineour metricby (11). Since stereographicprojectionleaves angles
unchanged,we do not need to adopt a new definitionof measureforangles.
3. Two Kinds of R-geometry. Since diametral circles'cut in two points,
one inside, the other outside the fundamentalcircle F, two R-straightscut in
two points, and not in one as in E-geometry. Also two points do not always
determinean R-straight,viz.: two diametricallyopposite points on the fundamental circle.
On this account we may defineanothergeometryin which these exceptions
do not occur,as follows:
(1) Diametricallyopposite points on the fundamentalcircle are regardedas
one and the same point,1
(2) All points without the fundamentalcircle are regarded as non-existent,
or imaginary.
Let a diametral circle cut the fundamentalcircle F in the points A, A'. If B
is a point of this diametralcirclelyingwithinF, the arc ABA' is the R-straight
in this geometry. A is identical with A', this line is closed and its length is
obviouslyonly 7rR.
and may be
R-geometry,
This new geometrymnaybe called the restricted
denoted by R*.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL

R-GEOMETRY.

4. The Coordinates z1, * * *, z4. We now returnto generalconsiderationsnot

restrictedto a plane. Our firsttask is to determinethe natureof R-straightsin
3-way space-. Here we do not have the geometryon an E-sphere to aid us and
we must rely on analysis, but an analysis guided by the results and methods
employedin the plane.
To avoid analytical difficultiesit will be convenient to introduce the zvariables:
1, 2, 3;
4R2x
Z4 = R
(22)
1 Readers familiar with projective geometrywill findnothing strange in this, where the line
at infinityplays a r6le somewhat analogous to the fundamental circle.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

432

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

where

X= r2+ 4R2,

[Dec.,
(23)

r2=Xi 2+ X22+ X32.

We see these are in definitionentirelyanalogous to the z-variablesin (13).

findat once that
z?2 +

Z22 +

z42 =

Z32+

R2.

We

(24)

If we solve (22) forthe x's we find

Xi= iR

= 21,
2,3.

(25)

Thus to each set 1 of values: Zl, *.**, Z4, satisfying(24) correspondsa singlepoint
as the coordinates
(X1, X2, X3) and conversely. We may regardZi,. *, Z4, therefore,
of a point whose x-coordinatesare given by (25).
It may aid the readerto have a geometricinterpretation
of the z-coordinates.
Let x1, X2, X3 be the x-coordinatesof a point P, the length of the segmentOP
in E-measure is r; in R-measureits lengthis, by (8),
*

p = 2R arctg2-R

(26)

If OP makes the angles ae!with the xi-axis,xi = r cos ai,

Therefore,
4R2rcos ai

(27)

To eliminatethe x-coordinateswhichenterX let us show that

(28)

4Rr= sin
In fact by (26)
sinL =

sin(2 arctg

Now
.
r
arctg R-= arc sin
Also

arctg -=
2R
1

The exceptional case zi =

2 sin(arctg -) Cos(arctg2)

/r

2R
1+4R2/

arc cos

2
=r

1 + 4R2
Z2 = Z3 = O, Z4 =

ar sn

are cos
r cs-

2
2R

- R, may be treated as in ? 2.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1923.]

Therefore,

cos (arc cos

-4A)

sink = 2 sin(arc sin

r

2R

.X.s_=_,
=2
which establishes (28).
We show furtherthat

4R2- r2=

For

cos(2 arctg2)

4R2

whichestablishes (29).

4Rr

p(29)

{cos(arctg2)}'

=cos

(arc cos2-!
r2

~R

X
COSR=

433

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

4R2-

-{
)}

sin(arctg )2

-{sin (arc

sin-4=)}

r2

Setting (28), (29) in (22) gives

z = R sin%cos ai,

i = 1, 2, 3;

Z4=

R cos2

(30)

Thus the z-coordinatesare simple functionsof the distance in R-measureof the

point P from0 and the directioncosines of the line OP.
A linear relation1 betweenthe z's as

A1z1+ A2z2+ A3z3+ A4z1= 0

(31)

definesa locus whichwe shall call an R-plane. The justificationof such a name
will follow presently; we introduceit now merelyto have a name for such a
relationinasmuchas it entersinto our analysis in a vital manner.
If we replace the z's in termsof the x's as definedin (22), the relation (31)

becomes

A4(x12+ x22+ x32)-

4R(Aix,+ A2x2+ A3x3) = 4A4R2.

(32)

definesa sphere; any such spherewe willcall a diametral

This in E-geometry
on
of
itsrelationto thesphere,
account
sphere,
Xi2+ x22+ x32=

4R2,

(33)

orF sphere. In fact,all thespheres(32) cut (33)

whichwe call thefundamental
plane
in thediametral
A1x1+ A2x2+ A3x3= 0.
F, alonga greatcircle.
cutthefundamental
sphere,
Thus diametral
spheres
is the simpleformtheygive to d82.
Anotherpropertyof the z-coordinates
relation(24).
1 It is alwayssupposedthatthez-coordinates
satisfythefundamental

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

434

THE

GEOMETRY

OF RIEMANN

AND

EINSTEIN.

