January 2013

Position Paper: LNG, a Sustainable Fuel for all

Transport Modes
NGVA Europe
A Position Paper of NGVA Europe prepared by:
Dr. Antonio Nicotra, General Manager Gasfin Investment S.A., Managing Director AirLNG GmbH

Table of Contents
1.

Scope of the Position Paper ............................................................................................................ 2

2.

Definitions & Characteristics ........................................................................................................... 2

3.

Why LNG ? ....................................................................................................................................... 3

3.1

Because it is compact: ............................................................................................................. 3

3.2

Because it is clean & safe: ....................................................................................................... 3

3.3

Because it is economic: ........................................................................................................... 4

3.4

Because it is (becoming) available at petrol filling stations: ................................................... 5

4.

Brief History of LNG ......................................................................................................................... 5

5.

LNG Technology, Supply Chain & Markets Safety & Security....................................................... 6

6.

LNG Business Scope and boil-off//venting management ............................................................ 8

7.

LNG Design Standards ..................................................................................................................... 9

8.

LNG Quality Standards .................................................................................................................. 11

8.1

Standards for Heat & Power Pipeline Applications ............................................................ 11

8.2

Standards for NGV Internal Combustion Engines Mobile Applications ............................. 13

LD NGVs - UNECE R83 ........................................................................................................... 15

HD NGVs - UNECE R49 .......................................................................................................... 15

Correlation between NGV Test Reference Gases and LNG/Gas Market Fuel
Specifications ............................................................................................................................... 17
9.

GHG Emissions from LNG - Carbon Footprint on Life Cycle Assessment ...................................... 18

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1. SCOPE OF THE POSITION PAPER

The scope of this Position Paper is to provide relevant information on Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG) as most sustainable fuel for mobility for all kind of transport vehicles (by land, water
and air), describing its characteristics & quality standards (depending on its sourcing from
fossil natural-gas or renewable bio-gas), its production technologies & safety aspects, trading
availability & prices, distribution and application technologies & efficiencies, its
environmental impact on GHG emissions & carbon footprint on Life Cycle Assessment, as
fuel for mobile internal combustion engines (PISI/DISI, DICI, jet-engines & gasturbines).
NGVA Europes Position Paper aims at remaining objective and concise, without specific
references to business operators.

2. DEFINITIONS & CHARACTERISTICS

LNG is Natural Gas that has been cooled and cryogenically condensed to a liquid form at
nearly atmospheric pressure and a temperature of about - 162C.
LNG is generically produced from fossil gas sources; should renewable bio-gas sources be
utilized the relevant liquid gas is called LBG or LBM or bio-LNG (Liquid-Bio-Gas or Liquid-BioMethane).
LNG composition when produced from fossil gas sources varies and typically contains
between 81-99% of methane (C1), 0-13% of ethane (C2), 0-4% of propane (C3), 0-1% of
heavier hydrocarbons gas (C3+) and 0-1% of nitrogen (N2); sulphur & mercury compounds
and carbon dioxide & water must be entirely removed to avoid damaging the liquefaction
process. Liquid-Bio-Gas (after treatment) is >97% methane with minimal N2 residues.
LNG may be defined Lean-LNG when it has a methane-content >95%, or Rich-LNG when
methane is <85%; variations in the chemical compositions determine differences of its
physical and thermodynamic properties. Confusion must be avoided with the definitions of Lgas (low-calorific/methane-gas with C1 <85%, C2+ 4%, Inert >11%) and H-gas (highcalorific/methane-gas with C1 >89%, C2+ 8%, Inert <3%). The methane content of an
unconditioned LNG could be increased by installing de-ethanizer and de-propanizer columns;
however, this practice is currently not frequent as most commercial LNG vapours satisfy the
Wobbe Index (WI) quality standards required for injecting the relevant regasified LNG into
the pipeline network.
Fuel quality (EU/ASTM) standard specifications for LNG have not yet been issued (December
2012). General specifications for LNG refer to its relevant gas-vapour qualities that can be
injected into the pipeline networks (EU, US, UK); the NGVA Europe is contributing to
different EU Project Committees and Working Documents progressing on this topic.
LNG specific weight/density is about 0.42-0.48 Kgr/L (Lean-Rich LNG), giving a specific volume
for LNG of about 1.7-1.8 compared to petrol products (about 0.72-0.82 Kgr/L for gasolinediesel).
LNG calorific values are: Higher Heating Value (HHV): about 55-54MJ/Kg and Lower Heating
Value (LHV): about 49-48MJ/Kg (Lean-Rich LNG); giving an energy density for LNG of about
1.13 compared to petrol products (HHV: 46.5-45.5MJ/Kg and LHV: 43.5-42.5MJ/Kg for
gasoline-diesel).
The Wobbe Index (WI) of LNG vapours (defined as HHV or LHV divided by the square root of
vapour density relative to air) is between 51-54/47-50 (Lean LNGRich LNG), well accepted

