PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

(CORE)

MANUAL

DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF

CHEMICAL- RESISTANT LININGS FOR
CONCRETE STRUCTURES

PTS 30.48.60.12
AUGUST 2000

PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :
1)
2)
3)

PETRONAS and its affiliates.

Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.

Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with
users, PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury
or death) suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the
use, application or implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The
benefit of this disclaimer shall inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated
to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or require the use of PTS.
Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual
arrangements, PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by
users to any company or person whomsoever and the PTS shall be used exclusively for the
purpose they have been provided to the user. They shall be returned after use, including any
copies which shall only be made by users with the express prior written consent of PETRONAS.
The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall arrange for PTS to be held in safe
custody and PETRONAS may at any time require information satisfactory to PETRONAS in order
to ascertain how users implement this requirement.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

INTRODUCTION
SCOPE
DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
DEFINITIONS
CROSS-REFERENCES
SUMMARY OF MAIN CHANGES SINCE PREVIOUS EDITION

2.
2.1
2.2

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR CHEMICAL-RESISTANT LININGS

GENERAL
SELECTION CRITERIA

3.
3.1
3.2
3.3

CHEMICAL-RESISTANT LINING MATERIALS

MEMBRANES
CEMENTS AND MORTARS
CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICKS AND TILES

4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

LINING, COATING SELECTION AND DESIGN

GENERAL
NON-LINED CONCRETE SYSTEMS
JOINTLESS (FLOOR) PROTECTION SYSTEMS
CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICK LINING SYSTEMS
TRENCHES
NEUTRALISATION PITS
DRAINAGE AND PRIMARY TREATMENT FACILITIES
CONCRETE VESSELS
PROTECTION SYSTEMS FOR MISCELLANEOUS CONSTRUCTIONS

5.

HANDLING AND STORAGE OF LINING MATERIALS

6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

LINING INSTALLATION
SURFACE PREPARATION FOR CONCRETE SURFACES
EXPANSION JOINTS
MEMBRANES
MORTARS
BRICKS AND TILES
JOINTLESS (FLOOR) SYSTEMS

7.

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL (HSE) ASPECTS

8.

QUALITY CONTROL

9.

INSPECTION BEFORE AND AFTER INSTALLATION

10.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

11.

REFERENCES

12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1

SPECIFICATION FOR MATERIALS, SAMPLING, TESTING AND

PACKAGING

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

SCOPE
This PTS specifies requirements and gives recommendations for the design, installation,
testing and inspection of chemical-resistant linings for concrete structures used in the
petroleum, chemical and gas industries.
This PTS is a revision of the PTS of the same number dated May 1993 and has
incorporated PTS 30.48.60.33, which is now withdrawn. A summary of the main changes
since the previous edition of this PTS is given in (1.5).
Excluded from the scope of this PTS are rubber linings, for which reference is made to
PTS 30.48.60.10, and (acid-resistant) refractory bricks and shapes, for which reference is
made to PTS 44.24.90.31 Chemical-resistant linings for process equipment are covered by
PTS 30.48.60.13 Painting and coating systems are covered by PTS 30.48.00.31
This PTS principally covers ceramic types of lining materials (e.g. bricks, tiles and mortars)
and their underlying membranes, but also non-ceramic linings such as
synthetic-resin-based systems.
Chemical-resistant ceramic linings are used to protect concrete elements (such as floors
and gutters) against chemical attack. A combination of a ceramic lining and a membrane is
mostly used for this purpose. The membrane is designed to prevent penetration of
chemicals to the underlying concrete surface. The ceramic lining serves to protect the
membrane against chemical, mechanical and/or thermal loads (e.g. scaffolding, steam
cleaning).
It is not the intention of this PTS to provide detailed specifications for the various cases of
chemical attack. Each case shall be looked at individually and, based on these minimum
requirements, details shall be worked out and agreed between the Principal, the
Contractor, the Manufacturer and the Applicator, leading to a durable protection of concrete
structures against chemical attack under the particular conditions.
The specified properties shall be tested in accordance with internationally accepted
standards, or local standards if they exist. For convenience, specific standards are
mentioned in various cases.
For a further comparison of the chemical resistance between the materials, reference is
made to PTS 30.10.02.13
NOTE:

1.2

In various places in this PTS specific brands of products are specified. It is not intended to preclude the
use of other products; equivalent products may be used provided the Principal so approves.

DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

Unless otherwise authorised by PETRONAS, the distribution of this document is confined
to companies forming part of or managed by the PETRONAS Group, and to Contractors
nominated by them.
This PTS is intended for use in oil refineries, chemical plants, gas plants, and, where
applicable, in supply/marketing installations and exploration and production facilities.
If national and/or local regulations exist in which some of the requirements may be more
stringent than this PTS, the Contractor shall determine by careful scrutiny which of the
requirements are the more stringent and which combination of requirements will be
acceptable as regards safety, economic and legal aspects. In all cases the Contractor shall
inform the Principal of any deviation from the requirements of this document which is
considered to be necessary in order to comply with national and/or local regulations. The
Principal may then negotiate with the Authorities concerned with the object of obtaining
agreement to follow this document as closely as possible.

1.3

DEFINITIONS
The Applicator is the party which applies the chemical-resistant linings specified by the
Contractor.
The Contractor is the party which carries out all or part of the design, engineering,
procurement, construction and commissioning for a project or operation of a facility. The
Principal may undertake all or part of the duties of the Contractor.
The Manufacturer/Supplier is the party which manufactures or supplies equipment and
services to perform the duties specified by the Contractor.
The Principal is the party which initiates the project and ultimately pays for its design and
construction. The Principal will generally specify the technical requirements. The Principal
may also include an agent or consultant, authorised to act for the Principal.
The word shall indicates a requirement.
The word should indicates a recommendation.

1.4

CROSS-REFERENCES
Where cross-references to other parts of this PTS are made, the referenced section
number is shown in brackets. Other documents referenced in this PTS are listed in (11).

1.5

SUMMARY OF MAIN CHANGES SINCE PREVIOUS EDITION

The previous edition of this PTS was dated May 1993. This edition was made primarily to
incorporate the contents of PTS 30.48.60.33, which is now withdrawn. There have been no
significant technical changes in this edition.

2.

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR CHEMICAL-RESISTANT LININGS

2.1

GENERAL
Concrete is a mixture of hydraulic cement and mineral aggregates, of which the cement is
the constituent in the mix most vulnerable to chemical attack. Because the concrete has a
relatively high open porosity and concrete surfaces become increasingly permeable over
time, attack on the underlying reinforcement becomes a major risk as well.
The alkaline character of the cement in the mix provides the concrete with a good
resistance against alkalis. However, if concrete is exposed to acids, acidic solutions or an
acid/alkaline condition, protection by means of a chemical-resistant lining may be required.
Concrete is resistant to most hydrocarbon solvents.
Structural and other steels not only have limited resistance against chemical loads, but are
often susceptible to various systems of stress corrosion cracking or embrittlement. Under
specific conditions special steels can be used for use with chemicals.
A chemical-resistant lining will, in general, consist of at least two lines of defence, i.e. a
membrane and a chemical-resistant lining. The optimal solution is bricks or tiles laid in a
synthetic resin-based mortar with a suitable membrane, but this type of construction is
expensive and should only be applied when justified.
Less expensive solutions, consisting of one or more layers of a synthetic-resin-based
system, either with or without a reinforcement, or full plastic-sheet membranes which are
mostly proprietary systems, can be applied but should be justified as well.
Where possible, alternative cheaper solutions, such as bricks or tiles laid in silicate-based
mortars, jointless protective layers, or a combination thereof should be used.
A well-prepared concrete surface is essential for the proper performance of chemicalresistant linings. The installation of these linings shall be carried out by specialised
contractors with skilled labour under stringent supervision. The installation shall be
completed with a suitable after-treatment.
Precautions shall be taken to avoid inadvertent outflow/disposal of chemicals (e.g.
hydrochloric acid used for cleaning dirty floors, "acidulation" of brick lining, etc.).
For an initial selection of a chemical-resistant lining Table 2-1 may be used as guidance.
For further and/or detailed comparisons or selections reference is made to
PTS 30.10.02.13
Chemical-resistant lining materials shall comply with Appendix 1 and PTS 30.10.02.13

2.2

SELECTION CRITERIA
The need for a chemical-resistant protection and the selection of the type of protection
required for the envisaged duty shall be based on:
Service/operating conditions or environment
- of prime importance are the nature, composition and temperature of the chemicals
against which a construction shall be protected. Exact knowledge is required of the
behaviour of these chemicals and the materials for which protection is required;
Existing (mechanical as well as chemical) load
- taking into account not only the present situation but also any future changes,
thereby avoiding expensive alterations;
Condition of construction/installation
- this often has a decisive influence on the costs. Each material or construction
requires greatly differing working conditions, e.g. temperature, dryness, ventilation,
material-specific required sequences, etc.;

 Economics
- the most economical lining is the one which is adequately resistant to the loads that
arise and is quickly and cheaply applied, thus being likely to achieve the desired
service life;
Service life
- it is economically not justifiable to select protections which will outlive the
constructions they must protect. Sometimes it may be better to use a simple,
inexpensive application, even one requiring minor repairs, rather than more reliable
and sophisticated but costly applications;
Selection results
- besides the above criteria, thorough consideration should be given to specific site
and operational conditions, and the required safety margins within which operations
and/or the effectiveness of the protection can vary;
Types of chemical-resistant material
- in general terms as low, medium (normal) and high protection, or as types (in
ascending order), e.g. impregnation, sealing, coatings, fillers, synthetic resin screeds,
tiles in various types of mortars, including possible combinations.