[Dec.,

In fact,by directcalculation we findthat (5) becomes

ds2= dzi2 + dZ22+ dZ32+ dz42.

(34)

The radius of F is 2R in E-measure; its length in R-measure is rR/2by (8).

Hence by (30) the z-coordinatesof a point,A, on F are:

z =Rcoscai,

A;

i= 1,2,3;

Z4=0.

The coordinatesof the diametricallyopposite point,A', are:

A';

i= 1, 2, 3;

zi' =-zi,

Z4 = 0.

5. StraightLines in 3-way R-geometry. Analogous to E-geometry,we sav

an R-straightiNa curve of minimumlengthin R-measure. To findthese curves
we mnay
proceed as follows. Let C be the curve definedby
Xi =

P2 (t),

X2 =

(oi(t),

P3(t).

X3 =

Let A, B be two points on C correspondingto t = a, t

the arc AB in R-measureis
s J Sbds

b; then the lengthof

FEdt,

.dt

(35)

where F = ds/dtis definedbyr(5), or in terms of the z variables by (34).

the lattervariables are easier to manage, we shall employ them; thus
F

(d82
dt

setting

(dzi)2+ + /dz\2
dt
dct
ri

?2 +

?,=dti

3 2+

(dz2
'dt
t4

'

(d 2
dt'

As
(36)

i =1, 2, 3, 4.

Let us now deformthe curve C slightlykeepingthe end points A, B fixedso

that the point (Xi, X2, X3) has on the new curve C the coordinates:
X1 =

X2 =

Xi + 8X?,

X2 + 8X2,

X3=

+ 8X3,

the Axbeing small quantities. At the same time eacll z, becomes zi = zi + 8zi,
= ti + 3j and F becomesF
F + 8F. The length
of the new curve C betweenA, B is now

whilePi goes overintoti

rb_

s + ss= .LFdt;

that is, in passing fromC to 0 the lengthof the are AB has been increasedby bs.
For C to have minimumlengthit is necessarythat this incrementshould vanish,
neglectingsmall quantitiesof higherorderthan the first,i.e., when C is replaced
by theadjacent curveC, the integral(35) receivesno incrementin small quantities
of the firstorder. In other words the curve C renders the integral (35) sta-

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1923.]

435

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

tionary. In accordance withmodernusage, we shall now definemorespecifically:

is a curvewhichrenderss in (35) stationary,i.e.,
A straightline in R-geonietry
thecurvefor which

bs= a

d.sdt= o.

(37)

a dt

small qtantitiesof higherorder.

neglecting
We shall establish in the next article the Fundamental Theorem: Straight
are the intersection
lines in R-geometry
of two diametralspheres,i.e., of two Rplanes, and conversely.
From this followsthat if twopoints of an R-straightlie on an R-plane, all its
pointslie on thisplane.
Now these two propertiesare the fundamentalpropertiesof E-planes, and
hereinlies the justificationof regardingthe diametral spheresin E-geometryas
planes in R-geometry.
The followingdemonstrationis the only difficultpiece of analysis in this
paper; we have thereforeplaced it in a separate section so 'that the reader may
omitit and pass to the nextsection,? 7. He should,however,note the equations
(49) whichare the parametricequations of our R-straights.
6. Demonstrationof the FundamentalTheorem. We start with

8=8s-8=

Now

F2

or by(36)

Fdt-

JaF*dt.

Fdt= J(F-F)dt=

(F + 8F)2 =F2 + 2F *F + (6F)2,

+ L(8v)2,
I +
(5

,(g; + 5R;)2=

i = 1, ...

(38)

4.

We shall consider onlv curves C such that (86i)2 iS small compared with the
increments86. Thus, neglecting(8F)2 and the (86?)2, the above gives
F8F=

Thus the condition(37) in (38) gives

___dt

aF

= 0.

(39)

We can get rid ofF in the denominatorifwe take s insteadof t as the independent
variable. In this case F = 1, by (36), since ds/ds= 1. Thus (39) becomes