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by the wide tolerance of the European grid requirements (45-54 for H-Gas, 39-44 for L-Gas);
the generally high WI of LNG vapours is usually and more economically reduced by adding N2
instead of removing C2+ .
The Methane Number (MN) of a gas indicates its knocking resistance. A MN of 80 means that
the gas anti-knocking behaviour is the same as a mixture of 80% methane with 20 %
Hydrogen (anti-detonation: correlated to gasoline MON & RON: example: MN of 60 to 100
[from L-gas to CH4100%] gives a MON of 113-140.
LNG is colourless, odourless, non-corrosive and non-toxic; its direct contact with human body
parts will cause severe cold-burns and the inhalation of its vapours may cause suffocation
due to oxygen displacement.
LNG, as such, cannot burn nor explode: its gas vapours have a flammability range between 515% volume concentration in air at >540 C auto-ignition temperature; below this
temperature & within this range, an ignition source is needed for LNG gas vapours to burn or
explode in confined places.
The combustion of LNG gas vapours release the cleanest exhaust gas with the lowest
CO2/GHG emissions of all combustion fuels (including hydrogen and electricity on Life Cycle
basis); exhaust gases from LNG vapours do not contain measurable quantities of PM or SOx
and release about 85% less NOx and 25% less CO2 than oil derivate fuels (emissions HCs
depend on the engine technology/efficiency). LNG gas vapours are cleaner than pipelineCNG and bio-methane from bio-gas provides the best quality. The Carbon Footprint Life Cycle
Assessment of LNG and LBG provide best performances compared to any other fossil-fuel or
bio-fuel.

3. WHY LNG ?
3.1 Because it is compact:

1 m3 of LNG corresponds to about 600

m3 of gas (Standard state), 3 m3 of CNG
at 200bar and 0.65 m3 of oil (energy
equivalence),

1 Kg of LNG has the energy content of

1.14 Kg diesel-oil and 1.12 Kg gasoline,

In volume: 1L of LNG has the same

energy density as 0.6 L of diesel-oil,
0.7 L of gasoline, and 3.1 L of CNG.

3.2 Because it is clean & safe:

LNG density (0.42-0.48 Kg/L) is lower than water (1 Kg/L), and its vapour density (0.7-0.8) is
lower than air (1); it does not mix nor sink in water, therefore not polluting it, and it rapidly
disperses into high atmosphere, reducing the risk of flame-injection. If inhaled, gas vapours
are non-carcinogenic & non-toxic, however they may suffocate due to oxygen displacement;
direct human body contact with extreme low temperature of LNG causes severe cold-burns.

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The combustion of LNG gas vapours

releases the lowest emissions of CO2
because LNG contains the highest
concentration of methane (C:H4), having the
highest C:H ratio, compared to any other
hydrocarbon (C:H3, C:H2, C:H, ratios); this
condition requires to feed a higher specific
amount of combustion-oxygen, determining
a higher specific amount of water in the
exhaust gases.

The presence of more water has a beneficial

effect in quenching the combustion
temperatures, reducing NOx emissions.

Uncontrolled LNG vapours dispersed into

the atmosphere have a GHG effect 21-25
times more detrimental than CO2 (according
to IPCC 100-year cycle, and it is 72 times
more detrimental than CO2 over a 20-year
period); it requires the industry to maximize
its efforts to avoid uncontrolled release of
vaporized LNG into the atmosphere (LNG
venting).

3.3 Because it is economic:

The modern LNG industry is still relatively young and constantly achieving cost reductions
(also related to economy of scale in sizes and volumes) while the oil refining industry is facing
cost increases due to the reducing availability & quality of oil feedstock and to the more
sophisticated refining procedures needed to fulfil more severe requirements of oil-products
specifications.

As a result of this trend, LNG prices have moved away from oil parity in the early 2000s, to
currently being below 50% of oil prices in Europe, while the economic recovery of shale gas
in the US has dropped their gas prices below 20% of oil, stopping LNG imports into the US
and favouring LNG exports.

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3.4 Because it is (becoming) available at petrol filling stations:

LNG was first developed as buffer-storage of peak-shaving power units, to liquefy and
store natural gas during off-times, to be re-gasified for peak demand that could not be met
by pipeline volume capacity; these units are small/mid-size with about 1-2t/h capacity (14002800 Sm3/h) and about 20,000m3 storage tank.

Subsequently, the LNG technology has been

used to compact gas to its minimal volume for
more economic transportation over long
distances, because less energy (and consequent
less GHG emissions) is needed to liquefy gas and
transport it liquid over long distances, instead of
repeatedly re-compressing the gas for pipeline
transmission over thousands of kilometres; for
this application plant sizes grew to large singletrains of 500-1000t/h, storage tanks of 120,000180,000m3 and ships of 120,000-266,000m3.

Ultimately, the LNG technology is returning to small and very-small size units to allow natural
gas to be conveniently and efficiently used also for all mobile applications, where a gas
pipeline-network is not available and where the necessity to carry the fuel tank on-board the
vehicle requires the fuel-tanks system to be compact, light, efficient and safe. For mobile
applications tanks size vary from 60-600L (car/truck) to 3,000-9,000L (train/ship/aircrafts),
25-50m3/120m3 (road/rail tanker). LNG refuelling at the dispenser station is becoming userfriendly as for petrol.

4. BRIEF HISTORY OF LNG

Natural gas liquefaction dates back to the 19th century when British chemist and physicist
Michael Faraday experimented with liquefying different types of gases, including natural
gas. German engineer Karl von Linde built the first practical compressor refrigeration
machine in Munich in 1873.
The first LNG plant was built in West Virginia in 1912 and began operation in 1917. The
first commercial liquefaction plant was built in Cleveland, Ohio in 1941; LNG was stored
in atmospheric pressure tanks. The liquefaction of natural gas raised the possibility of its
transportation to distant destinations.
In January 1959, the world's first LNG tanker, the Methane Pioneer (a converted World
War ll liberty freighter containing five 7,000 barrel equivalent aluminium prismatic tanks
with balsa wood supports and insulation of plywood/urethane) carried an LNG cargo
from Lake Charles, Louisiana to Canvey Island, United Kingdom. This event demonstrated
that large quantities of liquefied natural gas could be transported safely across the ocean.
Over the next 14 months, seven additional cargoes were delivered with only minor
problems. Subsequently, the British Gas Council proceeded with plans to implement a
commercial project to import LNG from Venezuela. However, before the commercial
agreements were finalized, large quantities of natural gas were discovered in Libya and

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in the gigantic Hassi R' Mel field in Algeria, which are only half the distance to England as
Venezuela.
In 1964, with the start-up of the 1st 0.9 bcm (billion cubic meters per year) Arzew GL4Z
plant, Algeria became the world's first LNG exporter and the United Kingdom the first
LNG importer. Since then Algeria has become a major world supplier of natural gas as
LNG to Europe and worldwide. In 1969 the US started exporting LNG from Alaska to
Japan.
In 1970 the Libyan/Marsa El Brega plant started exporting; in 1972 the Brunei/Lumut
plant, followed in 1977 by the Indonesian/Botang A and UAE/Das Island plants, in 1983
the Malaysian/Bintulu plant and in 1989 by Australian/Karratha plant; Qatar started
exporting in 1996, Trinidad-Tobago and Nigeria in 1999, followed by Oman 2000, Egypt
2004, Equatorial Guinea & Norway 2007, Yemen 2008, Russia/ Sakhalin 2009. With
capacity expanding from 42 to 77 Mtpy (million tons per year), Qatar is the world largest
LNG exporter today.
Over a period of 40 years, from 1960 to 2000, the LNG industry steadily grew from zero
to a global supply of 100,000 Mtpy, primarily as project-financing of point-to-point
delivery contracts (from liquefaction plant to regasification plant) for injection into the
national gas grids and main use for heat & power. Additional capacity of 100,000 Mtpy
has entered into operation in the last 10 years.

Until the early 2000s, natural gas was trading at prices comparable to oil (oil-parity).
Since 2003, oil has moved up and away from the previous levels of 20-30 $/barrel (bl), with
nervous fluctuations related to global economy & politics, with peaks & trends over $100140/bl.
On the contrary, in the last 10 year, LNG and gas prices showed moderate seasonal
fluctuations in ranges corresponding to $40-50/bl of oil equivalent in Europe and $15-25/bl
of oil equivalent in the US. These values may be assumed as industry bench-mark prices for
LNG imports and exports.

In the last 40 years, the demand-supply of LNG has constantly doubled (1980=25Mtpy,
1990=50Mtpy, 2000=100Mtpy, 2010=200Mtpy), and it is expected that it will double
again between 2010 and 2020, because of the significant price advantages compared to
oil, combined with environmental advantages.
LNG price & cleanness, combined with compactness and efficiency, raised the interest
for using LNG also as fuel for transports with dedicated and dual-fuel engine
technologies: in 2000 the Glutra (a Norvegian ferry) was the 1st ship propelled with LNG;
already in the mid-1990s busses and heavy duty (HD) trucks were converted to use LNG
in California; while even before, in 1989, the Russian Tupolev cryogenic TU155 aircrafts
made several commercial flights also to Europe, using LNG as fuel.

5. LNG TECHNOLOGY, SUPPLY CHAIN & MARKETS SAFETY & SECURITY

A good description of the LNG world industry, trade routes & contracts, exports sources &
imports terminals, quantities & qualities is reported in the LNG Industry 2010 Report of the
GIIGNL (The International Group of LNG Importers), publically available at:

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http://www.giignl.org/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/A_PUBLIC_INFORMATION/LNG_Industry/
GNL_2010.pdf

A good description of LNG processes & technologies along its value chain, with particular
focus on safety & security regulations, is well described in the LNG Safety and Security 2006
Report of the CEE (Centre for Energy Economics of the University of Texas at Austin), publicly
available at:

http://www.beg.utexas.edu/energyecon/lng/documents/CEE_LNG_Safety_and_Security.
pdf

Technologies related to the production of Bio-LNG (LBM/LBG) from bio-gas, transportation of

LNG by road, design, storage & handling in L-CNG satellite stations and application as fuels in
dedicated (spark-ignited) and dual-fuel (compressed ignition) engines are the business scope
of several NGVA Members.

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6. LNG BUSINESS SCOPE AND BOIL-OFF//VENTING MANAGEMENT

The liquefaction of NG has the main clear purpose of increasing the energy density of the
fuel:
 36.5 MJ/M3
 7.3 MJ/L
 21.9 MJ/L

(0.036 MJ/L) of gas @ standard ISO conditions of 20 C and 1 bar

of gas @ 20 C and 200 bar
in liquid form @ -162 C and 1 bar

In order to condense NG into a liquid, it must be cooled to approximately -162 0C at 1 bar. It

is then obvious that the isolation mechanisms are critically important to minimize the heat
exchange and dispersion losses with the environment because, inevitably and as a matter of
thermodynamics, a cryogenic fluid losing heat to the ambient modify its status in either of
the following two effects:
 If stored at constant volume: its inner pressure increases,
 If stored at constant pressure: the cryogenic fluid boils (boil-off) and vapours have to
be released (venting).

LNG on-board storage tanks are typically designed to take LNG at higher pressures than the
ambient. Due to the inherent behaviour of LNG cryogenic vessels, the release of NG boil-off
(mainly CH4) could happen under different circumstances.
There are different systems allowing the proper functioning of the vehicle and of the
refuelling infrastructure. LNG vehicle delivery systems can be classified as follows:

- Vapour collapse system: in this system, the delivery pressure is lower than the tank maximum
working pressure. The tank is equipped with an economizer capable of drawing the vapour
phase from the tank, keeping its pressure at a constant rate. Cold LNG is usually sprayed at the
top of the tank during refuelling so as to collapse the vapour phase (if any) contained within it.
This system reduces the pressure in the tank, allowing it to be refuelled.
- Vapour return system: in this system, the delivery pressure is higher than the tank maximum
working pressure. For this, the tank is equipped with a pump that pressurizes the LNG to the
appropriate level for the engine. The pressure in the tank can therefore vary depending on the
rate the fuel being consumed. Similar spraying is done when refuelling, but total amount of
vapours contained within the tank may or may not collapse. If a significant amount of vapour is

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contained in it, the tank can be connected to the refuelling station in order to return the
vapours.

Some considerations concerning the use of LNG for mobile applications:

a) The use of LNG as fuel for mobile applications has an inherent time factor associated,
making it ideal for commercial applications (having intensive and constant use, with
limited periods of inactivities) and less attractive to private cars with occasional use and
long periods of parking time (where boil-off vapours would inevitably form and require
to be disposed).
b) The time during which a cryogenic tank can maintain the LNG content with no gas
release (venting) is known as holding time. In North America, holding time of LNG tanks
is regulated, having to be greater than 5 days, according to SAE J 2343. The same
approach is being followed within the UNECE LNG Task Force, prescription which will be
adopted in Europe per ECE R110 when and if approved.
c) Due to the above mentioned reasoning (different existing LNG delivery systems), LNG
fuelling and on-board usage systems are vent-free under normal operation of the
vehicle. The technology to prevent venting in case of low LNG consumption at the
station or on-board the vehicle is available. Vapour transfer to the station or on-board
processing of vapours reduce the tank pressure and resets the clock on holding time.
d) Nevertheless, if a cryogenic LNG tank is left unused (i.e. situation of an LNG vehicle left
parked and filled-up for a long time), it will vent sooner or later. According to technology
and the data applied by the US operator Chart Industries: when a typical 437 litre
vehicle fuel tank with relief pressure of 15,9 bar is filled to normal filling so that the initial
saturation of LNG in the tank is 8,3 bar, and the vehicle is left unused in stationary
situation, the holding time (non-venting time) is five days. Smaller initial saturation
would result in longer holding time. After this holding time, relief valve would open and
the content of the tank would be vented within 35 days at an average flow rate of 0.19
kg/hour. Different technologies applied by other LNG operators would have longer or
shorter holding times.
e) This venting behaviour could also be controlled by different systems:

Storage of the vented gas into a high pressure CNG cylinder.

Burning of the vented gas to produce CO2 and H2O.
Mandatory obligation for LNG vehicle operators to de-fuel their systems
when parking for a period longer than the given holding time.

7. LNG DESIGN STANDARDS

The LNG industry is still relatively young and it is one of the worlds safest industries: it has
consolidated its large scale technologies & operating systems (primarily for heat & power
application) during 1995-2005, and the relevant design standards have been issued and
regularly revised to improve operability/safety:

Large LNG facilities with storage capacities in excess of 200 tons (about 450 m3) are primarily
regulated by the EN 1160:1996 and EN 1473:1997 standards.

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Instead, small scale applications for mobile transports only started developments in the
1990s and, consequently, the relevant technologies & operating systems are still at
optimization development stage and appropriate design/safety standards are still in
progress:

Smaller LNG satellite plants and stations with storage capacity between 5 and 200 tons are
covered by EN 13645:2001, and more specifically regulated by national and regional
authorities.

A specific CEN standard for NGV refuelling infrastructure (pr-EN 13638:2007) was cancelled
for exceeding the permitted time for balloting. A New TC within ISO (TC 252) has been
created for working on an international standard for NGV fuelling stations. The Working
Group 1 is dealing with the CNG standard, and the Working Group 2 with the LNG & L-CNG
standards. Target date to deliver is mid-2015.

Also in progress are: CEN/TC 265 and TC 282 referring to installations of tanks and
equipment for flammable liquids including LNG, ISO/CD 12617 for LNG connectors and
ISO/CD 12614 & ISO/CD 12991 for LNG vehicles components. Additionally, the UNECE LNG
Task Force is preparing all the necessary requirements to permit the approval of LNG
systems to be installed on-board the vehicles, and to be inserted within ECE Regulation 110.

The NFPA 57 and NFPA 59A (US National Fire Protection Association) codes are in place and
applicable to LNG vehicles fuels systems, production, storage, and handling of LNG, providing
relevant recommendations with regards to safety and security aspects.

The NGVA Europe is committed to favouring the harmonization of the current national
differences with regards to LNG design standards.
Many natural gas vehicles still have typical engines designed for gasoline or diesel that have
been adapted to use natural gas; only recently engine manufacturers have started designing
engines dedicated & optimized to the use of gas.
At the same time, the distribution & refuelling equipment is being improved and optimized
to adopt user-friendly solutions similar to petrol.
These processes are still progressing and causing variations of the operating conditions and
of the relevant requirements and, consequently, the release of relevant design standards
need to refer to this evolution.

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10

8. LNG QUALITY STANDARDS

8.1 Standards for Heat & Power Pipeline Applications

The quality of the LNG traded worldwide (except LBG) refers to the specification of the
product shipped in bulk from the producers to the various receiving terminals. Currently, this
LNG is sold at prices in US$/MMBTU, related to its HHV (High Heating Value) and not
specifically referring to other chemical or physical specifications, on condition that the
product satisfies the Wobbe Index (WI) accepted by the gas pipeline network linked to the
relevant receiving terminal.

The typical average composition of various LNG received by different receiving terminals is
indicated in the LNG Industry 2010 Report of the GIIGNL mentioned in paragraph 5; a similar
table provided by the IGU (International Gas Union) gives typical LNG compositions as
follows:

Worldwide average LNG compositions

Algeria-Arzew
Algeria-Bethioua
1
Algeria-Bethioua
2
Algeria-Skikda
Egypt-Damietta
Egypt-Idku
Libya
Nigeria
Abu Dhabi
Oman
Qatar
Trinidad
USA-Alaska
Australia-NWS
Brunei
Indonesia-Arun
Indonesia-Badak
Malaysia

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Nitrogen Methane Ethane Propane

%
%
%
%
0,56
87,98
9
1,99

Higher HC
C4 + %
0,47

Gross/High
Heath
Value
MJ/Sm3
41,68

Wobbe
Index
MJ/Sm3
52,62

1,2

87,59

8,39

2,12

0,7

41,01

51,96

0,92
1,02
0,08
0
0,69
0,08
0,29
0,35
0,36
0,03
0,17
0,09
0,05
0,06
0,02
0,16

91,39
91,19
97,7
97,2
81,57
91,28
84,77
87,89
90,1
96,82
99,73
87,39
90,61
91,16
89,76
91,15

7,17
7,02
1,8
2,3
13,38
4,62
13,22
7,27
6,23
2,74
0,08
8,33
4,97
6,01
5,06
4,96

0,52
0,66
0,22
0,3
3,67
2,62
1,63
2,92
2,32
0,31
0,01
3,35
2,89
1,84
3,54
2,79

0
0,11
0,2
0,2
0,69
1,4
0,09
1,57
0,99
0,1
0
0,84
1,48
0,93
1,62
0,94

39,78
39,87
38,39
38,61
44,02
41,76
42,45
42,73
41,58
38,82
37,75
42,74
42,09
41,32
42,61
41,52

51,41
51,42
51,03
51,19
53,82
52,87
53,16
53,27
52,65
51,29
50,62
53,4
53,06
52,64
53,34
52,7

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11

It is worth mentioning that LNG producers/distributors sell the LNG based on its Gross
Calorific/ Higher Heating Value, while users would mainly benefit from the Net
Calorific/Lower Heating Value.

The Wobbe Index (of a Gas or LNG vapours) is defined as HHV in Mega Joule per normal
cubic meter (MJ/Nm3) of the vapours divided by the square root of the vapour density
relative to air and it is regulated by ISO 13443:1996.

The figures below, prepared by the Programme Committee D.1 Study Group of the IGU
during the 2003-2006 triennium, show how widely tolerant is the EU gas network, with Japan
desiring higher ranges and UK-US preferring lower ranges.

The LNG producers adjust the quality specification of their product according to their
(tolerant) contractual obligations. A table with the specifications of all LNG traded worldwide
is reported in the LNG Industry 2010 Report of the GIIGNL publically available from their
web page (ref: prg.5).

The LNG receivers adjust/lower the high WI of LNG to gas-pipe requirements by adding
nitrogen.

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8.2 Standards for NGV Internal Combustion Engines Mobile Applications

Fuels used in the internal combustion engines of vehicles need more stringent specifications
than just calorific value, to satisfy the increasingly efficient engine technologies and the
constantly more demanding restrictions for the exhaust gases. All transportation fuels
already have well specified standards for market fuel specifications: EN 228 for gasoline, EN
589 for LPG, EN 590 for diesel-oil, EN 14214 for FAME-methyl-ester and other relevant
standards for marine and aircraft applications.

Also natural gas (including re-gasified LNG) to be used as fuel in NGVs requires more
stringent conditions than just LHV and WI, also depending on the type of engine:
o

The Methane Number (MN) related to knocking resistance/anti-detonation capabilities

(correspondent to MON/RON indexes for gasoline) is important to PISI/DISI Ottoengines and new Dual-Fuel C.I. engines using a mixture of NG and diesel. The higher the

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value, the more efficient the engine can result, as the compression ratio could be raised
without damaging the engine. Additionally, the more stable this property is, the easier
for the engine design process to achieve good results.
Methane Number (MN) vs Motor Octane Number (MON)

o
o

The Lambda Shift Factor indicates how much the Air/Fuel-ratio (lambda) will shift when
any engine is operated not on pure methane, but on different gas-fuel compositions.
The Subsonic Bievo Index is defined as the required metering area (or injector opening
duration for the same Air/Fuel-ratio), compared to the 100% methane situation.
Lamba Shift Factor and Bievo Index affect A/F-ratios and engine performances

ISO 15403:2006 defines natural gas as a gas with more than 70%volume/mole of methane
and a higher caloric value of 30-45 MJ/m3. EN 437 presents Wobbe ranges of Test
Reference Gases. The ISO 15403 also recommends limits for moisture, dust, 3%vol for both
CO2 and O2 and a H2S limit of <5mg/m3. In ISO 15403 the MN (methane number) is also
presented, by means of a simple calculation as developed by the South West Research
Institute.

ISO 15403 and EN 437 are of limited use when looking at NGV engine performance, fuel
economy & emissions, and consumers price safeguard. Currently there is still no NG fuel
spec for use in vehicles; however, there is on-going work on this regard within the CEN/TC
408 for the development of a NG/bio-methane fuel specification.

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LD NGVs - UNECE R83

The UNECE R83 Regulation defines the emissions standards for Light-Duty-Vehicle fuels
including NGVs. As for gasoline or diesel, the regulation defines the reference gas
specifications to be used during the testing, and which are supposed to be representative of
the different existing market qualities (G20 and G25). Those can be found in annex 10A of R83
Rev4, figure below:

HD NGVs - UNECE R49

The UNECE R49 Regulation defines the Type Approval procedure for HD engines and, as
ECE R 83, provides reference fuel specifications for heavy-duty NGVs . In order to cover the
expected variability of NG quality across Europe, the regulation presents relevant
differences/performances for gases deviating from pure methane (G-20) to specified GR G23 (for H-gas range) and G23 - G25 (for L-range).
HD NG engines can be approved for a wide gas quality range, similar to the light-duty range,
However, it is also allowed in R49 to specify a certain limited gas quality range, e.g. L-gas or
H-gas or even only one specific fuel composition. Earlier UN-ECE R49 specified G20 - G23 for
the H-gas range and G23 - G25 for the L-range. However, in UN-ECE R49 regulations amend-1
the G20 is replaced by GR. Todays heavy-duty NGV reference gas specification (GR, G23 and
G25) can be found in Annex 6 of R49 ammend-1, relevant data in figures below:

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Correlation between NGV Test Reference Gases and LNG/Gas Market Fuel
Specifications
The quality standard for using the LNG (gas vapour) into the various NGV combustion engines
is related to more stringent characteristics that the LNG (gas source) must possess to satisfy
the requirements indicated by the NGV regulatory standards, going beyond the simple
calorific value limitation.
The following table summarizes some critical information and provides relevant correlations:
a) Bio-methane, particularly in its liquid form (LBM: entirely eliminating CO2,
sulphur and metals), is the nearest to the G20 reference test-gas (pure
methane).
b) Typical LNG (over 95% of LNG world production) has higher grades than G23
test-gas and high grade pipeline gas, primarily because LNG contains very
little nitrogen, while G23 is generated by diluting methane with about 7.5%
nitrogen.
c) G25 test-gas is generated by adding about 14% of nitrogen to methane,
simulating the high inert contents of the low grade pipeline gas; however Lgas has higher contents of C2, giving higher WI and lower MN/MON than
G25.
d) GR test-gas is generated by adding 13% of ethane to methane, simulating
the high C2-contents of the Rich-LNG; however Rich-LNG has higher
contents of C3+, giving higher WI and lower MN/MON than GR.

Composition
Methane C1
Ethane C2
Balance
N2
S
W.I.
MN
MON

%mol
%mol
%mol Max
%mol
mg/kg Max
Nr (LHV)
Nr
Nr

Composition
Methane C1
Ethane C2
C3+
N2
S
W.I.
MN
MON

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%mol
%mol
%mol Max
%mol
mg/kg Max
Nr (LHV)
Nr
Nr

G20
99.5 0.5
1
10
48 0.2
95 - 100
137-140

TEST REFERENCE GAS

G23
G25
92.5 1
86 2
1
1
7.5 1
14 2
10
10
44 0.5
41.5 1
82 - 85
70 - 76
128-130
120-124

GR
87 2
13 2
1
10
48.5 0.5
70 - 78
120-126

Typical Composition: Bio-Gas/Natural-Gas/LNG/LBM

LBM
High-Gas LNG- std Low-Gas Rich-LNG
98 1
93 4
93 5
82 3
83 2
5.5 3
13 1
53
51
21
31
21
21
0.5 0.5
13 2
0.5 0.5
10
3
10
3
3
46 1
46.2 0.6 47.5 1 43.3 0.5 49.5 0.5
90 - 95
75 - 90
75 - 90
60 - 70
63 - 70
135-137
124-134 124-134
113-120
115-120

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A broad-preliminary conclusion is that G23, G25 & GR reference test-gases formulations are
not really representative of the actual composition available in the gas-pipeline and LNG
markets, because the test-gases consider diluting methane with either nitrogen or ethane,
while methane in actual gases is diluted by both ethane (and C3+) and inerts (N2 and CO2),
while in LNG methane is diluted only by ethane (and some small quantities of C3+).
NGVA Europe will endeavour to contribute to EU Project Committees and Working
Documents progressing on this topic.

9. GHG EMISSIONS FROM LNG - CARBON FOOTPRINT ON LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

The combustion of natural gas generates the cleanest exhaust gas and releases into the
atmosphere the lowest emissions of CO2 and GHG in general, compared to any other hydrocarbon fuel (and also compared to hydrogen and electricity on Life Cycle basis).
LNG gas vapours are cleaner than pipeline-CNG (LNG contains less sulphur, less C2-C4
hydro-carbons & metals and less inert gases). Exhaust gases from combustion of LNG
vapours do not contain Particulates or SOx, releasing about 85% less NOx and 25% less CO2
than diesel oil or gasoline; CHx emissions depend on the engine technology and efficiency.
The table here below provides relevant comparisons on the thermodynamic characteristics
of most common hydrocarbon fuels, hydrogen and coal. In particular, it shows that the same
amount of 10kwh of (gross) power can be delivered with 15% less fuel-mass but 65% more
fuel-volume of LNG (liquid methane) compared to diesel-oil, releasing into the atmosphere
27% less CO2:

FUEL

C:H
ratio

0: 1
1:4
2:6
3:8
4:
butane
10
8:
gasoline
14
16 :
diesel-oil
28
20 : 2
coke
anthracite 95 : 5
hydrogen
methane
ethane
propane

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Fuels density
Gas
Liquid
3
Kg/Sm
Kg/L
0.090
0.071
0.704
0.424
1.380
0.466
2.026
0.508

Mass
MJ/kg
121.07
50.00
47.80
46.35

Fuels LHV
Liquid
Gas
MJ/L
MJ/Sm3
8.57
10.88
21.20
35.20
22.27
65.97
23.55
93.90

Energy densities
Mass
Liquid
MJ/kg
MJ/L
284%
24%
117%
61%
112%
64%
109%
67%

2.660

0.550

45.75

25.16

121.69

107%

72%

4.368

0.720

43.50

31.32

190.00

102%

89%

nd

0.820

42.70

35.01

nd

100%

100%

nd
nd

0.600
1.300

33.00
29.00

19.80
37.70

nd
nd

77%
68%

57%
108%

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Specific Fuel & Oxygen consumptions CO2 & Water emissions - to deliver 10Kwh (gross
power)

FUEL

kg/10kwh

L/10kwh

O2/10kwh

CO2/10kwh

H2O/10kwh

emission
CO2ratio

weight
fuel ratio

volume
fuel ratio

hydrogen
methane
ethane
propane
butane
gasoline
diesel-oil
coke
anthracite

0.30
0.72
0.75
0.78
0.79
0.83
0.84
1.09
1.24

4.20
1.70
1.62
1.53
1.43
1.15
1.03
1.82
0.95

2.38
2.88
2.81
2.82
2.82
2.77
2.82
2.78
3.34

0.00
1.98
2.21
2.33
2.39
2.65
2.70
3.72
4.53

2.68
1.62
1.36
1.27
1.22
0.95
0.97
0.15
0.05

0%
73%
82%
86%
89%
98%
100%
138%
168%

35%
85%
89%
92%
93%
98%
100%
129%
147%

408%
165%
157%
149%
139%
112%
100%
177%
93%

Also, the 67% higher water content in the exhaust gases, from burning methane, has a
quenching effect on gas temperatures, lowering the formation of NOx.
The Carbon Footprint of the Life Cycle Assessment of LNG & LBG provides best performances
compared to any other fossil-fuel or bio-fuel.
LNG & LBG are currently not included in the EU joint study program (with Concawe and
EUCAR) concerning the overall GHG emissions analysis on Life Cycle Assessment of most
common transportation fuels, that compares the GHG performances of fossil fuels and
biofuels, with CNG and Bio-gas included and showing best results, as shown in the graph of
the publically available report, here below:

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The main differentiation between CNG and LNG - bio-gas and LBM - concerns the differences
in the energy spent (and relevant GHG emissions) either for gas compression or for gas
liquefaction and thereafter for transporting the gas either in compressed-form or in
liquid-form, from the source to the tank of the user/vehicle (Well to Tank Assessment)
In general, it can be assumed that gas liquefaction requires costs and release GHGs about
three times more than its compression, but the transportation of compressed gas (with
recompression stations every 200-300Km along the pipeline) costs & pollutes about three
times more than transporting it liquid (by ships, road- tankers) and therefore the relevant
costs/benefits are related to the distances to be covered.
Furthermore, it should be taken into consideration that the liquefaction process determines
a higher purity (by entirely removing moisture, CO2, sulphur derivatives and heavy metals)
and does not suffer from contamination with oil leaking from compressor (Tank to Wheel
Assessment).
Also, L-CNG gas stations may be remotely located and do not need link to the gas grid.

NGVA Europe will endeavour to include LNG and LBM in LCAs to be accepted by EU
Authorities.

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