Nitric acid 25%

Hydrofluoric acid 50%

Alkalis

Sulphates

+
+
+

+
+

+1] (+)

+
+

+
+

(+)
-

+
+ 1]

+
+

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
- + 1] (+) +
+
+
+
- + 1] +
+
+
+
- + 1] +
+
+
+
+
(+) +
+
(+) (+)1] (+) +
3]
+
(+)
(+)
+
(+)
3]
(+)
(+)
+
+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
-

Poly-isobutylene sheet
Cold-cured epoxy
Mortar/coating based on:
Phenol-furfuraldehyde resin
Phenol-formaldehyde resin
Furane resin
Epoxy resin
Polyester resin
Sodium silicate
Potassium silicate

]
2

+ Resistant
NOTES:

up to up to
30% 50%

+
+

+
-

(+) Resistant to a limited extent

Esters

Phenols

Ketones

Alcohols

Protective membranes:
Asphaltic bitumen

Aliphatic

+
+

Mineral oils

+
+
+

Aromatic

+
+
+

Chlorinated

(+)

Chlorides

Portland blast-furnace cement

+
High-alumina cement
+
Sulphate resisting Portland cement +

Concrete based on:

Portland cement

Hydrocarbons

Other salts

Ammonia liquid 25%

Potable

Brackish

Sea

Water

Sulphuric acid 98%

Comparison of the chemical resistance of various materials at 20 C

Hydrochloric acid 35%

Table 2-1:

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)

+
+

+
+

(+)
-

+
+
+
(+)
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
(+)
(+)
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

(+) (+)
(+) +
(+) +

+
+

- Not resistant

1. The filler shall also be resistant.

2. Has a porosity of 7 - 16% and should never be used as a membrane.
3

Sodium and potassium silicate cements are not resistant to ammonium fluoride and sodium
bicarbonate.

Although concrete has a certain degree of chemical resistance (4.2) it should be treated as
a substrate to be protected. The selection of the type of concrete shall be primarily based
on structural considerations, with its chemical resistance as a bonus.

3.

CHEMICAL-RESISTANT LINING MATERIALS

3.1

MEMBRANES

3.1.1

General
The following materials should be used as membranes for concrete structures:
asphaltic bitumen;
thermoplastic materials;
thermosetting materials.
Acid-resisting brick lining for floors, and bottoms of pits (e.g. neutralisation pits) or vessels
and trenches shall be provided with membranes which can sustain mechanical loads.
NOTE:

3.1.2

Mechanical loads may be induced by, for instance:

the use of high pressure cleaning equipment;

mechanical cleaning equipment;

mobile transport, equipment, etc.

Asphaltic bitumen membranes

The asphaltic bitumen used for the construction of membranes has good physical
properties and fair resistance against mineral acids (except hydrofluoric acid and low
concentrations of oxidising acids).
Asphaltic bitumen is not resistant to oils, grease and solvents (except alcohols). Generally it
shall not be exposed to temperatures in excess of 60 C.
The selection of the type of asphaltic membrane is determined by the loading expected on
the floor.

3.1.3

Thermoplastic membranes
Unless otherwise specified, only thermoplastic membranes based on polyisobutylene shall
be used. Polyisobutylene sheet lining provides a good liquid-tight membrane. It shall be
adhesive-bonded to the substrate and the joints shall be sealed either by an adhesive or by
fusion welding; vulcanisation is not required.
Polyisobutylene only has a fair resistance against hydrocarbon solvents.
NOTE:

3.1.4

Thermoplastic membranes are generally too rigid to accommodate irregularities of the concrete
substrate, unless they are used as "false form work".

Thermosetting membranes
For specific chemical conditions a synthetic resin-based membrane shall be used (with or
without a fibre reinforcement).
An optimum chemical resistance may be obtained by selection of an appropriate synthetic
resin.

3.2

CEMENTS AND MORTARS

3.2.1

Mortars based on hydraulic cements

Hydraulic mortars are generally used in building construction.
These mortars can be used as bedding mortar for tiles in mildly aggressive conditions.
Furthermore, layers of these mortars can be applied to structures to provide slopes for
drainage. However, layers shall be suitably proportioned to reduce the risk of possible
delamination or spalling. It should be good practice to incorporate the required slope or
level already in the finished structural concrete or equipment.

3.2.2

Silicate-based mortars
Silicate-based mortars are commonly used for the construction of acid-resistant brick
linings.
If contact with sulphuric acid is expected, potassium silicate-based mortar is preferred to
sodium silicate-based mortar (see notes).
NOTES:

1. Under these conditions the sodium sulphate, formed in the sodium silicate mortar, crystallises with
an increase in volume due to the release of crystallisation water. Potassium sulphate, on the other
hand, crystallises without increase of volume.
2. Halogen-containing silicate-based mortars may, in contact with strong acids, produce hydrofluoric
acid which would attack the substrate in direct contact with it. For such conditions, halogen-free
silicate-based cements have been developed.
3. The porosity of silicate-based mortars, which is between 7% and 16% depending on the type, is a
major disadvantage and therefore they shall not be used as a membrane.
4. Silicate-based mortar may be used as a bedding material, applied on an asphaltic bitumen
membrane. The joints between brick and tiles should then be sealed with a synthetic resin-based
mortar.

Mildly alkaline media can be tolerated at ambient temperature after careful "acidulation" of
the mortar. Alternating acid and alkaline service, however, cannot be tolerated.
Silicate-based mortars have only slight resistance against erosion, especially from flowing
hot water, steam or alkali. Washing out of mortar from the joints may occur. The use of
other types of mortar, mainly synthetic-resin-based, shall then be considered for jointing
and laying the bricks.
A properly mixed fresh mortar reacts readily and cures even when air is excluded. During
reaction and curing the mortar remains soluble and shall be protected against rain or other
possible wash-out by water.
Silicate mortars do not adhere to rubber membranes.
3.2.3

Synthetic-resin-based mortars
Synthetic-resin-based mortars are commonly used for the construction of acid-resistant
brick linings. They cure as a result of a chemical reaction between the synthetic resin and a
curing agent. They adhere very well to a rubber membrane.
The main types are filled phenolic, furane, polyester and/or epoxy-resin-based cements.
Phenolic-resin-based mortars, when properly applied, are erosion resistant and free of
pores. They can be used both as a membrane and for embedding and sealing the joints
between bricks or tiles. The modified phenolic-resin-based mortars provide excellent
resistance against both acidic and alkaline conditions and have good resistance against
mildly oxidising solutions.
In general the properties of furane-resin-based mortar resemble those of mortars based on
phenol resin, but curing at high temperatures is not required to obtain full chemical
resistance. The furane-resin-based mortars have good chemical resistance. If a filler such
as graphite is added, resistance against hydrofluoric acid is also obtained.
Furane-resin-based mortars are erosion resistant and free of pores when properly applied.
Polyester-resin-based mortars have good chemical and erosion resistance.
Epoxy-resin-based mortars can be used for continuous floors and for embedding and
sealing purposes. An outstanding characteristic of epoxy-resin-based mortars is their very
good adhesion. For their application on a concrete substrate no pre-treatment other than
proper surface cleaning is necessary.

3.3

CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICKS AND TILES

3.3.1

General
Bricks and tiles are manufactured to standard sizes which shall be used whenever possible
to save costs.
Tiles used for floors, trenches and neutralisation pits shall be at least 30 mm thick.
For walls in pump houses, etc. glazed, split tiles or similar shall be used. The minimum
thickness of the tiles should be 20 mm.
Bricks and tiles shall have a roughened, non-glazed surface finish or split dove-tailed
grooves that optimise adhesion of the mortar at the faces to be embedded.
Some acid-resistant bricks have low resistance against penetration of liquids and/or gases,
as against high thermal conductivity and consequently often good thermal shock
resistance. Attention shall be paid to their open porosity particularly if crystallising liquids
may be present where a potential danger of crystal growth within the pores can occur,
resulting in expansion and subsequent destruction of the brick.
Other bricks resist the penetration of liquids, in conjunction with low thermal conductivity
(closed porosity); hence, high thermal gradients within the brick can occur and subsequent
temperature shock will lead to thermal spalling.
Erosion resistance of the bricks and tiles shall be considered, if required.
Mechanical and physical properties of various chemical-resistant lining materials are given
in Appendix 1.

3.3.2

Acid-resistant bricks and tiles

Bricks commonly used in a chemical-resistant brick lining are silica-alumina type acidresistant bricks as specified in Appendix 1.

3.3.3

Carbon bricks
Carbon bricks as specified in Appendix 1 shall be used for the following:
if hydrofluoric acid is present;
alkali solutions with a mass fraction greater than 0.2;
alkali solutions at temperatures above 20 C.
Carbon has a moderate thermal conductivity and is very hard. These properties make it an
excellent material for corrosive and erosive services with high thermal loads. For these
conditions non-impregnated carbon bricks may be used, relying on mortars and membrane
to protect the concrete effectively.

3.3.4

Special ceramic materials

The use of these special ceramic materials, as specified in Appendix 1, are in principle
allowed but the Manufacturer/Supplier shall prove evidence of the long term reliability of
such systems to the Principal.

4.

LINING, COATING SELECTION AND DESIGN

4.1

GENERAL
Chemical-resistant linings for concrete structures shall be designed and installed by a
qualified and experienced engineering contractor only. The need for such linings shall be
taken into account early in the design and calculation stages of the structure, so that the
required slope for drainage of floors, trenches and other provisions, and the additional
weight of the lining, can be considered.
If a chemical-resistant lining has to be applied at a later stage, due to a change in
requirements or the extension of an installation, the concrete structure or equipment shall
be recalculated for the additional loads and/or the thermo-mechanical stresses.
If a change in chemical conditions from those originally anticipated in the design is
envisaged, the effects on the chemical-resistant lining shall be carefully scrutinised.
It is stressed that optimal chemical-resistant properties will only be achieved when
maximum attention is paid to the use of appropriate materials and installation requirements.
Prior to the application of lining systems, concrete vessels, sumps, pits etc., shall be water
tested to ensure liquid tightness in accordance with PTS 34.19.20.31

4.2

NON-LINED CONCRETE SYSTEMS

4.2.1

General
For the design and construction of reinforced concrete structures reference is made to
PTS 34.19.20.31
Hydraulic cements used in concrete and mortars as described below shall be in
accordance with Appendix 1.
The degree of chemical resistance of concrete based on these types of cement largely
depends on the composition of the mix.
Only concrete of high density and proper selected composition may be expected to provide
good resistance against alkalis, solvents, etc.

4.2.2

Concrete based on normal Portland cement

Normal Portland cement is generally used for concrete constructions, in mortars for
ordinary brick laying and if the concrete is exposed to mildly alkaline conditions.

4.2.3

Concrete based on Portland blast-furnace cement

For concrete and mortars exposed to a chloride environment (such as brackish and/or sea
water) this type of cement should be considered.

4.2.4

Concrete based on sulphate-resisting Portland cement

Where concrete and mortars are exposed to sulphates, or traces of sulphuric acid up to
0.5% by weight, and/or alkaline solutions up to about pH =12, the use of this type of
cement should be considered. Reference is also made to PTS 34.19.20.31, Appendix 1
tables 2 and 3.

4.2.5

Concrete based on High-Alumina cement

This type of cement is slightly resistant to diluted acids. It has a poor resistance to alkaline
solutions with a pH >9.
High-alumina cement may be used only for non-structural applications, and requires the
approval of the Principal.

4.3

JOINTLESS (FLOOR) PROTECTION SYSTEMS

4.3.1

General
Although the following descriptions mainly relate to application on floors, they can also be
applicable to adjacent walls, corbels, foundation blocks, columns, etc., which are subject to
the same chemical loads.
Chemical-resistant floors can be subdivided as follows:
Floors without continuous chemical attack
Concrete constructions, e.g. floors, without a finish layer can produce considerable dust
when they are dry. Moreover, they are vulnerable to incidental spillage of e.g. oils, fat
and various chemicals. For such conditions an epoxy lining system, optionally fibrereinforced, should be used (4.3.3 and 4.3.4).
Acid-resistant floors
Floors for acid service only and not exposed to traces of alkali, steam or hot water shall
be provided with a layer of bricks or tiles, which are laid in silicate-cement-based
bedding mortar on the selected membrane. The thickness of the mortar layer should be
3 - 5 mm.
When the mortar has cured, after about 4 days, an acidification treatment is essential
(6.4.3).
Acid-resistant and alkali-resistant floors
Floors exposed to alkali or alkaline solutions, and to acids, shall be provided with acidresistant bricks or tiles, which shall be laid in synthetic-resin-based mortar on the
selected membrane.
Acid-resistant, alkali-resistant and solvent-resistant floors
Thermoplastic materials, if resistant against the specified solvents, may be used.
Generally a mortar based on polyester, vinyl-ester or epoxy resin, or a mortar of the
same base material as used for laying the bricks or tiles, shall be applied as the
membrane.
Floors for mildly to moderately aggressive conditions
For exposure to mildly aggressive conditions or for temporary service, two methods of
protection are recommended:
- a layer of bricks or tiles which are embedded in a hydraulic mortar and joined with a
synthetic-resin-based mortar, or
- a jointless floor based on synthetic resin.
NOTE:

Laboratory floors should be included as well.

Jointless systems shall be continuous, liquid-tight and resistant to the chemicals to which
they may become exposed.
The floors shall have a slope of at least 1:50 for the drainage of rain water and spillage
water, which can be best obtained by applying a concrete fill to the sub-floor.
Figure 4-1: Typical construction of flooring
Normal flooring
(zero to moderate
chemical-resistance)

Chemical resistant
5 - 8 mm

Chemical resistant tiles

(thickness depending on
temperature load)
Bedding material
Primer and/or membrane
Reinforced concrete

Standard drawings S 19.050 (Figure 4-1) and S 19.055 show respectively the construction
of a chemical-resistant floor and drains for the discharge of rain water and/or spillage water.
4.3.2

Synthetic-resin-based systems
For exposure to mildly aggressive conditions or for temporary services, the use of jointless
floors based on synthetic resin should be considered.
The floors should be provided with a non-slip surface layer, especially where frequent
access will be required. Surfaces can be made slip proof by scattering sand, powdered
quartz or silicon carbide (e.g. carborundum) on the wet surface immediately after
placement.
The following types of floors are commonly used:
Trowelling floor
The trowelling floor should be applied in one layer with a thickness varying between
5 mm and 10 mm.
The trowelling compound has a high content of filler material. The ratio of binder to filler
material is about 1 : 7.5 by weight. An optimum density of the trowelling layer can be
obtained by grading the filler material.
Trowelling compounds have high compressive strength, excellent adhesion to a wide
range of materials and good resistance against corrosive agents.
Self-levelling floor
The self-levelling floor should be applied in one layer with a thickness varying between
2 mm and 4 mm. This type of floor has good chemical resistance but a low mechanical
strength. By adding filling materials in the ratio of binder to filling material of 1 : 2.5 by
weight (but without adding solvents) a sufficiently self-levelling system can be obtained.

4.3.3

Glass-or synthetic fibre-reinforced synthetic-resin based systems

For less severe chemical conditions, these systems may be considered as a possible
substitute for brickwork or tiling.
These systems shall not be used in areas where frequent maintenance is executed
(dropping of tools, etc.) and/or only in areas with low mechanical loads.
The minimum thickness of such a system should be at least 4 mm.

4.3.4

Resin-based paint systems

Resin-based paint systems on an epoxy or polyurethane etc. basis, may be applied where
aggressive products are intermittently present, e.g. in trenches, concrete constructions in
plants, chimneys, and on dry or wet floors where chemicals may be spilled.
Epoxy paint systems shall not be used for protection against continuous chemical attack,
not even for mildly aggressive conditions, nor in areas where frequent maintenance is
executed on equipment, nor in areas where mechanical loads can be expected.
If the concrete will be exposed to brackish or lightly contaminated water, a phenol-free
bitumen coating may be used. The dry film thickness shall be at least 400 m.

4.4

CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICK LINING SYSTEMS

4.4.1

General
Chemical-resistant brick linings consist of bricks or tiles laid in mortar. They are part of a
multi-layer system which generally consists of:
concrete, providing rigidity and strength;
an impervious membrane, to prevent the corrosive medium from reaching the concrete;
one or more layers of chemical-resistant bricks or tiles laid in a chemical-resistant
mortar, mainly as a protective layer for the membrane (i.e. thermal loads and
mechanical impact).
The chemical-resistant brick lining, including the membrane, primarily protects the
concrete. It is necessary for each layer of brick, including every joint, to be bonded to the
next layer in order to form a composite construction with the concrete and the membrane.
Great care shall be taken to avoid anything that might lead to failure of the bond between
adjacent layers of brick or the complete lining and the concrete structure. Although bricks,
tiles and mortars are to some extent permeable, the action of the corrosive medium within
the porous material is hampered by the corrosion products formed within the pores, thus
preventing further attack.
A chemical-resistant brick lining is liable to crack formation due to the brittleness of the
ceramic materials and the bonding strength between the cement and bricks or tiles. The
difference in thermal expansion between the lining and the concrete substrate should
therefore be taken into account. Cracks in the brick lining will allow penetration of the
corrosive agents/fluids through the lining, which will result in damage to the concrete if the
membrane fails.
Tiles are generally applied to surfaces which are readily accessible and to floors which are
not heavily loaded, otherwise bricks should be used.
Various types of mortar can be used for laying bricks or tiles, a summary of which is given
in (6.4).

4.4.2

Membranes
The chemical resistance of the various membrane materials is given in (2) and
PTS 30.10.02.13
A summary of the main inspection requirements which are to be met by the various
membrane materials is given in Table 10-1. The materials used for membranes on concrete
structures are dealt with in Appendix 1, and the requirements for installation are given in
(6.3).
Membranes or protective intermediate layers between chemical-resistant brickwork and a
reinforced concrete structure are of prime importance for the operation and service life of a
brick lining.
Membranes shall be continuous, vapour-tight and, in order to prevent damage to the joints
in the chemical-resistant layer, sufficiently flexible to allow for expansion and contraction
induced by structural movements.

4.4.3

Expansion joints
Expansion joints are the weakest parts in chemical-resistant brickwork and tiling, and
should therefore be installed outside the zones of chemical attack.
When this cannot be avoided, they should be located in areas where there is the least
possible chance of aggressive liquids permeating them, e.g. not at the lowest point of the
drainage slope.

Figure 4-2:

Expansion joint for (limited) unilateral movement

Chemical/temperature resistant
elastic sealing compound
Chemical-resistant bricks or tiles
Bedding material
Membrane
Concrete fill to obtain slope
Plastic foil to be glued to the
concrete

Plastic joint filler

Reinforced concrete

Backing material

Standard Drawings S 19.051 (Figure 4-2) and S 19.052 (for (limited) multidirectional
movement) show typical details of sealing expansion joints.
Joints sealed with chemical/temperature resistant elastic sealing compound
This type of joint is the most suitable construction at locations subject to severe
chemical attack.
At the expansion joint, the reinforced concrete shall have a 10 mm wide gap filled with a
plastic joint filler.
The concrete fill applied on top of the concrete provides the required slope for drainage
and shall have a gap at the same location and of the same width as the joint. The joint
shall be sealed with a plastic foil, adhesive-bonded to the concrete, and the gap shall be
filled with a chemical/temperature resistant elastic sealing compound.
Joints filled with asphaltic bitumen
The construction shall be similar to that described above. However, in this case the joint
is completely filled with Shell Cariphalte JS or equivalent.
NOTE: Shell Cariphalte is a product of Synthasco Bouwchemie B.V., NL (1.1).

4.5

TRENCHES
Chemical-resistant trenches can be subdivided as follows:
Trenches without continuous chemical attack
Drains, sewer systems, pits, etc., are often attacked by chemical products present in the
waste water. For such conditions a trowelling compound (4.3.2) or an epoxy coating
system (4.3.4) should be applied.
Acid-resistant trenches
Trenches for acid service only, and not exposed to traces of alkali, steam or hot water,
shall be provided with a layer of acid-resistant bricks or tiles. They shall be laid in silicate
mortar on the membrane, as described for acid resistant floors (4.3.1).
Acid- resistant and alkali-resistant trenches
Trenches exposed to alkali, alkaline solutions or acids shall be provided with acidresistant bricks or tiles, which shall be laid in synthetic resin-based mortar on the
membrane, as described for acid- and alkali-resistant floors (4.3.1).
Acid-resistant, alkali-resistant and solvent-resistant trenches
For trenches designed for transport of corrosive effluents containing petrochemical
solvents, the recommendations as laid down in (4.3.1) shall be followed.
Trenches exposed to chemical attack will normally be constructed of reinforced concrete,
and shall be provided with a lining suitable for the respective chemical and thermal
conditions.
The trench bottom should have a slope of 1: 50 for drainage. A lesser slope may be
considered for long trenches, but shall not be less than 1: 200.
The slope may be obtained by the application of a concrete fill on the trench bottom.
The trench shall be wide enough to ensure that the acid-resistant tile or brick lining can be
properly laid, i.e. preferably based on their standard dimensions to avoid unnecessary
cutting and material loss. The side walls shall be vertical.
When a trench is constructed in an acid-resistant floor, the membrane of both the floor and
the trench shall be continuous.
Figure 4-3:

Typical construction of trenches

50
grating

chemical resistant bricks or tiles

5 - 8 mm bedding material
concrete fill to obtain slope
reinforced concrete
membrane
concrete fill to obtain slope

Typical construction details of trenches are given in Standard Drawings S 19,060

(Figure 4-3), S 19.062 and S 19.065. Preferably trenches shall be covered with a chemical
resistant type grating and suitable for carrying mechanical loads, e.g. for persons and/or
transport equipment.

4.6

NEUTRALISATION PITS
Deep pits should be lined with acid-resistant bricks instead of tiles because of the
mechanical impacts due to filling of the compartments or removal of the fill and scraping for
cleaning during maintenance.
Acid-resistant bricks shall also be used for:
Partition walls
Lining of compartments to be filled with chalk or lime, because tiles may be damaged
when the compartments are scraped out
The contents of these compartments will generally be acidic or neutral. The
acid-resistant bricks shall therefore be laid in silicate mortar on the selected membrane
(6.4.3).
For selection of the membrane, see (3.1).
Other compartments
The contents of compartments are normally alkaline but may become locally or
completely acidic, depending on the nature of the liquid to be neutralised.
The acid-resistant bricks shall therefore be laid in synthetic resin-based mortar on the
selected membrane (6.4.4).
If the contents of a trench leading to a neutralisation pit are expected to occasionally
become alkaline, the bricks in the neutralisation pit (including the compartments to be
filled with chalk) shall be laid in synthetic-resin-based mortar (6.4.4).
NOTE:

If the contents of a neutralisation pit may become contaminated with petrochemical

solvents, the directions given in (4.3) shall be followed.

Trenches discharging acidic liquids need a certain slope for drainage, therefore
neutralisation pits should be built as near as possible to the location where the acid is
discharged, to keep the depth of the trench to a minimum.
Neutralisation pits should normally be constructed of reinforced concrete (4.8). They shall
have vertical walls and may consist of a number of compartments.
For neutralising acidic effluents, neutralisation pits may be filled with chalk (calcium
carbonate), lime (calcium hydroxide), a lime slurry or a solution of sodium hydroxide.
The contents of chalk-filled compartments into which an acidic liquid flows will generally be
acidic or neutral.
The contents of compartments filled with lime, sodium hydroxide solution or a lime slurry
will normally be alkaline, but may become locally or completely acidic depending on the
liquid to be neutralised.

4.7

DRAINAGE AND PRIMARY TREATMENT FACILITIES

The main building material for drainage and effluent treatment facilities, e.g. basins, tanks,
trenches, sumps, and bays, is concrete. Despite considerable advances in the technology
of constructing high-quality concrete, it may still be necessary to provide suitable protection
against the wide range of chemical conditions in these facilities.
Waste water to be treated may contain solid and/or liquid organic or inorganic substances
of all kinds, which will mainly attack the cement stone in the concrete structures. Refer also
to PTS 34.14.20.31
Depending on the chemical loads, linings shall be selected in accordance with (2).

4.8

CONCRETE VESSELS
During initial design, attention shall be paid to possible alternative construction materials,
e.g. the use of steel for neutralisation pits and sulphur-containing vessels, or the use of
proprietary systems as false form work, etc.
Such proprietary plastics systems, e.g. Bekaplast from Steuler Industriewerke GmbH,
Kera from Keram-Chemie GmbH, (1.1), available in both thermoplastic and thermosetting
materials, may be used if the Manufacturer/Supplier can provide evidence of the long
term reliability and economic benefit of such systems to the Principal.
Design and acceptance of concrete vessels shall meet the requirements of
PTS 34.19.20.31 For underground sulphur storage tanks for Sulphur Recovery Units,
reference is made to PTS 64.24.32.11
Tongue and groove materials are often used in larger constructions, to obtain improved
stability and a labyrinth-like joint lengthening. Concrete vessels of great length, which are
also exposed to temperature variations and which cannot be constructed with curved walls
or with pillar piers, should be designed with dowel-brick constructions, i.e. a dovetail groove
in the concrete in which similar shaped bricks are placed, generally at 1.5 m to 2 m
intervals.
The concrete vessel shall be water tested to ensure liquid-tightness before construction of
the lining, and subsequently dried in accordance with (6.1) prior to instllation or
preparations for installation of any chemical-resistant lining.
The lining shall be selected in accordance with the previous sections of this PTS, according
to the corrosiveness of the fluid to be contained.

4.9

PROTECTION SYSTEMS FOR MISCELLANEOUS CONSTRUCTIONS

4.9.1

Pump foundations
For chemical-resistant protection of reinforced concrete pump foundations, typical details
are shown on Standard Drawing S 19.071.
The membrane of the floor and that of the pump foundation shall be continuous. The
membrane shall also be continuous under the pump base.
Special care shall be taken where bolts penetrate the membrane construction, i.e. that no
aggressive medium can penetrate along bolts to behind the membrane and/or that no
sharp edges of the pump-base or ceramic materials can damage the membrane.
The sides and top of the pump foundation shall be protected by the same lining as the floor
on which it is placed.
Acid-resistant bricks or tiles shall be applied to the pump foundation membrane, as
described for chemical-resistant floors in (4.3).
For pump foundations exposed to petrochemical solvents, the directions given in (4.3) shall
be followed.
If the floor is provided with a trowelling compound, the pump foundations shall have the
sides and top protected with the same material and construction.
On the top of the foundation the trowelling compound shall have a liquid-tight joint with the
grouting of the pump.
If the floor is painted (4.3.4), the whole pump foundation shall be treated with the same
paint system.

4.9.4

Other concrete structures

Protection of concrete shall not be limited to floors, trenches, pits and pump foundations.
Parts such as concrete columns, beams, table tops, pump rooms, chimneys, foundations,
etc. may also be liable to chemical attack and need therefore a protective lining system at
least up to the level where attack is anticipated.
Special attention shall be given to unprotected locations, but where frequent spillage of
chemicals can occur, e.g. during loading and discharging of tanks, containers, etc.
Concrete columns, beams, table tops, pump rooms, chimneys, foundations, etc. liable to
chemical attack may have to be provided with a lining system.
Generally, the application of an epoxy coating system (4.3.3 or 4.3.4) is sufficient. For
underground concrete constructions a suitable flexible rubber/bitumen emulsion coating
should be used (4.3.3).
Other areas prone to damage lie near or underneath steam-trap outlets. Although such
damage is generally not caused by some sort of chemical attack, the hot steam can cause
considerable damage. If outlets are not directed to special collectors or drained into gutters,
a typical solution is shown below in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4:

Typical solution for steam trap outlet

(i.e. for non-contaminated steam only!)
Stream trap outlets
Approx.
100
Infill of coarse shingle
Approx.
600

Cast-in concrete tube or

equivalent
Concrete slab
Soil

5.

HANDLING AND STORAGE OF LINING MATERIALS

Bricks and tiles shall be carefully handled, unloaded and stacked by hand or by using a pair
of brick tongs. They shall be stored and protected against weathering conditions,
particularly exposure to direct sunlight or frost.
The individual constituents of mortars shall be stored and used in accordance with the
Manufacturer's instructions. The shelf life of the materials indicated by the Manufacturer
shall be carefully observed and they shall be stored and handled on a basis of first-in/firstout. Materials which have been stored for a period longer than six months shall be
subjected to new quality control tests and a test report shall be required and issued before
using them.
Hydraulic cements stored longer than three months shall have their suitability checked by
determination of the setting time.
Cements of different brands shall not be mixed; labels indicating the name, quality and
quantity of the contents shall not be removed.
In cold climates materials may freeze and must be defrosted before use by being stored in
a warm place.
Storage and handling of other chemical-resistant materials and resin-based products shall
be done in strict compliance with all regulations and safety precautions issued by the
Manufacturer/Supplier. Refer also to section 7.

6.

LINING INSTALLATION

6.1

SURFACE PREPARATION FOR CONCRETE SURFACES

Prior to the application of a membrane or a coat of primer, the concrete shall be at least
28 days old and the moisture content of the concrete surface (up to approximately 15 mm
deep) shall not exceed 4% by volume.
The moisture content of the substrate shall be checked regularly during installation of the
lining. Measuring equipment, which shall be calibrated, and the method of establishing
moisture content shall be approved by the Principal.
Prior to the application of any lining system, the concrete surface shall be prepared to avoid
air inclusions and to ensure sound attachment of the lining. The concrete substrate shall be
freed of cement skin, loose sand, dust, laminate, oil, grease or other contaminants by
means of non-metallic abrasive blasting.
Subsequently the concrete structure shall be inspected for cracks and other surface
defects. The structure shall be free of cracks wider than 0.30 mm and surface defects (for
instance fins, air holes, honeycombs, etc.). All such cracks and defects shall be repaired in
consultation with the Principal. In liquid retaining structures, cracks wider than 0.20 mm
shall be repaired by synthetic resin injection.
Small defects, up to a depth of approximately 50 mm, shall be sealed with a quartz-filled
epoxy mortar (composition 75% by volume quartz and 25% by volume resin). Larger
repairs shall be carried out with non-shrink cement-based mortars.
The surface of the repaired defects shall be smooth and flush with the surrounding
surfaces. The final surfaces shall be smooth and even without any sharp edges, burrs, etc.
(radius > 5 mm). Walls and floor shall not bulge inwards, as this could cause the brick
lining to break away as a result of uneven expansion during operation.
Concrete which has already been damaged by chemical products shall be neutralised or if
necessary removed to sound concrete and renewed. This repair shall be carried out in
consultation with the Principal.
For already used or dirty concrete floors, the preparation shall be carried out by first
completely wetting with water, then etching with a diluted hydrochloric acid (5 - 10% by
weight), then neutralising with a dilute ammonia solution (approx. 15% by weight), and then
washing the floor with an excess of water. If the concrete floor contains cracks, an acid
treatment shall not be performed because it may cause corrosion of the steel
reinforcement. Alternatively the surface may be prepared by means of grinding the
concrete until a sound and clean surface has been reached.
If required, the concrete surface shall be made level by an appropriate cement/sand mortar
1 : 3 (by volume). Slopes are made by applying a concrete fill to the sub-floor with a
minimum thickness of 25 mm or with a suitable special designed polymer floor-mortar.
Before these layers are applied the concrete shall be pre-treated, e.g. with an appropriate
cement-rich mortar slurry.

6.2

EXPANSION JOINTS
The expansion joint provided in the reinforced concrete structure (4.4.3) shall be filled with
semi-rigid polyurethane foam, insulation cord, or other appropriate material. Concrete fill
shall be applied on top of the concrete to provide the required slope for drainage and shall
have a gap at the same location, and of the same width, as the joint.
The joint shall be sealed with a plastic, e.g. polyisobutylene foil 3 mm thick, or other
suitable material.
The foil shall be installed as shown in Standard Drawing S 19.051, and adhesive-bonded to
the substrate; the adhesive should be of a bituminous or rubber type. The membrane and a
layer of bricks or tiles shall then be applied, keeping the joint open.

The joint shall then be cleaned (up to the joints backing material) and filled with a chemical/
temperature resistant elastic sealing compound.
6.3

MEMBRANES
Membranes, other than (6.3.1), shall be clean and free of dust, oil, grease or other
contaminants.

6.3.1

Asphaltic bitumen membranes

Membranes of asphaltic bitumen shall be applied to primed surfaces only, for which
purpose the Suppliers recommendations shall be followed.
The surface of the membrane shall be sanded for good adhesion of the subsequent mortar
layer, e.g. by brushing with a solution of bitumen and spreading quartz sand (0.7 - 1.2 mm
grain size) onto the bitumen coating whilst it is still tacky.
The asphaltic bitumen shall be spread by 'squeegees' or brush until it is smooth, even and
free of irregularities. For pump foundations, the membrane shall be applied before the
pump base plate is installed. The surface of the membrane shall be sanded as mentioned
above.

6.3.2

Thermoplastic membranes
Before the membrane is adhesive bonded to the concrete surface, the latter shall be
prepared in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions. A primer shall be applied to
the concrete surface if required.
The membrane shall not be applied at substrate or ambient temperatures below 5 C.

6.3.3

Thermosetting membranes
The cement skin of the concrete surface shall be removed by means of grit blasting and the
surface shall be freed of grit and loose debris.
The cleaned/rough surface shall be given an epoxy-resin-based primer, and then within
24 hours the epoxy resin and the glass fibre reinforcement (if any) shall be applied to the
specified thickness.
An epoxy membrane shall not be applied during rain if the surface is not suitably protected,
or at substrate/atmospheric temperatures below 10 C.

6.4

MORTARS

6.4.1

General
The mortar shall be mixed in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions. The tools
and mixer shall be clean and dry. Specific constituents to be used for mixing a certain type
of mortar shall never be mixed with constituents for other type of mortars.
Mortars shall not be applied under freezing conditions.
As the setting time of most resin-based mortars is influenced by atmospheric conditions,
special attention should be paid to the Manufacturer's instructions.
Prior to the application of mortars directly to a concrete and/or brickwork substrate, the
surfaces shall be made liquid-tight with an adequate primer. Additional sanding may be
required to improve adhesion of subsequent mortar layers.

6.4.2

Mortars based on hydraulic cements

Layers of these mortars, applied to provide slopes, shall be kept wet during curing (for
about one week) to obtain optimum strength and to avoid hairline cracks.
Hydraulic cement supplied in paper bags should be used within 8 hours of opening the bag.

The mortar used as bedding mortar should normally have a cement/sand ratio of 1 : 3 by
volume.
6.4.3

Mortars based on silicate cement

The mortar supplied in two components, a liquid and a powder, shall be thoroughly mixed
and used immediately.
The mixture has a certain pot-life, i.e. time during which it can be readily used. To avoid
using mortar which has already started to cure, only a limited quantity should be mixed at a
time.
On completion of the lining, "acidulation" of the brick lining is required as the alkali
hydroxide formed during curing is detrimental to the joint and would eventually destroy it.
Four days after application, the brickwork shall be washed with dilute acid, e.g. a 10% by
weight solution of hydrochloric acid.

6.4.4

Mortars based on phenol-furfuraldehyde resin

The mortar supplied in two components, a liquid and a powder, shall be thoroughly mixed
and used immediately.
The mixture has a certain pot-life, i.e. time during which it can be readily used. To avoid
using mortar which has already started to cure, only a limited quantity should be mixed at a
time.
The rate of setting and curing of the mortar is influenced by temperature, and mixing
components shall comply with these ambient conditions. In general at 15 - 20 C the mortar
starts to set in about four hours and cures in 1 - 2 hours. This also depends on the catalyst
used, e.g. at a lower temperature the mortar starts to set and cure at a lower rate too.
Generally, for optimum chemical resistance, curing should be done for one week at the
above temperatures.
If the temperature falls below 15 C, acceleration of the curing by heating, e.g. 16 hours
minimum at 80 C, may be considered. However, care should be taken to ensure that the
temperature does not exceed 80 C, as the difference in expansion between tile, substrate
and the top surface may adversely affect adhesion.
Contact with water and/or water vapour during curing shall be avoided. The heating should
therefore be carried out by means of electric heaters.
It is essential that during the curing the mortar does not come into contact with free alkali,
since this would tend to neutralise the acid catalyst. Consequently the concrete floor shall
be primed with two coats of a suitable primer if these mortars are used as a membrane.
The primer shall be in accordance with the Manufacturer's recommendations.

6.4.5

Mortars based on furane resin

Furane-resin-based mortar cannot be applied directly to concrete surfaces. When a
membrane of this mortar has to be applied, the concrete shall be pre-treated with a primer
in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions.
The precautions which have to be taken as regards pot-life and mixing are identical with
those for phenol-based mortars. The mortar cures at 15 C - 20 C in about 3 days.
Optimum chemical resistance can be obtained by heating at 80 C for at least 16 hours
after application.
For application of these mortars the same rules apply as for the application of cements
based on phenol-furfuraldehyde resin (6.4.4).

6.4.6

Mortars based on polyester resin

The components, in the form of a powder and a liquid resin, shall be mixed immediately
before use. They are self-curing at 15 C to 20 C; a complete cure at this temperature can

be obtained in 24 hours. For optimum chemical resistance a longer curing period is

recommended. The curing time and pot-life are affected by temperature.
Contact with water or water vapour shall be avoided during curing.
6.4.7

Mortars based on epoxy resin

These mortars are generally supplied as a paste of putty-like consistency, together with a
liquid curing agent.
After the two components have been mixed the mortar cures within one hour at
temperatures of 10 C to 30 C. The curing time is affected by temperature. The curing
agent generally used is a cold-curing type, which limits the maximum operating
temperature but facilitates processing. In tropical conditions a hot-curing type is
recommended due to its prolonged pot life.
Contact with water or water vapour shall be avoided during curing.
Epoxy resin-based mortars have very good chemical resistance. If a filler such as graphite
is added, resistance to hydrofluoric acid is also obtained.

6.5

BRICKS AND TILES

Bricks and tiles shall be clean and dry and should have a temperature of at least 15 C on
application.
If a brick lining has to be applied in winter, provisions shall be taken to protect the area from
cold, rain, snow, etc.
For narrow joints the bricks or tiles should fit correctly, which requires that they shall be
selected at site with regard to their squareness and dimensions.
Vertical parts should be lined before horizontal parts. In that way the vertically placed lining
is held in place by the bottom layers, which eases repair of the generally higher
(mechanical) loaded floor tiles.
When a membrane is present the bottom shall be protected first with a brick layer. However
in such cases it is recommended to place one shell layer first and then the bottom layer
inside of it. In a multi-layer application, at least the top layer of the bottom lining shall be
placed as described.
Acid-resistant bricks or tiles shall be applied to pump foundations before the bricks or tiles
are laid on the adjoining floors.

6.5.1

Jointing bricks and tiles

Bricks and tiles shall be fully laid in mortar (bed and cross joints), except when cross joints
between bricks or tiles will have a different kind of mortar, e.g. with enhanced resistance
against the envisaged chemical loads. Air inclusions shall avoided, since they may get filled
with aggressive chemicals, or may exert uncontrolled high pressures at elevated
temperatures.
The bed joint between the bricks or tiles and the membrane shall have a thickness of about
5 mm. The rough surfaces to be embedded shall have no edges (i.e. from split tiles or
hand-cut bricks) larger than 3 mm, to assure that sufficient mortar thickness remains
present between the bricks or tiles and the membrane.
The width of cross joints between bricks or tiles shall be between 3 and 5 mm. However,
the width shall be between 5 and 8 mm for certain hot pour jointing materials or if the joints
require sealing. When re-jointing may be required after a period of service, the joint shall be
made at least 5 mm wide.
The width of the cross joints shall be consistent over the full depth of the joint and the filling
free of cavities and/or air inclusions.

6.6

JOINTLESS (FLOOR) SYSTEMS

6.6.1

General
Concrete floors to be provided with jointless flooring shall have an even, smooth surface,
prepared in accordance with (6.1) and shall be at least 6 weeks old prior to application of
the flooring.
To obtain good adhesion between the flooring and the concrete, the latter shall be sealed
with one or more coats of an unfilled solvent-free resin primer. In general the unfilled liquid
component of the flooring compound is used as a primer.

6.6.2

Application of the trowelling floor

The floor shall be applied in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions.
The trowelling floor shall be applied "wet in wet" until the specified thickness has been
obtained.
The surface of the trowelling layer may be compacted by the use of mechanical equipment.

6.6.3

Application of the self-levelling floor

The floor shall be applied in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions.
The application can be carried out by casting or spraying to the specified thickness.
In order to make the floor slip-proof (if required), sand or powdered quartz or carborundum
shall be scattered on at the moment of gelling of the flooring, so that it will not sink into the
material.

6.6.4

Application of a glass fibre reinforced synthetic resin

After preparation of the concrete surface, an epoxy primer consisting of a mixture of resin
and curing agent shall be sprayed or brushed onto the concrete.
Subsequently various layers of glass fibre or synthetic fibre reinforcement, after being
impregnated with synthetic resin, shall be applied until the specified thickness has been
obtained.
Glass fibres or synthetic fibres shall be chosen in accordance with the chemical load and at
least the top coat shall be UV-resistant in case of exposure to the environment.

6.6.5

Application of a synthetic-resin-based paint system

Concrete surfaces should be commercially blasted to remove the cement film and be made
dust free (6.1.1).
The surface shall be levelled (if required) using an epoxy filling system.
The epoxy paint shall be applied to a clean and dry concrete surface by means of a brush,
roller or spraying equipment.
The system shall consist of a primer and two or more coats of high-build paint, applied to a
total dry film thickness of at least 400 m. The application of the paint to the concrete shall
be in accordance with the Manufacturer's instructions.

7.

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL (HSE) ASPECTS

Local HSE regulations shall be met.
Chemical-resistant lining materials are chemical composites and the mixtures can contain
or form hazardous chemical components. These can occur both in freshly produced
mixtures as well as in use, and during removal of aged materials.
All safety precautions and/or measures for the use and handling of these materials,
including recommendations, e.g. for ventilation requirements when used in confined areas
and disposal requirements of surplus materials, shall be provided by the
Manufacturer/Supplier.
Material safety data sheets shall be supplied for each component of the lining system by
the Manufacturer and the Applicator shall retain copies and appropriate safety bulletins at
site.
The Applicator shall strictly obey the regulations and all safety measures required, which
are mandatory for any worker seeking to access the equipment to start work. The Principal
shall be informed about all personnel requiring access to the work, such as labour, QA/QC
personnel and supervisors.
All necessary arrangements and safety precautions, including those of the Principal, should
be fixed in entry certificates, with a limited period of validity.
Skin contact with chemical components should be prevented by using rubber gloves and
barrier creams, and any accidentally contaminated skin areas should be thoroughly washed
with soap and water or, if necessary, the Manufacturer's special instructions shall be
followed. Subsequent rubbing of lanolin-containing creams into the skin may be beneficial.
Skin contact with synthetic-resin-based materials shall be avoided. They may also produce
stains on clothing. Applicators shall therefore observe strict personal hygiene and take care
when handling these materials in the uncured liquid state.

8.

QUALITY CONTROL
The installation of chemical-resistant linings on concrete constructions is critical for the
reliability of these structures.
The required properties of the chemical-resistant materials and the sampling and testing
requirements are specified in Appendix 1.
The application of chemical-resistant linings involves several distinct steps from design to
installation. Lack of quality control in any of these steps could lead to complete failure of the
lining. It is therefore of vital importance for a quality control procedure to be established for
each chemical-resistant lining application, covering all aspects from material selection up to
and including final inspection of the installed lining.
This principal procedural aspects of quality control which should be covered as a minimum
are as follows:
Base material selection

Clearly specified requirements

Manufacturing of materials

Inspection, testing

Design

Design requirements to enable a sound lining

Material shipment and storage

Requirements, inspection, certification

Installation/application

Requirements, inspection, Applicator's procedure

Qualification of equipment and crew

Completed lining

Inspection, progression testing

Lining repairs

Methods, requirements, inspection

The Contractor shall set up an appropriate quality control programme addressing at least all
steps described above.
The Contractor shall provide Suppliers and Applicators with sufficiently detailed
specifications for each of their specific activities. In particular the demarcation of
responsibilities and the smooth hand-over between the parties involved should be duly
covered in the quality assurance programme.
Lining details shall be included on drawings. They may also be provided by equipment
suppliers. Any conflicting requirements shall be investigated by the Contractor and referred
to the Principal for resolution before quoting for the work or proceeding with the lining
execution.
The properties and applications shall be tested in accordance with ISO or equivalent
standards. All chemical-resistant materials shall be tested by a recognised laboratory,
experienced in testing refractory materials.
For the applicable testing standards for ceramic materials, refer to PTS 64.24.32.30, Table
3-1.

9.

INSPECTION BEFORE AND AFTER INSTALLATION

Before a membrane, is applied the concrete surface should be inspected for cleanliness,
moisture content and defects (6.1), e.g.:
wiping a dark cloth over the surface will reveal presence of unwanted dust;
if water sprinkled on the surface beads or forms droplets, traces of form-release agents
or curing compounds may still be present;
if a curing compound has been used its compatibility with the adhesive shall be checked
or else that compound be removed.
The specified slope, if any, shall be checked and approved by the Principal.
Prior to the start of the work, mixing tests of mortars and jointing components, followed by
testing of strength properties, shall be executed.
A summary of the main requirements for membranes is given in table 9-1.
Table 9-1: Summary of main requirements for membranes
Property

Test method/criteria

Surface condition/
Visual examination
Adhesion

No surface defects.

Porosity
Thickness 1)
Curing

Check by careful
knocking.
No lack of adhesion.
Visual examination.
No porosity.
Physical measurement.
No softening after 1 minute
rubbing with acetone.

Membrane material
Asphaltic bitumen
Plastics
(3.1.2)
(3.1.3/3.1.4)
x

x
x 2)

NOTES: 1. Depending on the type of membrane, thickness may be measured before or

after application. Layer thickness meters are unsuitable for use on concrete
substrates, so only physical measurements shall be taken after application.
2. Applies only to glass fibre reinforced epoxy-resin-based membranes.

Pull-off tests and holiday testing of plastic membranes shall be done in accordance with
PTS 30.48.60.10
During application of the membrane, inspection shall be carried out and due attention
should be paid to the following points:
sufficient adhesive shall be applied;
the membrane shall be applied without air inclusions or other visible defects;
NOTE: In pits or tanks final inspection can be carried out after hydraulic or vacuum testing.

damages as result of installation accidents shall be noted and treated;

faults of the seams or of overlapping shall be noted and treated;
bricks and tiles (especially cut tiles!) shall have no sharp edges, burrs, etc. which can
damage the membrane (radius > 3 mm).
Brick lining shall not be commenced until the applied membrane has been inspected and
accepted by the Principal.
Upon completion the brick lining shall be inspected for the following conditions:
general appearance of the brick lining;
the specified dimensions of the joint;
the execution of the jointing.
Until brick linings are fully cured, they shall be protected against mechanical abuse, welding
activities, scaffolding, etc., and detrimental weather effects, for example cold, heat and rain.

10.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Chemical-resistant linings shall be regularly inspected for defects. They shall be carefully
treated and protected against damage by mechanical loads, impact and inadmissible local
chemical and thermal attack (steam, leaking flanges, etc.).
NOTE:

When a defect is detected, repairs shall be carried out immediately in order to prevent serious attack
of the concrete substrate.

The main defects are spalling of the bricks or tiles, erosion effects, cracks in the lining and
degradation of the chemical-resistant lining materials.
Spalling of the brick lining may be due to:
inadequate brick quality, e.g. composition, porosity;
exposure to exceptional operating conditions, e.g. thermal, chemical or other loads more
severe than those foreseen;
local spalling by the impact by a falling object.
Damaged areas or spots shall be opened up to sound material and shall be repaired by
replacement with new material, either of the original quality or of another quality, providing
the latter is fully compatible with the adjacent original material with respect to physical and
chemical properties.
If the effects of erosion or attack by chemicals are slight, the joints can be repaired by
means of scraping out to sound material and filling with fresh mortar. If the depth of the
scraped-out joint is 75% or more of the thickness of the brick layer, all the cement in the
joint shall be removed and replaced. If necessary the bricks shall be re-laid, for which
purpose a sufficient number of bricks shall be taken out to restore the brick lining
configuration.
If cracks in the lining are present, they shall be opened completely to establish the
condition of the membrane and/or substrate. Care shall be taken not to extend the damage
by removing the affected parts.
Degradation of the lining materials may indicate excessive chemical attack. The chemical
conditions causing the degradation shall be established and appropriate countermeasures
shall be taken.
If defects other than those described above are found, their cause should be determined
and the construction reviewed to avoid further attack of the concrete construction.

11.

REFERENCES
In this PTS, reference is made to the following publications:
NOTE:

Unless specifically designated by date, the latest edition of each publication shall be used, together
with any amendments/supplements/revisions thereto.

PETRONAS STANDARDS
Index to PTS publications and standard
specifications

PTS 00.00.05.05

Index to Standard Drawings

PTS 00.00.06.06

Non-metallic materials selection and application

PTS 30.10.02.13

Painting and coating of new equipment

PTS 30.48.00.31

Rubber-lined process equipment, piping and piping

PTS 30.48.60.10

Design and installation of chemical-resistant brick

lining for process equipment

PTS 30.48.60.13

Drainage and primary treatment facilities

PTS 34.14.20.31

Reinforced concrete foundations and structures

PTS 34.19.20.31

Refractory bricks and shapes

PTS 44.24.90.31

Refractory materials for sulphur recovery units

(Claus & SCOT)

PTS 64.24.32.11

Insulating and dense refractory concrete linings

PTS 64.24.32.30

STANDARD DRAWINGS
Note:

The latest issue dates of standard drawings are

identified in PTS 00.00.06.06

Chemical-resistant brick linings for concrete

structures Flooring

S 19.050

Detail of expansion joint in floors

S 19.051

Detail of expansion joint between floor and

wall

S 19.052

Drain construction in floors

S 19.055

Trench construction with vitrified-clay split

tiles and vitrified-clay components

S 19.060

Trench construction with vitrified-clay split

tiles and vitrified-clay half-round channels

S 19.062

Open trench construction lined with bricks

or tiles

S 19.065

Detail of foundation

S 19.071

GERMAN STANDARDS
Chemical equipment; building materials for bricklining, classification, properties, testing
Issued by:
Beuth Verlag GmbH
Burggrafenstrae 4-10,
1000 Berlin 30,
Germany

DIN 28062

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
Refractory products; Measurement of dimensions
and external defects of refractory bricks:
Part 1: Dimensions and conformity to
drawings

ISO 12678-1

Part 2: Corner and edge defects and other

surface imperfections

ISO 12678-2

Issued by:
International Organisation for Standardization
1, Rue du Varemb
CH-1211 Geneva
Switzerland
Copies can also be obtained from national standards
organizations

12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTE:

The documents listed in this Bibliography are for information only and do not form an integral part of
this PTS.

Linings over concrete for immersion services

NACE RP0892

Coatings for concrete surfaces in non-immersion and

atmospheric services

NACE RP0591

Issued by:
NACE International
1440 South Creek Drive
Houston, Texas 77084
USA

Handbook of acid-proof construction

ISBN-0-89573-370-6

APPENDIX 1
1.

SPECIFICATION FOR MATERIALS, SAMPLING, TESTING AND PACKAGING

GENERAL
This specification provides the requirements for the physical properties of chemicalresistant lining materials for application in both process equipment and concrete structures,
including the testing and acceptance criteria for these materials.
Unless otherwise specified, acid-resisting materials shall be selected in accordance with
DIN 28062. The properties of ceramic materials shall be tested in accordance with the
standards shown in Table 3-1 of PTS 64.24.32.30 They shall meet the requirements of the
purchasing documents.
Sampling and dimensional control shall be done in combination with PTS 44.24.90.31,
appendix 2.
For (acid-resistant) refractory bricks and shapes reference is made to PTS 44.24.90.31

2.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR MATERIALS

2.1

MEMBRANES
Membranes shall be continuous, vapour-tight and resistant to the chemicals to which they
may become exposed.
It is stressed that the optimum properties of the membranes are achieved only when
installed in accordance with the appropriate installation specifications.

2.1.1

Asphaltic bitumen
Asphaltic bitumen membranes not subject to mechanical loads shall be made of blown
bitumen, i.e. a softening point 115 C and a penetration depth of 0.5 mm at 25 C, without
fillers and consisting of a 6 mm dry film thickness layer.
Asphaltic bitumen membranes, designed to sustain mechanical loads in service and
consisting of a 20 mm dry film thickness layer, shall be prepared as follows:
A filler shall be made by mixing 80 parts by weight of river sand (passing a sieve
opening of 2 mm or finer) and 20 parts by weight of fine quartz powder, of which at
least 75% should pass a sieve opening of 75 m or finer.
12 to 13 parts by weight of asphaltic bitumen, i.e. penetration range 2 - 3 mm, shall
be added to 100 parts of filler, and the components shall then be heated to 200 C
and properly mixed.
If required a primer shall be provided under a membrane of asphaltic bitumen.
NOTE: Belgian Shell or Synthasco Bouwchemie B.V., NL could be contacted for availability and/or equivalent
bituminous materials.

2.1.2

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic membranes are principally based on polyisobutylene. They may be used for
membranes on concrete surfaces, depending on the required chemical and temperature
resistance.
The polyisobutylene sheet shall meet the following requirements:
colour
: black
: minimum
1.5 mm
thickness
density
: minimum
1.4 kg/dm3
tensile strength
: minimum
2 N/mm2
elongation
: minimum 300 %
The minimum required thickness is 5 mm.
The maximum allowable operating temperature is 70 C.

If the use of proprietary systems is considered, approval from the Principal shall be
obtained.
2.1.3

Thermosetting materials
Resins based on epoxy, polyurethane, furane, phenol, polyester and acrylic may be used
for membranes on concrete surfaces, depending on the required chemical and temperature
resistance.
Properties are dependent on the type of resin, type of filler or pigment, curing agent, curing
method and the possible use of fibrous reinforcements (e.g. glass fibre). The Manufacturer
shall state the composition.
The average thickness of this membrane should be 5 mm, with a minimum of 3 mm.
The in-service temperature resistance of glass fibre reinforced synthetic-resin systems
ranges from -40 C up to +140 C.
No additional fillers or pigments etc. shall be used in membranes, except where a resinbased membrane is used as a final (concrete) surface finish.

2.2

CEMENTS AND MORTARS

2.2.1

Hydraulic cement
Hydraulic cements, based on Portland clinkers, blast furnace slag or high aluminium oxide
containing raw materials, shall be in accordance with PTS 34.19.20.31 or internationally
accepted standards.

2.2.2

Silicate based cements

Sodium silicate, potassium silicate and silica cements shall be in accordance with
DIN 28062 type 2.2.
Silicate-based mortars are two component systems. They consist of a sodium or potassium
silicate solution mixed with inert fillers, e.g. quartz flour. The mortar cures as silica is
deposited from the alkali silicate solutions, a process which is accelerated by the presence
of a catalyst, e.g. salts of fluorosilicic acid or dimethyl-formamide.

2.2.3

Synthetic resin based cements

These cements shall be in accordance with DIN 28062 type 2.3.
Mortars based on
Phenol-furfuraldehyde resin
These mortars consist of phenol-formaldehyde resin and furane derivatives with an inert
filler. They are supplied as two components, a liquid resin solution and an inert powder
(both of which also contain part of the reactive agent), which shall be thoroughly mixed
together.
Modified phenolic resin-based mortars have been developed to cover a wider range
than pure phenol-formaldehyde resin or furane resin mortars. If resistance to
hydrofluoric acid is required, graphite, not sand or barytes, shall be used as a filler.
The time lapse between application and curing shall be kept to an absolute minimum. In
order to give the mortar its full chemical resistance (in particular to caustic alkalis), the
cement requires a heat treatment at 80 C for 24 hours after it has fully cured.
The operating temperature limit of these mortars is 140 C.
Furane resin
They are supplied as two components (a powder and a liquid) which give the mortar
excellent adhesive qualities when mixed correctly. The liquid cures to a hard solid resin

on addition of suitable catalysts. Furane based resins shall contain less than 1% of free
furfural.
The operating temperature limit of furane resin cement is approximately 140 C.
Polyester resin
Mortars based on (unsaturated) polyester resin are supplied in two or more
components, i.e. liquid resin, catalyst, accelerator, filler, etc., which shall be mixed
together.
The addition of inert fillers such as graphite to the mortar extends its resistance even to
hydrofluoric acid and its resistance against alkalis increases.
The operating temperature limit of polyester resin based mortars is 120 C.
Epoxy resin
Mortars based on epoxy resin are supplied in two or more components.
Various formulations will have different properties, according to the different curing
agents used.
The temperature limit of epoxy resin based mortars is 110 C.
2.2.4

Epoxy paint systems

Epoxy paint systems are applied where aggressive products are occasionally present, e.g.
on concrete constructions in plants, chimneys, and on dry or wet floors, where chemicals
may be spilled.
The properties are dependent on the type of resin, type of filler or pigment, curing agent,
curing method and the possible use of fibrous reinforcements (e.g. glass fibre). The
Manufacturer shall state the composition and the Principal shall be consulted .

2.3

CERAMIC AND CARBONACEOUS MATERIALS

Because of the special nature of chemical resistant linings, many manufacturers have
specialised in the development and engineering of dedicated ceramic and carbonaceous
products and shapes in order to suit the required application. These developments are
generally detailed in special catalogues, which contain a wide variety of bricks and tiles and
shapes, which may vary per manufacturer, and can be consulted.
If so required in areas with frequent access of personnel, ceramic materials shall be
provided with anti-slip arrangements, e.g. ridges or equivalent, but in such manner that
washing away of liquids shall never be obstructed.

2.3.1

Acid resistant bricks and tiles

The main constituents of acid-resistant bricks and tiles are SiO2 and Al2O3.
Their properties are determined by:
chemical composition (i.e. SiO2 and Al2O3 and addition of special components);
NOTE:

Usually the Al2O3 content is between 15 and 30% by weight, but if kept below 10% by weight
an improved chemical resistance will be achieved. Conversely, the chemical resistance will
decrease at an Al2O3 content higher than 30% by weight .

type of mineral constituents (i.e. crystalline and glassy phase);

structure and distribution of the grains;
porosity;
firing/bonding temperatures.

Acid-resistant bricks and tiles (including 'Glover' bricks) shall be in accordance with
DIN 28062 type 1.1.2. For convenience a summary is given in section 5 of this appendix.

Unless otherwise specified acid-resistant bricks and tiles with an apparent porosity of 5%
maximum, which are resistant against all acids except hydrofluoric acid (HF), shall be used.
Additionally this type of brick has a good resistance to solutions of alkalis up to 20% by
weight at room temperature, but will not withstand stronger concentrations, especially
under hot conditions. For such conditions, carbon or graphite bricks should be used.
In order to provide thermal shock resistance, acid-resistant bricks with a higher apparent
porosity than 12% and lower chemical resistance, such as red or blue acid-resistant bricks,
may be used. The use of these bricks is subject to approval of the Principal.
Brick and tiles for accessible/passable floors shall be furnished with an adequate anti-slip
provision or profiled surface.
2.3.2

Carbon and graphite bricks and tiles

Unless otherwise specified, bricks to be used shall be non-impregnated carbon or graphite
bricks in accordance with DIN 28062, type 1.2.1. or type 1.2.2 respectively.
Carbon bricks with an ash content below 1% shall be used if the liquid to be protected
against contains HF or strong alkalis.
Requirements for impregnated bricks and tiles and impregnated/non-impregnated graphite
bricks and tiles shall be stated in the purchase order and shall be approved by the
Principal.
NOTE:

2.4

Carbon bricks are porous but they can be made liquid-tight by impregnating them with synthetic resins
during the manufacturing process. Impregnation does not significantly change the thermal conductivity
of the material, but it does improve its strength.

OTHER CERAMIC LINING MATERIALS

These special ceramic bricks and cements are usually based on:
unglazed porcelain
sintered alumina
(Al2O3> 80%)
silicon-carbide
(SiC)
silicon-nitride
(Si3N4)
Requirements for these products shall be in accordance with DIN 28062 and shall be stated
in the purchase order, after consultation with the Principal.

3.

SAMPLING, TESTING AND INSPECTION

The Manufacturer shall maintain quality control/test records. He shall submit a record of
inspection and testing together with a statement of compliance with this PTS.
The selected type of membrane and synthetic resin or other mortar cements shall be
indicated in the requisition sheets. The Manufacturer shall be prepared to supply
certificates including a reference or lot number for the materials and samples for test and
reference purposes. These specifications shall not be subsequently changed prior to
application without approval from the Principal.
All bricks and tiles shall have a regular texture throughout, without laminations, cavities or
cracks and shall have consistent dimensions and shapes.
The number of items (bricks or tiles) to be tested shall be determined in accordance with a
(standardised) sampling plan and the required acceptable quality level (AQL) agreed upon
between parties. The AQL and sampling plan should reflect the criticality of the intended
service.
For sampling plans, testing and acceptance criteria, reference is made to PTS 44.24.90.31,
Appendix 2.

3.1

TESTING OF PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICKS/TILES

3.1.1

Properties
The selected bricks and tiles shall be tested for the following properties:
bulk density;
water absorption;
cold crushing strength, at ambient temperature;
acid resistance, (once per order);
content of fluxes, (once per order);
Refer to PTS 64.24.32.30, Table 3-1 ("Reference Table for Testing") for appropriate ISO,
ASTM, DIN and JIS testing standards.
The acceptance criteria for the above tests shall be based on the Manufacturer's data and
shall be agreed in the order.

3.1.2

Visual inspection of manufacturing defects

The textural properties of selected bricks or tiles shall be inspected in accordance with
ISO 12687, parts 1 and 2. The dimensions shall be inspected in accordance with
section 3.3.
The measurements determine the permissible laminations, cracks, craters and other
surface defects of bricks and tiles. The following description should be used as guidance:

3.1.3

Laminations

None

Texture

No grain segregation at corners and edges.

No presence of extraneous particulate matter.
External evidence of a strong, well bonded and uniform texture

Surface defects and cracks

To be specified in the order.

Edge and corner damage

No more than two on any working face, with a maximum of three

in total.
The acceptable value shall be specified in the order.

Dimensional tolerances
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES:
Length

+/- 1%

Width

+/- 1.5%

with a minimum of +/- 1.5 mm

Thickness

+/- 1.5 mm

Taper

+/- 1.5 mm

Warpage
(See Note)

+/- 1.0 mm for diagonal

350 mm

+/- 1.5 mm for diagonal

> 350 mm

Assemblies

The mortar joints of assembled shapes shall not be larger than 3 mm.
Shapes of one set shall be clearly marked with a set number, followed by a
sequential number.
The tolerances for the main dimensions shall be stated on the drawing(s) or
purchasing documents.
NOTE: Warpage is expressed as the largest deviation from a straight line across the
diagonal of a brick face

4.

PACKAGING AND STORAGE

The chemical-resistant lining materials shall be packed and transported in a manner which
will ensure arrival at their destination in a satisfactory condition.
The packaging shall be clearly and indelibly labelled, indicating the name, brand and
quantity of the contents. Care shall be taken that the cements are transported and stored in
accordance with Manufacturer's instructions. These instructions shall include precautions

for safe handling. The cements should not be stored longer than the period indicated by the
Manufacturer, generally about 6 months.
After this period their use shall be permitted only when a new and complete recheck has
indicated that the products are in accordance with the original specification.
Cements from different Manufacturers shall not be mixed.
5.

VALUES FOR MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALRESISTANT LINING MATERIALS

The given data should be considered as indicative and should not be regarded as a basis
for requisitions and/or purchasing.

5.1

TYPICAL DESIGN PROPERTIES

Thickness
mm

Maximum
temperature
C

Hard natural rubber

(80 Shore D)

70

Soft natural rubber

(65 Shore A)

70

Butyl rubber

120

Polyisobutylene

100

Glass-fibre reinforced epoxy

Silicate-based cement
Synthetic-resin-based cement
Note:

Poissons Modulus of
Thermal
ratio
Elasticity conductivity
MPa
W/(m.K)

Thermal
expansion
10-5/K

0.5

3500

0.3

2.0

110 1)

0.3

1.2 x 104

0.29

2.0

5 - 10

900

0.5

5 - 10

180 1)

0.6

1. Maximum temperature may vary per type/product.

5.2

SUMMARY OF TYPICAL VALUES FOR MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

For convenience the table below gives a summary of the various materials mentioned in this PTS, taken from DIN 28062.
Units
Bulk density

Acid-resistant bricks & tiles Porcelain

Carbon bricks
Graphite bricks
Red acid- Chem.-techn.
tiles
Fused basalt
NonImpregnated
NonImpregnated
resistant
Stoneware (unglazed)
impregnated
impregnated

Silicatebased
cements

kg/m3 1900 - 2500 2200 - 2500 2200 - 2500 2800 - 2900 1400 - 1600 1600 - 1800 1600 - 1700 1700 - 1900 1800 - 2000

Water absorption

4 - 10

Apparent porosity

Acid resistance

2.5 - 8

Coefficient of thermal
expansion

10-5/K

Specific heat
Thermal conductivity

0 - 3.0

Synthetic-resin-based cements
Phenolic &
Furane

Polyester &
Epoxy

1400 - 2100

1500 - 2100

0.05 max.

18 - 22

17 - 19

0 - 10

6 - 10

0.3 - 3.0

0.1 - 0.5

18

20

12

0.3 - 0.8

0.5 -1.0

0.5 max.

0.5 max.

0 - 10

0.5 max.

0.5 max.

0.5 - 0.6

0.4 - 0.55

0.4 - 0.7

0.6 - 0.8

0.3 - 0.5

0.35 - 0.5

0.18 - 2.0

0.35 - 0.4

1.0 - 1.2

2.0

3.0

J/(kg.K)

800 - 840

750 - 840

800

670 - 1090

800 - 1170

670 - 1090

800 - 1170

W/(m.K)

0.9 - 1.3

1.3 - 1.6

1.2 - 3

1.0 - 1.2

1.7 - 7.0

1.7 - 7.0

90 - 140

90 - 140

1.63

1.6

1.1

50 - 150

100-500

350 - 650

450 - 550

20 - 40

90 - 110

25 - 40

80 - 100

15 - 29

25 - 60

at 300C

Compressive strength

MPa

Tensile strength

MPa

12

15

Flexural strength

MPa

10 - 20

30 - 90

40 - 160

30

8 - 12

25 - 35

10 - 20

25 - 35

Modulus of elasticity

GPa

20 - 40

45 - 60

50 - 80

100 - 120

5 - 15

10 - 25

5-9

9 - 16