16

-4,6

dsy,8

=,

~~~dzi
,kd(dzi's]

dsy

i= 1, ..4,

(40)

wheres = a when t = a, and s = A when t = b.

To transform(40), we note that 1
d
(s )
ds

d
(
ds

d
dz
Z) =dz
/dz)
ds
ds ds

i forthemoment.
For brevitywe have droppedthesubscript

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(41)

436
Also,

d dz

az

ds ds

or

on using (41).

[Dec.,

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

)=

d2z dz d
+ -*.
ds2 ds ds(sz)

az

d -I-z1
(dz \
d2Z dz
=8sz* -+-.a
ds \ds, /
S2 ds

idz\
-.
\ds(

(42)

Integrating(42) betweenthe limitsa, ,3gives

F

d2Z

Sz

[daz

("lodz tdz\
d)ds

ds +

Jd-

(43)

Now in passing fromC to C the end points A, B remainedfixed; hence the 8z

vanish at the limits. Thus the leftside of (43) vanishes and this gives
I6

. a (dZ)s=,(z
I-ds=
dd-z

This in (40) gives

dde

Jads

8 ?j
fdsEzi

d2sZ2.
zi* n.d8.

= 0.

(44)

Here the 8zi are not independent,forfrom(24) we have

Z18Zi+

*** +

or

Z43Z4 = 0

Eziazi = 0,

which shows that only three of the four 8zi are independent. Let H be an
arbitraryfunctionof the zi, then the last equation gives
HIIEzi8zi = 0

EHzi8zi = 0.

or

If with Lagrange we introducethis sum in (44) we do not destroyits validity,

since it = 0, hence
,

dsy

d2Z +

Hzi 0zi= 0.

(45

' d'82+Ht8t(5

We now determineH so that the coefficient

of 8Z4 or
dd2Z24
+ HZ4 = O.

Thenthetermin 8Z4 dropsoutof(45) andwemayregard8z1,8Z2,

(46)
8Z3 as arbitrary.

Hence for (45) to subsist it is now necessarythat the coefficients

of these three
quantitiesvanish. These threeequations and (46) give us
dzzi+ Hzi =

de2

i =I1, 2, 3, 4.

We may eliminateH as follows: we multiply(47) by zi and add, getting

d2Z+

Ez d + HDzi2

= 0.

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(47)

1923.]

437

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

R2. Therefore,

But by (24), Ez.2=

E d2ZA +R2H=O.

(47')

On the otherhand, (24) gives on differentiating

Z dzi= 0.

ds

Differentiating
this gives
EZis2 +

dZ$) =2

Now we have already seen, using (36), that the second termon the left = 1.
Therefore,
z

ideZt

+ 1 = 0.

This in (47') gives

-1+R2H

=0

or

HR1.

whichin (47) gives the fourequations

d2zi+ z=

=1,*

(48)

**,4,

whichare therefore
the differential
equationsdefiningan R-straight.These

equations having constantcoefficients

belongto a well-knowntype; theirintegrals
have the form
zi = ai cos1+ bi sin1
R

1, 2, 3, 4.

(49)

Here the constantsof integration,as, bi, are subject to the conditionthat the zi
satisfythe relation (24). For s = 0 this gives zi = ai while, for s = r-R/2,we
get zi = bi. Thus the ai and the bi are coordinatesof two pointsa, b and by (24)

al2+ ***+ a42= R2;

b12+ ...

+ b42= R2.

(50)

These 8 constantssatisfyanotherrelation,forsquaring (49) and adding gives

Ezi2

cos2

Eas2 + sin2-REb? + 2 sin1ftcos

R

Therefore,
= (cos2 R+

on using (24) and (50).

sin2 )R2

+ 2 sinjRcos-R*laibi

Thus
0 = 2 sin cos-* Eaibs,

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

aibi.

438

THE GEOMETRY OF RIEMANN AND EINSTEIN.

Therefore,
Eaibi

0.

[Dec.,
(51)

Thus the 8 constantsof integrationas, bi in (49) satisfythe threerelations (50),

(51). Theequations(49) together

with(50), (51) aretheequations
ofan R-straight.

We show now that we may determinethe as, bi so that the zi satisfy

Aizi+ *** + A4z4= O,

Bizi + ** + B4Z4 = O'

(52)

wherethe A's and B's are arbitrary. Geometrically,these two equations define
two R-planes or, from the standpoint of E-geometrv,two diametral spheres.
But if the coordinateszi of (49) satisfythese equations (52), this means that the
points of an R-straightlie on the intersectionof two R-planes (52), and this is
our fundamentaltheorem. To prove it we set (49) in (52); we get

cosR Fai,4i + sin - *EbsA = O

and a similarequation in the Bi.
aiAj

aiBj

bjAj+

bjBj+

This requiresthat

a2A2 +

a3A3 +

***

***

a4A4 =

0,

+ b4A4= 0,

+ a4B4 = O,

(53)

+ b4B4= 0.

If the two R-planes are distinct,that is, if the B's are not proportionalto the
A's, we may forexample expressa1, a2 in termsof a3, a4 and similarlyb1,b2 in

termsof b3,b4. If we put thesevaluesof a,, a2, b1,b2in termsof a3, a4, b3,b4

in the three equations (50) and (51), we see that there is only one degree of
freedomleft. That means, for example, that we may take the point a, from
which we measure s, at any point on the intersectionof the two R-planes (52).
Conversely,the a's and b's being chosen so as to satisfythe relations (50),
(51), the equations (52) determinethe coefficients
A, B of the two R-planes (52),
aside of course fromconstantfactors. Thus the fundamentaltheoremis established.
Let us multiplythe firstequation of (52) by B4, the second equation by A4
and subtract; we get
ClZl + C2z2+ C3z3= 0,
where Ci = AiB4 - BA4,
X's by (22), we get

i =

1, 2, 3. Replacing the z's by theirvalues in the

= 0,
ClXl + C2X2+ C3X3

a plane throughthe origin. Hence R-straightsare also the intersectionof a

diametral sphere with a plane throughthe origin. We mav also say fromthe
standpointof E-geometry: an R-straightis a circle cutting the fundamental
spherein diametralpoints.

in thenextissue.)
(To beconcluded

This content downloaded from 143.106.1.140 on Fri, 14 Mar 2014 13:00:58 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions